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POLYMER TESTING
Polymer Testing 26 (2007) 970984 www.elsevier.com/locate/polytest

Product Performance

Mechanical behaviour and properties of agricultural nets. Part II: Analysis of the performance of the main categories of agricultural nets
D. Briassoulis, A. Mistriotis, D. Eleftherakis
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, 11855 Athens, Greece Received 12 April 2007; accepted 15 June 2007

Abstract The use of HDPE nets in agriculture has been constantly growing over the last few years. They are used for protecting sensitive crops against hail, insect, birds, wind and excessive solar radiation. In the rst part of this work, three new test methods have been introduced, evaluated and proposed specically for agricultural nets in order to support the quality assessment of the large variety of nets provided by the manufacturers to the farmers. In the present work, 35 commercial agricultural nets belonging to four different main agricultural application categories are investigated by employing the testing methods proposed in part I and their overall mechanical behaviour is analysed systematically. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Agricultural nets; Testing methods; Tensile properties; Impact resistance; Mesh breaking; Ageing

1. Introduction Using plastic nets instead of plastic lms for protecting crops is an interesting technique which has constantly expanded in many agricultural applications during the last decade as it offers many advantages [1]. A large number of agricultural nets of various fabric types, mesh sizes, yarn types, and colours with a wide range of mechanical and physical properties are currently available in the market [1]. Permeable covers are extensively used in certain types of cultivation such as fruit-tree farming, for bird and insect protection as well as for protection
Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 01 5294011;

fax: +30 01 5294023. E-mail address: briassou@aua.gr (D. Briassoulis). 0142-9418/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.polymertesting.2007.06.010

against adverse climatic actions. In particular, nets are used to protect cultivations from damages due to hail, strong winds, rain, insects and birds, and excessive solar radiation. In this respect, agricultural nets support the production of higher quality, lower input products using lower levels of agrochemicals and, in some cases, reducing or eliminating the need for energy consumption. Contrary to the intensive greenhouse production techniques, the use of agricultural nets mostly focuses on the reduction of the use of pesticides or energy consumption, and the production of higherquality products by mildly moderating the microclimate under the cover. Thus, nets are used to enhance productivity, quality and homogeneity of plants and fruits by generating moderate greenhouse and windbreak effects, thus allowing an improved microclimate for the crops.

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The design, mechanical and physical properties of agricultural nets were systematically investigated in the framework of a research project carried out at a European level1 to support the design of new optimised net-supporting structural systems, fully exploiting the advantages offered by these interesting novel materials. Proper evaluation schemes for the most critical mechanical properties of agricultural nets, directly related to the operational needs of specic agricultural applications, have been established in part I of this work [2]. Three main test methods were developed or adapted and proposed for characterising agricultural nets with respect to tensile properties, impact resistance and mesh breaking resistance. For the tensile properties, a method based on ISO 10319:1993 standard test method for geotextiles, was introduced and evaluated. Impact resistance was found to be properly assessed using ASTM D 1709-01: Standard Test Methods for Impact Resistance of Plastic Film by the FreeFalling Dart MethodMethod B. Concerning mesh breaking resistance, a method based on the ISO 1806 Standard for shing nets was adapted, evaluated and proposed. In this part II paper, the most critical properties of a large number of typical agricultural nets belonging to four different main agricultural application categories are investigated by employing the testing methods proposed in part I. The overall mechanical behaviour of these nets is analysed systematically, offering in this way valuable design criteria for the selection of agricultural nets. 2. Classication of agricultural nets A large number of agricultural nets are currently available and promoted in the market world wide. These nets are usually grouped into a few discrete categories and are used in the corresponding applications. In the present section, the agricultural nets under consideration are classied according to their application in four main categories, namely windbreak, anti-insect, anti-hail, and shading nets. The oldest applications of the nets in protected cultivation were in fruit farming, such as grapes, peaches, apricots, apples and cherries, and for ornamentals, such as cut owers, in order to protect plants and fruits from hail and wind. These nets are
1 Development of protective structures covered with permeable materials for agricultural use, SME-2003-1-507865 (DG 12).

generally manufactured with transparent threads and appear white with an average net mesh size ranging approximately from 1.5 to 4 mm. Nets used only for wind protection in the form of windbreaks are usually dark colour and the average net mesh size ranges from 1 to 3 mm. Black or green shading nets are used over or under the greenhouse cladding material during the warmer periods, mainly in Mediterranean countries, in order to reduce the higher air temperatures inside the greenhouse. Shading nets are also used as covering material of special structures, the so-called shade houses, protecting plants from excessive solar radiation and high temperatures. The mesh size of these nets is usually in the range of 0.64 mm with light transmittance varying from 20% to 70%. Biological nets are generally used for the protection of plants, mainly in greenhouses: these are densely meshed anti-virus-vector insect nets called bio-nets. The net mesh size in this case depends on the insect species against which the net is designed to protect crops, and is approximately 0.5 mm. The threads are transparent. The mechanical properties of nets depend on the corresponding properties of the bres and also the weave type. The mechanical properties of the bres are more or less known for specic materials. Plastic nets are also characterised by their structural characteristics such as the kind and dimensions of bres, fabrics and meshing. HDPE yarns are of two types: monolaments, round or at, and tapes [1]. Depending on the kind of weave, the fabrics are distinguished into three categories: Flat or Italian, English or Leno, and Raschel [1]. The rst two types are woven, while the third one is knitted. Flat woven is characterised by a simple orthogonal weave between weft and warp. Flat woven nets are light and stable in their shape, but they are relatively stiff and do not allow large deformations [1]. English woven is a modied at woven net with a double bre in the weft direction, enclosing the warp bre in between [1]. The resulting net is not highly deformable and is used when the covering should provide higher stiffness. Raschel looms produce nets with longitudinal chains and transversal knitted elements [1]. In Raschel membranes all threads are linked with each other and they cannot unravel, either under the action of strong wind or hail. In the following sections, where the mechanical behaviour of many characteristic types of agricultural nets is analysed systematically, nets are

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classied with respect to their application in the four main categories of windbreak, anti-insect, anti-hail and shading nets. Furthermore, the inuence of the type of bre and fabric on their mechanical properties is also investigated. 3. Behaviour of agricultural nets in tension A large number of agricultural nets, used in various agricultural applications were tested according to the revised/adapted procedure of ISO 10319: 1993 [2,3] (35 typical agricultural nets were selected for testing of their mechanical and physical properties). The tensile tests were carried out by using an INSTRON testing machine Model 4204 at the facilities of the laboratory of Farm Structures (AUA, Athens) [2]. The tests were conducted in both the weft and the warp directions. Five samples were tested in each direction after pre-conditioning at 23 1C and 50% humidity for 48 h. The typical tensile behaviour of selected characteristic cases of agricultural nets is illustrated below for various categories of application. 3.1. Windbreak nets The windbreak nets are mostly woven nets (normal or Leno). The behaviour of the windbreak net SCMD shown in Fig. 1 illustrates the typical

behaviour of the woven windbreak nets in tension (top in warp and bottom in weft direction). This behaviour, also presented in Fig. 2 in terms of the obtained stressstrain curves, suggests a rather brittle material behaviour with a signicant part of it being in the linear elastic range in both directions. The net is stronger in the warp direction and has similar elongation at break in both directions. 3.2. Anti-insect nets The anti-insect nets are also mostly woven nets (normal or Leno), with a few exceptions. The behaviour of the anti-insect net BIO40 shown in Fig. 3 illustrates a typical behaviour of the woven anti-insect nets in tension (top in warp and bottom in weft direction). The stressstrain curves presented in Fig. 4 suggest a similar form to the windbreak net curves, brittle material behaviour with a signicant part of it being in the linear elastic range. The net has the same strength in both directions but higher elongation at break in the weft direction. Non-typical tensile behaviour has been found with the anti-insect net IMPOL, shown in Fig. 5 (top in warp and bottom in the weft direction). This net is not, however, a woven but it is a knitted net, exhibiting a signicant lateral contraction due to its special knitting fabrication. The stressstrain curves presented in Fig. 6 suggest a linearnonlinear elastic

Fig. 1. Tensile test of a sample of the windbreak net SCMD (top in warp and bottom in the weft direction).

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Specimen 1 to 5 1400 1200 1000 Load (N) 800 600 400 200 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Extension (mm)
Specimen # 1 2 3 4 5

Specimen 1 to 5 1200 1000 800 Load (N) 600 400 200 0 -200 0 10 20 30 40 50 Extension (mm)
Specimen # 1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 2. Tensile stressstrain curves of the windbreak net SCMD (left in warp and right in the weft direction).

Fig. 3. Tensile test of a sample of the anti-insect net: BIO40 (top in warp and bottom in the weft direction).

Specimen 1 to 5 1400 1200 Load (N) 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Extension (mm)
Specimen # 1 2 3 4 5

Specimen 1 to 5 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 -200 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Extension (mm)
Specimen # 1 2 3 4 5

Load (N)

80

90 100

Fig. 4. Tensile stressstrain curves of the anti-insect net: BIO40 (left in warp and right in the weft direction).

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Fig. 5. Tensile test of a sample of the anti-insect net IMPOL (top in warp and bottom in the weft direction).

Specimen 1 to 5 600 500 Load (N) 400 300 200 100 0 -100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Extension (mm) 0 0 10 20
Specimen # 1 2 3 4 5

Specimen 1 to 5 400 300 Load (N) 200 100

Specimen # 1 2 3 4 5

30

40

50

60

70

Extension (mm)

Fig. 6. Tensile stressstrain curves of the anti-insect net IMPOL (left in warp and right in the weft direction).

behaviour of a brittle material in the warp direction with higher strength and a clear linear elastic behaviour in the weft direction. 3.3. Anti-hail nets

curves presented in Fig. 8 suggest a clear linear elastic behaviour of a brittle type in the warp direction and linearnonlinear elastic in the weft direction with higher strength. 3.4. Shading nets

The anti-hail nets are mostly woven nets (normal or Leno). The behaviour observed with the anti-hail net FRU44 in tension, shown in Fig. 7 (top in warp and bottom in the weft direction), is characteristic of a typical woven anti-hail net. The stressstrain

The shading nets are usually knitted nets (Raschel). The behaviour observed with the knitted shading net OMBR70, in tension is shown in Fig. 9 (top in warp and bottom in the weft direction).

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Fig. 7. Tensile test of a sample of the anti-hail net FRU44, (top in warp and bottom in the weft direction).

Specimen 1 to 5 700 600 Load (N) 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Extension (mm)
Specimen # 1 2 3 4 5

Specimen 1 to 5 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 -100 0 10 20 Extension (mm) 30
Specimen # 1 2 3 4 5

Load (N)

40

Fig. 8. Tensile stressstrain curves of the anti-hail net FRU44, (left in warp and right in the weft direction).

This is a typical behaviour for shading nets, related to the knitted fabrication type, as most of these nets exhibit signicant lateral contraction either in both directions or mainly in the weft direction. The stressstrain curves presented in Fig. 10 give a different picture as compared to that of the anti-hail nets, with a clear linear elastic behaviour of a brittle nature in the weft direction and linearnonlinear elastic in the warp direction. The net is stronger in the warp direction.

3.5. Overall behaviour of agricultural nets in tensile testing The overall mechanical behaviour of 35 different types of agricultural nets belonging to four different application categories, investigated in the laboratory in tension, suggests that: Shading and anti-hail nets appear to be rather exible with the modulus of elasticity varying in the range of 230 N/mm (with one anti-hail

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Fig. 9. Tensile test of a sample of the shading net OMBR70, (top in warp and bottom in the weft direction).

Specimen 1 to 5 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 -100 0 10 20 Extension (mm) 30
Specimen # 1 2 3 4 5

Specimen 1 to 6 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Extension (mm)
Specimen # 1 2 4 5 6

Load (N)

40

Load (N)

70

80

Fig. 10. Tensile stressstrain curves of the shading net OMBR70, (left in warp and right in the weft direction).

net exception in the weft direction of 41 N/mm) (Figs. 11 and 12). Windbreak and anti-insect nets on the other hand, exhibit a relatively stiffer behaviour with higher modulus of elasticity values, ranging from 47 to 120 N/mm (with three exceptions). In most cases, a drastic differentiation is observed in the elastic modulus measured in the warp and the weft directions, within the broader characterisation of the net as exible or stiff. In terms of fabrication, it appears that the vast majority of the woven nets exhibit higher moduli of elasticity than the knitted nets (Figs. 13 and 14).

Knitted nets (e.g., shading nets and some cases of knitted nets of other categories like a couple of low modulus anti-insect nets IMPOL and REMA) may be considered to be more exible in general (with a few exceptions; all woven anti-hail nets exhibit modulus of elasticity values closer to those of the knitted nets). In terms of tensile strength in the warp direction, windbreak nets are the strongest (1016 N/mm) while the anti-hail nets are the weakest (3.57.0 N/mm, Fig. 15). The shading and the anti-insect nets exhibit a mixed picture as these categories include both weak

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80.000 shading 70.000 Elastic Moduls - warp (N/mm) 60.000 50.000 40.000 30.000 20.000 10.000 0.000
M O BR5 M 0 O BR M 70 BR 9 H 0 E LI X BC LI 30 BC LI 50 BC LI 60 BC A 70 G R A 30 G A R5 G 0 RE SH W N SH B N FR T U 2 FR 6 U 44 IR ID A N T G H RK BI R O 4 BI 0 O IM 50 PO IN L S IN K SM IN S RE T M A SC 50 SC M W D IN BR T 50 SC 75

anti-hail

anti-insect

windbreak

Agricultural nets
Fig. 11. Modulus of elasticity of agricultural nets in the warp direction.

140.000 shading 120.000 Elastic Moduls - weft (N/mm) anti-hail anti-insect windbreak

100.000

80.000

60.000

40.000

20.000

0.000
O M O BR M 50 B O R7 M 0 BR 90 H EX LI BC LI 30 BC LI 50 BC LI 60 BC A 70 G R A 30 G R A 50 G RE SH W N SH B N FR T U FR 26 U 44 IR ID A N T G H RK BI R O 4 BI 0 O IM 50 PO IN L S IN K SM IN S RE T M SC A 5 SC 0 M W D IN BR T 50 SC 75

Agricultural nets
Fig. 12. Modulus of elasticity of agricultural nets in the weft direction.

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80.000 woven 70.000 Elastic Moduls - warp (N/mm) 60.000 50.000 40.000 30.000 20.000 10.000 0.000
U 2 FR 6 U 4 IR 4 ID G RK BI R O BI 40 O 5 IN 0 SK IN SM IN ST SC 5 SC 0 M D BR 50 SC LI 75 BC LI 30 BC LI 50 BC LI 60 B O C7 M 0 B O R5 M 0 B O R7 M 0 BR 90 H EX A G R A 30 G A R5 G 0 RE SH W N B SH N A T N T IM H PO RE L M A W IN T FR

knitted

Agricultural nets
Fig. 13. Modulus of elasticity of agricultural nets in the warp direction based on the type of fabrication.

140.000 Woven 120.000 Elastic Moduls - weft (N/mm) knitted

100.000

80.000

60.000

40.000

20.000

0.000
FR U FR 26 U 44 IR ID G RK BI R O BI 40 O 50 IN S IN K SM IN ST SC SC 50 M D BR 50 S LI C75 BC LI 30 BC LI 50 BC LI 60 O BC M 70 B O R5 M 0 B O R7 M 0 BR 90 H EX A G R A 30 G A R5 G 0 RE W SH N SH B N A T N IM TH PO RE L M W A IN T

Agricultural nets
Fig. 14. Modulus of elasticity of agricultural nets in the weft direction based on the type of fabrication.

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30.000 shading 25.000 anti-hail anti-insect windbreak

Strength - warp (N/mm)

20.000

15.000

10.000

5.000

0.000
BR M 50 B O R7 M 0 BR 90 H EX LI BC LI 30 BC LI 50 BC LI 60 BC A 70 G R A 30 G A R50 G RE W SH N SH B N FR T U FR 26 U 44 IR A ID N T G H RK BI R O BI 40 O IM 50 PO L IN SK IN SM IN RE ST M A SC SC 50 M W D IN T BR 50 SC 75 O M O

Agricultural nets
Fig. 15. Tensile strength of agricultural nets in the warp direction.

nets (3.55.8 N/mm) as well very strong nets (8.026.0 N/mm). In the weft direction, the tensile strength of the nets appears to be analogous to the one observed in the warp direction except for six nets from the shading nets category that exhibit weak behaviour in the weft direction (2.55.5 N/mm), while they are rather strong in the warp direction (8.012.0 N/mm) (Fig. 16). In terms of fabrication, most woven nets exhibit higher strength than the corresponding knitted nets. This differentiation is more pronounced in the weft direction (Figs. 17 and 18). There are exceptions though with some woven nets, mainly the anti-hail nets, appearing to be as weak as the average knitted nets in the weft direction or as weak as some of the weakest knitted nets in the warp direction. Likewise, some of the strongest knitted shading nets (e.g., LIBC70) appear to be as strong as the middle strength woven nets. The mechanical properties of the agricultural nets measured in the laboratory may also be used to dene the orthotropic properties of the equivalent orthotropic membranes simulating the mechanical behaviour of the nets in numerical nite element modelling, according to the analysis of [2]. The denition of the orthotropic properties of the nets

requires, apart from the determination of the moduli of elasticity (Figs. 11 and 12), also the determination of the Poissons ratio n. In terms of fabrication, it is interesting to note that the Poissons ratio n 0 is applicable to all woven nets (normal or Leno), which represent the majority of the windbreak, anti-hail and anti-insect nets. The only knitted windbreak net (WINT) also has n 0.0, and so all windbreak nets have a zero Poissons ratio, while one knitted anti-hail net (ANTH) has a Poissons ratio n 0.0 (it should be noted though that this is a tape type of net). On the other hand, the majority of the shading nets exhibit high Poissons ratios. In particular, all shading nets are knitted (Raschel) nets with Poissons ratio n 0.5 (a few of them) or with anisotropic Poissons ratio with lower value in the warp direction (the majority of them). There is only one exception with the shading net (HEX) with Posisons ratio n 0.0. 3.6. Ageing effects The durability of the nets, evaluated in terms of their ageing behaviour, may affect the long-term capacity of the covering material to carry efciently

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980
40.000 shading 35.000 anti-hail anti-insect windbreak

D. Briassoulis et al. / Polymer Testing 26 (2007) 970984

30.000 Strength - weft (N/mm)

25.000

20.000

15.000

10.000

5.000

0.000
BR M 50 B O R7 M 0 BR 90 H EX LI BC LI 30 BC LI 50 BC LI 60 BC A 70 G R A 30 G A R50 G RE W SH N SH B N FR T U FR 26 U 44 IR ID A N T G H RK BI R O 4 BI 0 O IM 50 PO L IN SK IN SM IN RE ST M A SC 50 SC M W D IN T BR 50 SC 75 O

Agricultural nets

Fig. 16. Tensile strength of agricultural nets in the weft direction.

30.000 woven 25.000 Strength - warp (N/mm) knitted

20.000

15.000

10.000

5.000

0.000
U FR 26 U 4 IR 4 ID G RK BI R O 4 BI 0 O 5 IN 0 SK IN SM IN ST SC 5 SC 0 M BR D 5 SC 0 75 LI BC LI 30 BC LI 50 BC LI 60 B O C70 M B O R5 M 0 BR O M 70 BR H 90 E A X G R A 30 G R A 50 G RE SH W N SH B N A T N T IM H PO RE L M W A IN T FR

Agricultural nets
Fig. 17. Tensile strength of agricultural nets in the warp direction based on the type of fabrication.

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40.000 woven 35.000 30.000 Strength - weft (N/mm) 25.000 knitted

20.000 15.000 10.000 5.000 0.000

U FR 26 U 4 IR 4 ID G RK BI R O 4 BI 0 O 5 IN 0 SK IN SM IN ST SC 5 SC 0 M BR D 5 SC 0 75 LI BC LI 30 BC LI 50 BC LI 60 B O C70 M B O R5 M 0 B O R7 M 0 BR H 90 E A X G R A 30 G R A 50 G RE SH W N SH B N A T N T IM H PO RE L M W A IN T FR

Agricultural nets
Fig. 18. Tensile strength of agricultural nets in the weft direction based on the type of fabrication.

the loads and transfer them to the supporting structure. This is of major importance with respect to the design and function of the net-structural supporting systems [4]. A characteristic example of the effect of weathering on the tensile strength and elongation at break of a typical agricultural net (coded as K) exposed for a period of 10 years under north European conditions (The Netherlands) is shown in Fig. 19. It is apparent that the most critical property affected by ageing in this case is the tensile strength, which drops down to one-third of its initial value after 10 years of exposure. It should be expected that under south European climatic conditions with much higher UV radiation the weathering effects would be more dramatic. As a result, it is considered very important in the design process [4] to estimate/ predict the expected duration of life of these materials to avoid premature failure of the agricultural production. 4. Impact resistance of agricultural nets As was discussed in [2], impact resistance of agricultural nets can be tested by ASTM D 1709-01:

16 14 Tensile strength (MPa) 12 10 8

35 Elongation at break (%) 30 25 20 15

6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 Years of exposure 10 Strength Elongation at break (%) 5 0 12

Fig. 19. Effect of ageing on the mechanical properties of a typical agricultural net under conditions of The Netherlands.

Standard Test Methods for Impact Resistance of Plastic Film by the Free-Falling Dart Method Method B [5]. The impact resistance behaviour of a complete set of 35 different commercial nets was obtained using this method. These tests were evaluated and veried in terms of consistency and

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982 Table 1 Impact resistance of agricultural nets Mass of dart (g) Equivalent hailstone diameter (mm) Equivalent hailstone energy (J) Comments D. Briassoulis et al. / Polymer Testing 26 (2007) 970984

Shading nets OMBR50 OMBR70 OMBR90 HEX LIBC30 LIBC50 LIBC60 LIBC70 AGR30 AGR50 AGREW SHNB SHNT Anti-hail nets FRU26 FRU44 IRID ANTH GRKR Anti-insect nets BIO40 BIO50 IMPOL INSK INSM INST REMA Windbreak nets SC50 SC75 SCMD WINT BR 50

444 X1568 X1568 1324 717 X1568 X1568 X1568 418 510 452 852 ? 584 826 800 634 700 X1568 X1568 593 X1568 X1568 X1568 356 X1568 X1568 X1568 X1568 X1568

52 X75 X75 71 60 X75 X75 X75 51 48 47 63

39 X166 X166 136 68 X166 X166 X166 37 29 25 82

The samples do not break The samples do not break

The samples do not break The samples do not break The samples do not break Method A Method A

56 62 62 58 59 X75 X75 57 X75 X75 X75 49 X75 X75 X75 X75 X75

54 80 77 59 66 X166 X166 54 X166 X166 X166 30 X166 X166 X166 X166 X166 Cracks along the circular grip Cracks along the circular grip Cracks along the circular grip Cracks along the circular grip The samples do not break

Cracks Cracks Cracks Cracks Cracks

along along along along along

the the the the the

circular circular circular circular circular

grip grip grip grip grip

repeatability. The impact resistance of all tested nets is presented in Table 1. These results conrm that anti-hail nets (all, but one, are woven nets) behave well, with their impact resistance varying within a narrow range (76113 J), and satisfy the needs for which they are designed (i.e., they resist equivalent hailstones with diameters in the range of 5560 mm). Using other types of nets is shown to also cover the anti-hail needs to an even greater degree than the corresponding anti-hail nets (most windbreak, anti-insect and several shading nets were found to resist equivalent hailstones with a diameter X75 mm). In fact, only a couple of knitted shading nets (AGR50, AGREW) and one

knitted anti-insect net (REMA) appear to be weaker than the anti-hail nets with respect to impact resistance (equivalent hailstones with a diameter of 4748 mm). Apart from the fact that the two weakest nets in terms of impact resistance are both knitted nets, no systematic correlation of hail resistance with the type of fabrication (woven or knitted) has been observed. 5. Mesh breaking load of netting In part I of this work [2] a testing method for estimating the mesh breaking resistance of nets was proposed based on the ISO 1806 Standard for shing

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D. Briassoulis et al. / Polymer Testing 26 (2007) 970984 Table 2 Mesh-breaking resistance of agricultural nets Warp maximum load (N) Shading nets OMBR 50 HEX AGR30 AGR50 AGREW SHNT Anti-hail nets Typical? anti-hail net Weft maximum load (N) 983

37 102 55 49 39 45 54

51 47 46 66 40 48

nets [6]. The use of free (non-constrained) specimens was selected as a more suitable test (as compared to testing constrained specimens) for simulating failures during installation or deployment/removal of agricultural nets. The measured maximum load to fail the specimen was used as a measure of the meshbreaking strength. The results obtained, shown in Table 2, suggest that mesh breaking resistance depends on the mesh direction and the net type. 6. Conclusions In the present work, the new testing methods proposed in part I [2] have been applied to a broad variety of agricultural nets. The important mechanical properties of a wide range of representative commercially available agricultural plastic nets were determined by employing the proposed testing methods. A general correlation between the type of fabrication, the specic application and the mechanical behaviour of the agricultural nets has been established. It may be concluded that: The windbreak, antiinsect and anti-hail nets are mostly woven nets (normal or Leno), with a few exceptions. The shading nets are knitted nets (Raschel). In terms of fabrication, it may be assumed that the Poissons ratio n 0 is applicable to the woven nets (normal or Leno), that represent the majority of the windbreak, anti-hail and anti-insect nets (i.e. there is no lateral contraction associated with the tensioning of these nets), with a few exceptions. A high value of Poissons ratio (a value of n 0.40; reecting the fact that tensioning is associated with signicant lateral contraction) may be assumed in the cases of the knitted nets (mainly shading nets) in general.

The vast majority of the woven nets exhibit higher moduli of elasticity than the knitted nets, which may be considered to be more exible in general (with a few exceptions). Most woven nets exhibit also higher strength than the corresponding knitted nets. This differentiation is more pronounced in the weft direction. There are, however, several exceptions. In terms of impact resistance, no systematic correlation of hail resistance with the type of fabrication (woven or knitted) has been observed. The three weakest nets are, however, all knitted nets. The reported values of the mechanical properties of the tested nets describe the overall mechanical performance and the range of variability of the key mechanical properties of existing agricultural nets with respect to the corresponding applications and type of fabrication. The test procedures described in this work (Parts I and II) constitute a useful guidance for the proper testing and reporting of the mechanical properties of agricultural nets. The values obtained may be used as reference or typical values by the relevant industry. Furthermore, the analysed overall mechanical behaviour of these nets offers valuable design criteria for the appropriate selection of agricultural nets. Acknowledgements This work has been carried out in the framework of the European Research Project: Development of protective structures covered with permeable materials for agricultural use, SME-2003-1-507865 (DG 12), funded by the EU. Special acknowledgements are due to our partners Arrigoni (Italy) and Howitec (The Netherlands), for providing the testing materials as well as their useful suggestions and comments. Useful comments were also received by Instron (UK) and a number of testing laboratories in Athens, Greece (O.P.E., EUCAT, ELKEDE, KDEP). Also, thanks are due to Mr L.Xatzis and Ms M.Psyhogiou (AUA) for their contribution to the laboratory measurements. References
[1] S. Castellano, G. Scarascia Mugnozza, G. Russo, D. Briassoulis, A. Mistriotis, S. Hemming, D. Waaijenberg, Plastic nets in agriculture: a general review of typologies and applications, Biosystems Engineering, in print. [2] D. Briassoulis, A. Mistriotis, D. Eleftherakis, Mechanical behaviour and properties of agricultural netsPart I: Testing

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984 D. Briassoulis et al. / Polymer Testing 26 (2007) 970984 [5] ASTM D 1709-01: Standard Test Methods for Impact Resistance of Plastic Film by the Free-Falling Dart Method, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2001. [6] International Organization for Standardization, ISO 1806, 2002: Fishing NetsDetermination of mesh breaking load of netting, International Organization for Standardization, 2002. methods for agricultural nets, Polymer Testing 26 (2007) 822832. [3] International Organization for Standardization, ISO 103191993: GeotextilesWide Width Tensile Test, International Organization for Standardization, 1993. [4] D. Briassoulis, A. Mistriotis, Design methodology for protecting agricultural structures covered with nets, under preparation.