Concepts

1. scalar quantity A quantity which can be described fully by giving its magnitude is known as a scalar quantity 2.vector quantity A vector quantity has magnitude and direction. 3.systematic uncertainty A systematic uncertainty will result in all readings being either above or below the accepted value. 4. random uncertainty Random uncertainty results in readings being scattered around the accepted value 5. accuracy Accuracy is the degree to which a measurement approaches the 'true value'. 6. precision Precision is that part of accuracy which is within the control of the experimenter 6.displacement Displacement is defined as the distance move in a specific direction 7.velocity Velocity is defined as the rate of change in displacement 8.acceleration Acceleration is a measure of the rate at which the velocity of the particle is changing. 9.Newton's first law of motion An object at rest will stay at rest and an object in motion will stay in motion with the same speed and in the same direction if there is no resultant force act on it 10. inertia the resistance an object has to a change in its state of motion. 11. Newton's second law of motion For a body of constant mass, its acceleration is directly proportional to the net force applie to it. 12. One Newton One Newton is defined as the force which will give a mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one meter per second square in the direction of the force.

13.Newtons third Law of Motion

(1)Whenever one body exerts a force on another, the second exerts an equal and opposite force on the first. (2) To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. 14. Mass Mass is defined as a measure of a bodys resistance to changes in motion 15. There are something different between mass and weight (i) Mass is a scalar; it is a measure of a bodys resistance to changes in motion; it is constant and the property of the body. (ii) Weight is a vector; and it is equal to the product of mass and gravitational acceleration; it will change with the altitude changed. 16.The linear momentum of an object The linear momentum of an object of mass m moving with constant speed v is defined as the product of mass and its velocity. 17. impulse Impulse is equal to the product of the force acting on a body and the time interval over which the force acts 18. The principle of conservation of linear momentum The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that the total momentum of a closed system of colliding

objects remain constant if no external forces act on that system. 19. pressure Force per unit area 20. upthrust The upthrust on an object immersed in a liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by that object. 21. frictional force Frictional forces are produced when two surface move or try to move in opposition to each other. 22. centre of mass Centre of mass of a body or a system of particle is defined as a single point at which the whole mass of the body of system is assumed to be concentrated

23. centre of gravity

The centre of gravity of a body is defined as a single point at which the whole weight of the body acts. 24. the moment of a force Torque or the moment of a force about a point is the product of that force and the perpendicular distance from the line of the action of the force to the point.

25. couple
A couple consists of two forces, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction whose lines of action do not coincide 26. the moment of a couple The moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between the two forces. 27. There are two conditions for the equilibrium of forces acting on a rigid body (1)The vector sum of all the forces acting on a rigid body must be zero. (2) The vector sum of all external torques acting on a rigid body must be zero. 28. the principle of moment the sum of the clockwise moment about a point must be equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about that point when a body is in equilibrium. 29. energy Energy is the capacity to do work. 30. The principle of conservation of energy The total energy in a given system is always constant. It can be transformed from one form to another but cannot be created or destroyed 31.work done Work done on a particle by a constant force is the product of the magnitude of the force and the displacement of the particle in the direction of the force. 32. kinetic energy Kinetic energy is energy due to the motion 33.potential energy Potential energy is the ability of an object to do work as a result of its position or shape Gravitational potential energy of an object is the energy due to the position changed in the gravitational field. Electric potential energy of a charge is the energy due to the position changed in the electric field. Elastic potential energy of a spring is the energy due to the shape changed. 34. internal energy The total kinetic and potential energy associated with the motions and relative positions of the molecules of an object. Kinetic energy is depended on the absolute temperature T. Potential energy is depended on the separation of the molecules. 35.power

Power is defined as the rate of doing work 36.density Density is mass per unit volume 37. the spacing of solid, liquid and gas In general, the average spacing of atoms in liquid is up to about twice that in solid, or still of the order of 10-10 m. for gas, the average spacing if of the order of 10-9m 38. Brownian Motion Brownian Motion is the erratic and constant movement of tiny particles when they are suspended in a fluid or gas. 39. The conditions to increase the speed of Brownian motion (1)the temperature of the fluid was raised, (2)the viscosity of the fluid was lowered, (3)the size of the particles was reduced. 40. Crystalline solids Crystalline solids are a class of solids that have regular or nearly regular crystalline structures. 41. polymer A polymer is a solid made up of very large molecules, usually a compound of carbon. 42. amorphous An amorphous solid is one of which the main feature is a disordered arrangement of molecules. 43. Pressure Pressure is defined as force per unit area, where the force F acts perpendicular to the area A. 44. Heat Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from one region to another as a result of a temperature difference. 45. Melting Melting is the process in which a substance changes its state from solid to liquid at a definite temperature. 46. Boiling Boiling is the process in which a liquid changes into vapor at a definite temperature. 47. Evaporation Molecules are lost from the surface of a liquid at any temperature by the progress of evaporation. 48. The distinguish between evaporation and boiling The both represent a change of state from liquid to vapor. (1)Evaporation takes place at any temperature, but boiling only happens at a fixed temperature for a given pressure of the surroundings. (2)Evaporation takes place at the surface of the liquid, whereas boiling occurs in the body of the liquid. 49. deformation The change of shape is called deformation 50. Hookes law Hookes law states that, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension of a body is proportional to the applied load. 51. strain Strain is defined as the ratio of extension and the original length. 52.stress Stress is defined as the ratio of the force and the area 53. elastic deformation and plastic deformation Elastic deformation: if the deformation is elastic, then the material returns to its original shape when the forces on it are removed. Plastic deformation: if the deformation is plastic, then the material does not return to its original shape when the

forces on it are removed. 54. Strain energy Strain energy is energy stored in a body due to change of shape. 55. ultimate tensile stress It equals to the maximum force divided by the original cross-section area of the wire 56. progressive waves. Waves which move energy from place to place are called progressive waves. 57. the displacement of the particle The displacement of a particle on a wave is its distance from its rest position 58. amplitude The amplitude of the wave motion is defined as the maximum displacement of a particle in the wave. 59.wavelength One wavelength is the distance between two neighbouring peaks or two neighbouring troughs, or two neighbouring points which are vibrating together in exactly the same way (in phase). It is the distance moved by the wave during one oscillation of the source of the waves. 60. period The period of the wave is the time for a particle in the wave to complete one vibration, or one cycle 61. frequency The number of complete vibrations (cycles) per unit time is called the frequency f of the wave. 62. intensity The amount of energy passing through unit area per unit time is called the intensity of the wave 63. transverse wave A transverse wave is one in which the vibrations of the particles in the wave are at right angles to the direction in which the energy of the wave is travelling. 64. longitudinal wave A longitudinal wave is one in which the direction of the vibrations of the particles in the wave is along the direction in which the energy of the wave is travelling. 65. polarisation Vibration in one direction 66. electromagnetic waves (1)All electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. (2)Electromagnetic waves show all the properties common to wave motions (3)In a vacuum all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed 67. The principle of superposition The principle of superposition states that, when two or more waves meet at a point, the resultant displacement at that point is equal to the sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that point. 68. stationary wave A stationary wave is the result of interference between two waves of equal frequency and amplitude, travelling along the same line with the same speed but in opposite directions. 69.node and antinode At the ends of the string there is no vibration. These points are called nodes At the centre of the string, the amplitude is a maximum. A point of maximum amplitude is called an antinode 70. diffraction When a wave (front) is incident on an edge or an obstacle/slit/gap Wave bends into the geometrical shadow/changes direction/spreads 71. interference

Interference is the superposition of two or more wave trains from coherent source. 72. the conditions for coherent (1) waves are in phase or move with a constant phase difference (2) waves have the same frequency and wavelength. 73. the conditions for interference (1) the sources must have the same or roughly equivalent amplitude. (2) the sources must be coherent. (3) transverse waves must not be polarized. 74. the conditions can influence the brightness of the pattern (1) decrease the wavelength of the incident wave. (2) decrease the distance between the slits and the screen. (3) increase the amplitude of the incident wave. (4) increase the width of the slits 75. the conditions of increasing the width of the fringe (1) increase the wavelength of the incident wave (2) increase the distance between the slits and the screen (3) decrease the distance between the two slits 76. electric field An electric field is a region of space where a stationary charge experiences a force. 77. electric field strength at a point The electric field strength at a point is defined as the force per unit charge acting on a small positive charge placed at that point. 78. For any electric field: 1. the lines of force start on a positive charge, and end on a negative charge 2. the lines of force are smooth curves which never touch or cross 3. the strength of the electric field is indicated by the closeness of the lines. The closer they are, the stronger the field. 79. potential difference between two points The potential difference between two points in an electric field is equal to the work done by an external force in moving a unit positive charge from a point at lower potential to a point at higher potential 80. current The current, I is the rate of flow of electric charges Q through a given cross-section of a wire. 81. one coulomb The coulomb is that charge passing a point in a circuit when there is a current of one ampere for one second 82. one volt One volt is the potential difference between two points when one joule of energy is transferred by one coulomb passing from one point to the other. 83. resistance The resistance R of a wire is defined as the ratio of the potential difference V across the wire to the current I in it. 84. Ohms law Ohms law states that the current flowing in a metallic conductor is proportional to the potential difference across it provided physical conditions are constant. 85. e.m.f The e.m.f of a source is the potential difference across its terminals when no current is drawn from the source. 86. distinguish between e.m.f. and p.d

e.m.f=

energy converted from other forms to electrical charge

p.d=

energy converted from elecrical to other forms charge

87. Kirchhoffs first law The algebraic sum of currents entering a junction must be equal to the algebraic sum of currents leaving that junction. (Kirchhoffs first law is a statement of the conservation of charge) 88. Kirchhoffs second law The algebraic sum of the e.m.f. is equal to the algebraic sum of the potential drops round any closed circuit loop. (Kirchhoffs second law is a statement of conservation of energy) 89. In -particle scattering experiment we know the two facts (1) most -particles were deviated through angles of less than 10 (2) a very small proportion of the -particles was deviated through angles greater than 90. we can make two conclusions (1)nucleus is small in comparison to size of atom (2) nucleus is massive and charged 90. Isotope Isotopes are different forms of the same element which have the same numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. 91. -particles Like a helium atom, an -particles contains two protons and two neutrons, and hence carries a charge of +2e. particles travel at speeds of up to about 107ms-1 An is -particles identical to the nucleus of a helium atom, 92. -particles -particles are fast-moving electrons. They are thus far more penetrating than -particles, 93. -radiation -radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths between 10-11m and 10-13m. -radiation has no charge, its ionising power is much less than that of either - or -particles. 94. radioactivity Unstable nuclides decay by emitting particles and electromagnetic radiation in process called radioactivity. 95. spontaneous Radioactive decay is not triggered or affected by external conditions like pressure, temperature, magnetic or electric fields or chemical reaction. 96. random It is impossible to predict which nucleus will decay or the number of nuclei which will decay at a particular instant.