A PROJECT REPORT ON

ACTIVE GALAXIES: A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY

Prepared in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the

COURSE:- Astrophysics COURSE NO.:- PHY C471

BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE, PILANI K.K. BIRLA GOA CAMPUS SEM II 2011-12

Submitted by Ankit Asati (2008B3A8600G) Tarun Barange (2008A3PS174G) Vakul Saxena (2008B5A3319G)

Preface
Project Title:

ACTIVE GALAXIES: A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY

Project Objectives: To study Active Galaxies To theorize AGN and its components To make observations about Active Galaxies To identify current problems in this area To predict the future course of this research field

Acknowledgement
We would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude to our instructor and mentor Dr. P.K Das & Mr. T. K Jha for having constant faith in us throughout this project and directing and supporting us in every possible way at each step. Above all, we thank each and every one of those who have been instrumental in t successful compilation and presentation of this report.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface Acknowledgement Abstract 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Introduction Theory of Active Galactic Nuclei Types of Active Galaxies Observations and Measurement Problems, Current and Future Trends Conclusion References

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Abstract
Active Galaxies were discovered in 1950s. Since then they have become a very valuable tool for both cosmologist and physicts. By studying the Active Galaxies, the scientists are uncovering extraordinary information about the early universe. This project attempts to summarize some of the results of observations of active galaxies and discuss its implications. The report starts with a brief introduction and history of Active Galaxies. This is followed by the theory of AGN (Active Galactic Nuclei). Thereafter, various types of active galaxies are explained. The next segment discusses observational results made in past few years. Lastly, the report discusses some of the current problems and unresolved issues about AGN with further scope for research.

1. INTRODUCTION Active galaxies are galaxies which have a small core of emission embedded in an otherwise typical galaxy. This core may be highly variable and very bright compared to the rest of the galaxy. Models of active galaxies concentrate on the possibility of a supermassive black hole which lies at the centre of the galaxy. The dense central galaxy provides material which accretes onto the black hole releasing a large amount of gravitational energy. Part of the energy in this hot plasma is emitted as x-rays and gamma rays.

Fig.1:- A relativistic jet produced by M87, a giant Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN) in the Virgo constellation

For "normal" galaxies, the total energy emitted by them can be thought of as the sum of the emission from each of the stars found in the galaxy. For the "active" galaxies, this is not true. The amount of energy emitted by such a galaxy is much more than it should be, and this excess energy is found in the infrared, radio, UV, and X-ray regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

1.1 Discovery The issue of the high activity of galactic nuclei was first raised by the SovietArmenian physicist Prof. Victor Ambartsumian in the early 1950s. Although the idea concerning the activity of galactic nuclei was initially met with scepticism, it did gain recognition as a result of a substantial amount of observational evidence corroborating the same. The details of the discovery of various types of active galaxies will be discussed in a later section.

Fig.2:- Instructional Figure showing various types of Active Galaxies depending upon their viewing angle

2. THEORY OF ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI It is generally believed that AGN must be powered by accretion onto supermassive black holes situated at the center of the galaxies (whose masses range from 106 to 109 times that of the Sun). Gas accreting onto the black hole releases a large amount of gravitational potential energy: Where is the efficiency and is the accretion rate. Both the efficiency and the accretion rate vary across orders of magnitude between different galaxies.

Fig.3:- A schematic of showing the accretion of stellar material around the black hole at the galactic center The above schematic shows 3 most important components of an Active Galaxy, namely the Central Black Hole, Jet and the Accretion Disk. These are discussed on the next page:
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2.1 Black Hole Black holes are completely specified by their mass M, angular momentum J, and charge Q (likely ~zero). The mass of the black hole can be measured by Gas disk kinematics:

At the same time the radius of black hole can be measured by Stellar kinematics. If the velocity dispersion in the galaxy is , black hole will dominate motion of stars with a radius rBH, the black holes sphere of influence, given by:

On the basis of above parameters, the black holes are classified into the following categories: a) Q=0, J=0: Schwarzschild black hole These are spherically symmetric and the solution has two important radii for us: [i] Schwarzschild radius:- The black holes event horizon is located at this distance from the singularity at its centre. It is calculated using the expression:

No matter, radiation or information can propagate outwards through this radius. [ii] Least Stable Circular Orbit:- It is calculated using the expression:

Outside Rms, test particles can orbit indefinitely in stable circular orbits, whereas inside Rms orbits are unstable, particles spiral rapidly past the event horizon and into the black hole. Thus, Rms defines the inner edge of the gas disk in AGN and sets a minimum orbital period. Roughly,
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 b) Q=0, J and M arbitrary: Kerr black hole

This kind of Black hole has a preferred rotation axis, implied by its axisymmetric solution. Since this is a spinning black hole, we can define the amount of angular momentum via a dimensionless spin parameter:

Here the maximum value of spin parameter a can be 1 which corresponds to the maximum angular momentum. The Kerr hole cannot spin beyond this limit. 2.1.1 Eddington Limit:- For an AGN with an observed (bolometric) luminosity L, we can estimate the minimum mass of the black hole involved and this mass is called the Eddington Limit. Suppose the gas around the black hole is spherically symmetric and fully ionized hydrogen, then at distance r, the flux is:

This is flux of energy. Since momentum of a photon of energy E is E/c, momentum flux due to radiation is:

This is the pressure that would be exerted on a totally absorbing surface at distance r from the source. But force exerted on the gas depends upon the opacity (i.e. the fraction of the radiation absorbed per unit mass of gas). Minimum force is given by the absorption due to free electrons. This is given by the Thomson cross-section:

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( Outward radiation force on a single electron is:

Inward force due to gravity of a central point mass M is:

Setting Frad = Fgrav, and solving for L, we get:

This luminosity is known as the Eddington limit. It is the maximum luminosity of a source of mass M, which is powered by spherical accretion of gas. Conversely, if a source with observed luminosity L is radiating at the Eddington limit, the mass would be:

This is a minimum mass - source could actually be radiating at much less than the Eddington limit. 2.1.2 Fuelling Active Galactic Nuclei AGN requires huge amount of power (1044 - 1046 erg s-1). But the question is from where do these AGN gets the fuel to generate such an enormous power and how fast must gas be supplied to the black hole to produce typical AGN luminosities? To answer these questions we define the efficiency of the accretion process : A mass m of gas at infinity has zero potential energy. Energy available if the gas spirals in to radius r is:
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 This is actually an upper limit - not all the potential energy will be radiated as the gas falls in. Actual efficiency of disk accretion onto a black hole is estimated to be: Schwarzschild black hole: = 0.06 Kerr black hole: = 0.42 Standard estimate is = 0.1. By this, mass flow needed to sustain a black hole is: 2.2 Accretion Disk Luminosity of AGN derives from gravitational potential energy of gas spiralling inward through an accretion disk. Thus we derive the structure of the disk, and characteristic temperatures of the gas. a) Deriving Structure:

Gravitational acceleration in vertical direction is:

If the gas is supported against gravity by a pressure gradient, force balance in the vertical direction gives:

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Assuming the disk is isothermal in the vertical direction with sound speed cs.,the pressure is then:

Solve for the vertical structure, we get:

where h is the vertical scale height of the disk. Here, h2 can be estimated as:

The thickness of the disk as a fraction of the radius is given by the ratio of the sound speed to the orbital velocity. A disk for which (h/R) << 1 is described as a geometrically thin disk. Structure of thin disks is relatively simple because radial pressure forces can be neglected - i.e. v for the gas is the same as a particle orbiting at the same radius. Now if the disk is thin, then orbital velocity of the gas is Keplerian: Then Specific angular momentum vR is: l = GMR i.e. increasing outwards. Gas at large R has too much angular momentum to be accreted by the black hole. To flow inwards, gas must lose angular momentum, either: By redistributing the angular momentum within the disk (gas at small R loses angular momentum to gas further out and flows inward) or By loss of angular momentum from the entire system. e.g. a wind from the disk could take away angular momentum allowing inflow.

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Redistribution of angular momentum within a thin disk is a diffusive process - a narrow ring of gas spreads out under the action of the disk viscosity. With increasing time: Mass all flows inward to small R and is accreted and Angular momentum is carried out to very large R by a vanishingly small fraction of the mass.

b) Deriving temperature

Consider gas flowing inward through a thin disk. Potential energy per unit mass at radius R in the disk is:

Suppose mass dM flows inward distance dR. Change in potential energy is:

Half of this energy goes into increased kinetic energy of the gas. If the other half is radiated, luminosity is:

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 We divide by the radiating area, 22RdR to get luminosity per unit area. Equate this to the rate of energy loss via blackbody radiation: This gives the radial temperature distribution as: ( )

This is a correct dependence on mass, accretion rate, and radius, but has a wrong prefactor. Thus we need to account for: Radial energy flux through the disk (transport of angular momentum also means transport of energy) and Boundary conditions at the inner edge of the disk Correcting for this, radial distribution of temperature is:

}]

Where Rin is the radius of the disk inner edge.

Accretion produces a variety of physical phenomena. Some prominent examples are: Very high luminosity from a point source in the nucleus. The small physical size of the emission region allows rapid variability. Broad spectral lines due to Doppler shift of gas orbiting the black hole. X-ray emission from high temperature plasma close to the black hole. Mechanical power in the form of outflows and jets from the central regions.

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In the most powerful AGNs, these phenomena dominate over starlight. What we see in a particular system reflects both the accretion rate and the viewing angle to the central angle. This is the basis for the classification of active galaxies into various categories, which are described in the next section.

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3. TYPES OF ACTIVE GALAXIES There are several types of active galaxies: Seyfert, Quasars and Blazars. Most scientists believe that, even though these types may look very different to us, they are actually the same thing viewed from different directions. Quasars are active galaxies which are situated at a great distance from our own Milky Way galaxy. Some of the observed quasars have been reported to be about 12 billion light-years away. Blazars emit high intensity of radiation in the radio frequency range, which led scientists to conclude that they are AGNs whose jets point in the general direction of the earth. This accounts for the rapid variability and compact features of blazars. Contrary to blazars, if the jet does not point towards the earth at all, and the dusty disk of material lying in the plane of the galaxy is in the way, we would observe the characteristics of the Seyfert galaxies. By redshift measurements, it has been concluded that Seyfert galaxies are much closer to the earth than Quasars or Blazars. The discovery and characteristics of each type of active galaxy are now described as follows: 3.1 Seyfert Galaxies: Discovery and Characteristics 3.1.1 Discovery The class of Seyfert galaxies was first recognized by Carl Seyfert in a 1943 paper, which discussed the set of (mostly spiral) galaxies whose spectra showed unusually broadened emission lines from bright, star-like nuclei. In retrospect, these were hints that large masses might be involved, to produce such high gas velocities without spraying the material right out of the galaxy, and that the phenomenon was concentrated in a small volume, thus giving the star-like appearance to the nuclei. 3.1.2 Characteristics While Seyfert nuclei had been occasionally observed earlier - in fact, NGC 1068 was among the first few galaxies whose redshift was measured - this was the first definition of a class of similar objects. Seyfert nuclei were divided into two classes
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by Ed Khachikian and Daniel Weedman, based on whether all their emission lines had similar amounts of broadening. In Type 1 nuclei, certain emission lines were much broader - the ones that could originate at the highest gas density. In Type 2 nuclei, all lines have broadly similar widths. Both kinds have very similar sets of emission lines seen, implying the simultaneous existence of atoms in states normally associated with a huge range of density, temperature, and incident radiation.

Fig.4:- Example spectra of Type I and Type II Seyfert Galaxies

3.2 Quasars: Discovery and Characteristics 3.2.1 Discovery The discovery of quasars was the result of an investigation into their anomalous characteristics. A few strong radio sources stubbornly resisted identification with any obvious visible-light counterpart until positional accuracies from radio observations reached only a few seconds of arc. Some radio sources appeared to be nothing more than galactic stars, but their spectra were very peculiar, with strong, broad emission features at wavelengths that didn't match any plausible features expected from stars - young, old, or exploding. It took some time for Maarten Schmidt at Palomar Observatory to show that these were indeed familiar spectral features, but redshifted to an unprecedented degree. The name
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quasi-stellar radio source (soon shortened to quasar) was coined for these enigmatic objects. As it turned out, many similar objects are not strong radio sources, and these are distinguished as quasi-stellar objects (QSOs), though both are often lumped together as quasars. Quasars enable us to gain new insights into the phenomenon of active nuclei. To be so bright at the large distances implied by their redshifts, they had to be much more luminous than any ordinary galaxies hundreds of times brighter. Yet they must be tiny, with most of the light coming from a region no larger than our own solar system. This was found from the fact that quasars vary (in both visible light and radio core output) in timescales so short that the object responsible (which cannot be any larger than the distance light travels in this timescale) must by only a light-day or so in size.

Fig.5:- The X-ray image of a quasar PKS 1127-145, located 10 billion light-years away from earth

3.2.2 Characteristics Quasars are the most luminous class of AGN. They constitute a small fraction (about 5-10%) of the total AGNs, characterized by strong radio emission. The emission from the galactic nucleus dominates the light coming from the host galaxy.

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(a)

(b)

Fig.6:- Images of two distant Quasars in (a) a spiral host, and (b) an elliptical host using HST imaging Their spectra are very similar to those of the Seyfert galaxies, except that: Stellar absorption lines are very weak, if detectable at all. Quasars can all be classified as Type 1 in Seyfert jargon, i.e. their spectra consist of broad lines too.

Fig.7:- A Typical Quasar Spectrum

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3.2.2.1 Spectral Energy Distribution in Quasars Quasars have a very broad spectral energy distribution (SED) which cannot be described as blackbodies. Their flux can be characterized roughly by the following power-law:

Where: is the power-law index C is a constant is the specific flux (i.e. per frequency interval, units of erg s-1 cm-2 Hz-1) We will integrate to get the power between frequency 1 and 2:

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3.3 Blazars: Discovery and Characteristics 3.3.1 Discovery A new member in the AGN family was added in the late 1970s, with the identification of a few mysterious objects from variable-star catalogues as highly variable nuclei of distant galaxies. Named after their prototype, such BL Lacertae objects have almost perfectly featureless spectra - the nucleus produces a smooth rainbow of radiation, which can be bright enough to swamp the surrounding galaxies and has no tell-tale emission or absorption lines to measure its redshift. Redshifts have been measured, either from the surrounding galaxy or by waiting for the object to appear unusually dim so it doesn't drown out the emission lines from surrounding gas.

Fig.8:- A schematic figure showing the structure of a Blazar

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3.3.2 Characteristics BL Lac objects are most notable for being strongly and rapidly variable at all wavelengths, in both intensity and polarization. Their properties are usually thought to reflect our viewing the jet of a radio galaxy almost along its own axis, so our view is dominated by Doppler-boosted radiation from the jet rather than the more usual view of the nucleus and its surroundings. Some quasars with unusually weak emission lines share some of these variability properties as well, so they and BL Lac objects may be lumped together as blazars.

Fig.9:- Time varying spectrum of a BL Lac object

Blazars produce light at all wavelengths, ranging from being strong radio sources all the way to being sources for gamma-rays. By observing them for long periods, it was noted that they tend to have variable brightness at different wavelengths (got brighter and fainter over time). Observations of their spectra show there are virtually no emission or absorption lines - this is a fairly unusual characteristic for a galaxy, especially an Active Galaxy. The radiation coming from these objects is known to be non-thermal (not related to heat). The spectra do look rather uniform and flat, close to being continuous spectra. The optical light from these objects is also highly polarized, indicating the influence of a strong magnetic field.

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Fig.10:- A typical spectrum of a BL Lac object 3.4 Radio Galaxies 3.4.1 Discovery After World War II, radio telescope technology enabled us to gain further insight into the nature of active galaxies. What looked like normal galaxies with visible light telescopes looked really strange with radio telescopes. In some cases, galaxies were producing more light at radio wavelengths than at the visible light wavelengths. Galaxies that exhibit such anomalous features at radio wavelengths are called Radio Galaxies.

Fig.11:- Radio image showing two jets shooting out of the center of the active galaxy Cygnus A
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3.4.2 Characteristics Radio galaxies are the type of active galaxies that are very luminous at radio wavelengths, with luminosities up to 1039 W between 10 MHz and 100 GHz. It is convenient to divide Radio Galaxies into two types, conventionally called radio-quiet and radio-loud. In the radio-loud objects a contribution from the jet(s) and the lobes they inflate dominates the luminosity of the AGN, at least at radio wavelengths but possibly at some or all others. Radio-quiet objects are simpler since jet and jet-related emission can be neglected. A brief comparison between the two is summarized below: Radio Loud Contains a high spin supermassive black hole at the centre. Produce relativistic jets, which are origins of radio emission. Jets are powered by spin energy extracted from black hole. Example: Cen A, M87 Radio Quiet Contains a low spin supermassive black hole at the centre. Do not produce any relativistic jets. Jets are produced by accretion disk (blackbody plus non-thermal coronal emission) Example: Circinus

Fig.12:- Cen A, as seen in a radio (orange) and visible composite image

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4. OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENT AGN are multiwavelength emitters. To understand the physical processes at work in the AGN environment it is crucial to characterize AGN emission/absorption throughout the entire wavelength spectrum, from radio wavelengths to X-rays, i.e. the AGN spectral energy distributions (SEDs). This requires observing them with many telescopes. One of the main tools for analyzing the SEDs of AGN is the comparison of SED models (templates) with observations. Most observational work on the AGN has been carried out on the type 2 sources Seyfert 2 rather than Seyfert 1 and radio galaxies rather than quasars for the simple reason that a direct view of the AGN in type 1 objects results in an excessive glare that makes it dicult to see faint extra nuclear structures. The presence of thick obscuration close to the nucleus and in our line-of-sight in type 2 sources results in a very eective natural coronagraph.

Fig.13:- A typical picture of Active Galaxy taken by HST (Hubble Space Telescope)

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4.1

Observational Characteristics

There is no single observational signature of an AGN. Some of the historically important features that have allowed systems to be identified as AGN are:

Nuclear optical continuum emission. This is visible whenever we have a direct view of the accretion disc. Jets can also contribute to this component of the AGN emission. The optical emission has a roughly power-law dependence on wavelength. Nuclear infra-red emission. This is visible whenever the accretion disc and its environment are obscured by gas and dust close to the nucleus and then reemitted ('reprocessing'). As it is thermal emission, it can be distinguished from any jet or disc-related component. Broad optical emission lines. These come from cold material close to the central black hole. The lines are broad because the emitting material is revolving around the black hole with high speeds, emitting photons at varying Doppler shifts. Narrow optical emission lines. These come from more distant cold material, and so are narrower than the broad lines. Radio continuum emission. This is always due to a jet. It shows a spectrum characteristic of synchrotron radiation. X-ray continuum emission. This can arise both from a jet and from the hot corona of the accretion disc via scattering processes: in both cases it shows a power-law spectrum. In some radio-quiet AGN there is a `soft excess' in the Xray emission in addition to the power-law component. The origin of the soft excess is not clear at present. X-ray line emission. This is a result of illumination of cold heavy elements by the X-ray continuum. Fluorescence gives rise to various emission lines, the best-known of which is the iron feature around 6.4 KeV. This line may be narrow or broad: relativistically broadened iron lines can be used to study the dynamics of the accretion disc very close to the nucleus and therefore the nature of the central black hole. Unified Model Concept

4.2

Unified models of AGN unite two or more classes of objects, based on the traditional observational classifications, by proposing that they are really a single type of physical object observed under different conditions. The currently favoured unified models are 'orientation-based unified models' meaning that they propose that the apparent differences between different types of objects arise simply because of their different orientations to the observer. This unification is broadly classified into 2 types:
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a) Radio-quiet unification: At low luminosities, the objects to be unified are Seyfert galaxies. The unified models propose that in Seyfert 1s the observer has a direct view of the active nucleus. In Seyfert 2s it is observed through an obscuring structure which prevents a direct view of the optical continuum, broad-line region or (soft) X-ray emission. The key insight of orientation-dependent accretion models is that the two types of object can be the same if only certain angles to the line of sight are observed. At higher luminosities, quasars take the place of Seyfert 1s, but, as already mentioned, the corresponding 'quasar 2s' are elusive at present. If they do not have the scattering component of Seyfert 2s they would be hard to detect except through their luminous narrow-line and hard X-ray emission. b) Radio-loud unification: These galaxies can be unified with narrow-line radio galaxies in a manner directly analogous to the Seyfert 1/2 unification (but without the complication of much in the way of a reflection component: narrow-line radio galaxies show no nuclear optical continuum or reflected X-ray component, although they do occasionally show polarized broad-line emission). The large-scale radio structures of these objects provide compelling evidence that the orientation-based unified models really are true However, the population of radio galaxies is completely dominated by lowluminosity, low-excitation objects. These do not show strong nuclear emission lines broad or narrow they have optical continua which appear to be entirely jet-related and their X-ray emission is also consistent with coming purely from a jet, with no heavily absorbed nuclear component in general.

Fig.14:- Unification of Active Galaxies by viewing angle.

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5 PROBLEMS, CURRENT AND FUTURE TRENDS 5.1 Problems Despite many years of effort, observational studies have not found a strong correlation between the presence of any proposed fueling mechanism and low-luminosity AGN. The unexplained FeII spectrum is one of the unsolved problems of AGN study. 5.2 Current Technology

The most recent contribution to the study has come from high spatial resolution X-ray maps of the nucleus, the jets and radio hot-spots and the surrounding cluster environment. Detailed studies of Cygnus A with Chandra ACIS show what can be achieved .This is shown in the following figure:

Fig.15:- An X-ray image of Cygnus A with the CHANDRA ACIS instrument. The principal components in above figure are: thermal X-ray emission from the intracluster gas a limb-brightened cavity containing the relativistic gas fed by the jets
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 synchrotron self-Compton emission from the radio hot-spots X-ray emission from the jets themselves, soft emission from an extended nuclear source and Hard emission from an unresolved nuclear source. The extended nuclear source, on a kilo parsec scale, appears to result from the Thompson scattering of nuclear X-ray photons in a very highly (photo) ionized gas extending along the radio axis. The Thompson optical depth, while it can explain the X-rays, is too small to produce the extended optical polarization which must, therefore result from dust scattering. The spatial distribution of this soft X-ray component appears to match very closely the emission from the extended coronal lines of [Fe X], [Fe XI], [Ar XI] and [S XII]. This is strong evidence in favor of the photoionization model for the production of the coronal line spectra in AGN in gas with a very high ionization parameter.

5.3

Future Scope

Due to rapid advances in infrared and other detector technology, the development of adaptive optics for ground based work and the commitment to infrared missions from space organizations such as NASA, ESA and ISAS, the future of AGN study is extremely bright. Some of the proposed astronomical projects in future are: a) The James Webb Space Telescope

Fig.16:- A Schematic of a JWST.

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b) Infrared High Angular Resolution Technology: VLTI/MIDI with PRIMA-FSU K-band tracking, lead: Pott (2012) VLTI/MATISSE (2ndgen. instrument, Co-I Th. Henning) (2016) LBT/LINC-NIRVANA (strategic instrument, PI T. Herbst) (2014)

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6 CONCLUSION For a long time, active galaxies held all the records for the highest-redshift objects known, because of their high luminosity (either in the optical or the radio): they still have a role to play in studies of the early universe, but it is now recognised that by its nature an AGN gives a highly biased picture of the 'typical' high-redshift galaxy. As far as this project is concerned, we have tried to present a comprehensive study of Active Galaxies, quantitative as well as qualitative. The study helped us gain insight into one of the most mysterious phenomena observed in the universe and has motivated us to continue our research into the same.

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REFERENCES (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Croton D.J., et al. (2006) The many lives of active galactic nuclei: cooling flows, black holes and the luminosities and colours of galaxies. MNRAS 365: 1128. Sikora M., Madejski G.M., (1996) Learning about Active Galactic Nucleus jets from spectral properties of blazars. ApJ 484: 108117. Active Galaxies and Quasars Introduction and Glossary. URL:http://www.astr.ua.edu/keel/agn/text.html. Vlahakis, N., Knigl, A., The Astrophysical Journal, 605, 656 (2004). Active Galaxies and Quasars Introduction. URL:- imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/ docs/science/know_l1/active_galaxies.html Active Galaxy. URL:www.astro.virginia.edu/~jh8h/glossary/ activegalaxy.htm Ferrarese, L., Ford, H.C., (1996) Evidence for a massive black hole in the active galaxy NGC 4261 from Hubble Space Telescope images and spectra. The Astrophysical Journal, v.470, p.444-459. Neufeld, D.A., (1995) The mass accretion rate through the masing molecular disk in the active galaxy NGC 4258. Astrophysical Journal Letters, v.447, p.L17-L20. Oliva, E., Origlia, L., Maiolino, R., and Moorwood A.F.M., Starbursts in active galaxy nuclei: observational constraintsfrom IR stellar absorption lines. URL:- http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/9908063.pdf.

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