Oscillatory motion that can be modeled by a sinusoidal function is referred to as simple harmonic motion.
We often use the cosine function to model the displacement as a function of time:
x(t) = x
m
us(mt +)
In the above equation, x(t) is the displacement at time t. It is measured with respect to the equilibrium point
which is taken to be zero. The amplitude of motion is given by x
m
. The phase of motion is given by
(t +) with referring to the angular frequency measured in roJs. The phase angle, , allows for
situations in which the objects initial position is not at the positive amplitude. Consider the following graph:
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 2
Recall that in high school, was referred to as the horizontal stretch or compression. Similar to the formulas
given then:
m =
2a
T
= 2a
By differentiating the displacement function with respect to time, we obtain formulas for velocity and
acceleration:
u(t) = -mx
m
stn(mt +) and a(t) = -m
2
x
m
us(mt +)
The objects speed is always at a maximum when it crosses the equilibrium point. Since the range of the sine
function is between -1 and 1, we can see that the maximum speed is given by:
u
max
= mx
m
SECTION 15.3 | BLOCK-SPRING SYSTEMS
Notice above that the acceleration of an object in simple harmonic motion is proportional to the displacement
but opposite in direction:
a(t) = -m
2
x(t)
This also occurs for a mass (or block) connected to a spring on a horizontal frictionless surface:
A block spring system may be the most fundamental model of simple harmonic motion.
+o
-x
x
cq
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 3
In the x-direction, there is only the spring force, F
s
= -kx for x being the displacement. By Newtons Second
Law, -kx = mo . Since the system is in simple harmonic motion, we get: -kx = m(-
2
x) and obtain:
m =
_
k
m
and =
1
2a
_
k
m
and T = 2a_
m
k
The frequency in the equation above is called the natural frequency. The equilibrium position of the spring
acts as the equilibrium position of the systems periodic motion for horizontal block-spring systems. But, the
same is not true for vertical block-spring systems since a gravity force opposes the spring force:
The system is instead at equilibrium when kx = mg in which x represents the displacement from the
equilibrium position of the spring x
0
. We can then determine that the natural angular frequency is:
m = _
g
x
As the speed and the position of the block change, so does the kinetic, spring potential and mechanical
energy. We can express these quantities as functions of time:
K(t) =
1
2
m|u(t)]
2
=
1
2
kx
m
2
stn
2
(mt +)
U(t) =
1
2
k|x(t)]
2
=
1
2
kx
m
2
us
2
(mt +)
F(t) = K(t) +U(t) =
1
2
kx
m
2
kx
mg
x
x
0
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 4
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1: (2010 Problem Solving 1) A mass hangs from a spring and is set into vertical
oscillation with a frequency of 1.Su Ez. When the mass is at the highest point of its motion, the spring is
stretched by S.uu cm. A stopwatch is started during the motion and it is found that the mass is S.uu cm
below the equilibrium position and is moving upwards when t = u.1uu s. The equation of motion is
y = y
m
cos(t +) with y positive upwards. Calculate (a) the angular frequency, (b) the extension of
the spring when the mass is at the equilibrium position, (c) the amplitude of the motion, (d) the phase
angle, , and (e) the speed of the mass when t = u.1uu s.
SOLUTION 1a | The natural frequency is given as 1.Su Ez so:
= 2n = 2n(1.Su) = 9.42 roJs
SOLUTION 1b | Manipulating the formula above:
x =
g
2
=
9.8
(9.42)
2
= 11.u cm
SOLUTION 1c | Since the string is stretched by S.uu cm when the mass reaches its highest point, we can
easily see that the amplitude of motion, y
m
= 11.u -S.uu = 8.uu cm.
SOLUTION 1d | The problem indicates that x(u.1uu) = -S.uu cm. Using previous calculations
-S = 8cos( (9.42)(u.1uu) +) u.942 + = 2.24 or 4.u4 = 1.Su or S.1u
Substituting both values into :(t) = -y
m
sin(t +) = -(9.42)(u.u8) sin(u.942 +), we find that
= S.1u gives a positive velocity. This fits the problem since the mass was moving upwards at that time.
So = S.1u roJ.
SOLUTION 1e | Using the velocity calculated in 1d:
:(u.1uu) = u.S92 ms
SECTION 15.6 | PENDULUMS
Consider a pendulum consisting of a mass, called a bob, at the end of a massless string of length I. We refer
to this as a simple pendulum. For small oscillations, their periods can be found using:
T = 2a_
L
g
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 5
CHAPTER 16
WA V E S
Although we studied sinusoidal functions in the last chapter, it is important to understand that we did not
actually study waves in nature. The graph of a system in simple harmonic motion, specifically its position as a
function of time, simply takes the shape of a wave. In this chapter, we look at a type of waves in nature
known as mechanical waves. These waves travel through a certain medium and are governed by Newtons
Laws.
Mechanical waves can be taken as two types, transverse and longitudinal. The elements of a transverse
waves oscillate in a direction perpendicular to the waves direction of travel. Perhaps the easiest example of
this is the waves that are generated by shaking the end of a long string or rope. We easily can visualize this
wave is in two dimensions: any piece on the string will have an horizontal and vertical position, x and y. But
the vertical displacement of the string is also dependent on time. It is modeled with the formula:
y(x, t) = y
m
stn(kx _mt +)
The variable k does not represent the spring constant but instead the angular wave number. It is measured
in radians per meter.
A wave can be broken into phases, the identical pieces the put together form the wave. The width of the
phase in meters is called the wavelength denoted by the variable, z:
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 6
The angular wave number and wavelength are related as follows:
k =
2a
2
We can now determine the speed of the wave:
u =
d
t
=
2
T
= 2 =
m
k
And we could model the vertical displacement instead as:
y(x, t) = y
m
stnk(x _ut)
The _ indicates the waves direction of travel. For waves travelling in the positive x-direction we use - and
for waves travelling in the negative x-direction we use a +.
The transverse speed is how fast an element oscillates perpendicularly to the direction of the wave. It can be
found by taking the partial derivative of our vertical displacement function with respect to time:
u(t) =
6y(x, t)
6t
= _my
m
us(kx _mt)
The speed of a wave on a stretched string can be determined using the tension in the string denoted by
and its linear density p using the following formula:
u = _
z
ur z = u
2
Recall that the linear density of the spring can be found using its density p and cross sectional area A:
=
m
L
= pA = par
2
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 7
In general, waves can be modeled mathematically using any function of the form y = b(kx _t) that
satisfies the wave equation:
6
2
y
6x
2
=
1
u
2
6
2
y
6t
2
This may serve as an alternative way to determine the wave speed.
SECTION 16.7 | ENERGY AND POWER OF TRAVELLING WAVES
For a wave travelling on a string, any particular element on the string will have a kinetic energy and potential
energy. Those energies are both at a maximum when the element is at y = u. We particularly concern
ourselves with the rate at which this energy moves across the wire: the power of the wave. We can find this
power using the following formula:
P =
1
2
um
2
y
m
2
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2: (2010 Problem Solving 1) The amplitude of a transverse waves travelling on a
string is S.7S mm. The string has a diameter of 1.1u mm and a density of Suuu kgm
3
. The wave has
a frequency of 9u.u Ez, a wavelength of 6u.u cm and is travelling in the x-direction. Assume that
y = y
m
sin(kx _ t). Calculate (a) the tension in the string, (b) the angular frequency of the wave, (c)
the angular wave number, (d) the displacement of a point with x = -1.Su m at t = u.u6uu s, (e) the
transverse velocity of a point with x = -1.Su m at t = u.u6uu s and (f) the energy transported per
second by the string.
SOLUTION 2a| = :
2
p = (z)
2
pA =
2
z
2
pnr
2
= (9u)
2
(u.6)
2
(Suuu)n(u.uuuSS)
2
= 1S.9 N
SOLUTION 2b| = 2n = 2n(9u) = S6S roJs
SOLUTION 2c| k =
2n
x
=
2n
0.60
= 1u.S roJm
SOLUTION 2d| y = S.7Ssin(1u.S(-1.Su) +S6S(u.u6)) = -S.S8 mm
SOLUTION 2e| u =
6
6t
= y
m
cos(kx +t) = S6S(S.7S) cos(1u.S(-1.Su) +S6S(u.u6)) =
2.6S ms
SOLUTION 2f| P =
1
2
p:(y
m
)
2
=
1
2
(Suuu)(n)(u.uuuSS)
2
(9u)(u.6)(18u
2
)(n)
2
(u.uuS7S)
2
=
1.SS w
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 8
SECTION 16.10 | INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
It is possible to send more than one wave through a string simultaneously. In this case, the net vertical
displacement of the two waves at a certain horizontal position and time is simply the sum of the vertical
displacements which would have been generated by each wave separately. This is referred to as the
principle of superposition. Mathematically, this means that the resultant wave, y, caused by two waves: y
1
and y
2
on the same string is given by:
y
i
(x, t) = y
1
(x, t) +y
2
(x, t)
It is important to note that these two overlapping waves will not alter the way in which the individual waves
travel. This phenomenon is referred to as interference.
Now suppose that y
1
and y
2
are two sinusoidal waves of the same wavelength, frequency, amplitude and
direction of travel but have a phase difference of = |
1
-
2
|. Using trigonometric identities, the
resultant wave, with amplitude 2y
m
cos
1
2
is of the form:
y
i
(x, t) = _2y
m
us
1
2
_ stn_kx -mt +
1
2
]
For = nn ; n = u,2,4 , the waves are said to be in phase and result in fully constructive interference.
For = nn ; n = 1,S,S , the waves are said to be out of phase resulting in fully destructive interference.
SECTION 16.13 | STANDING WAVES AND RESONANCE
For two sinusoidal waves of the same wavelength, frequency and amplitude BUT travelling in opposite
directions the resultant wave is referred to as a standing wave. The wave is of the form:
y
i
(x, t) = 2y
m
stnkxus mt
The wave appears to be 'standing still no longer travelling in either direction. At certain positions called
nodes, the string does not move transversally at all. Directly between these positions are antinodes, where
the string oscillates between a maxima and minima. Their positions are at:
x = n2 Iur n = ,
1
2
, 1,
3
2
, 2, (nudes)
x = n2 Iur n =
1
4
,
3
4
,
5
4
,
7
4
, (anttnudes)
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 9
A standing wave can be generated by fixing one end of the string. When a certain pattern or oscillation
mode is created, the standing wave is said to be produced at resonance and the string is said to resonate at
certain resonant frequencies. The possible resonant frequencies are assigned a harmonic number n and
are given by:
=
u
2
= n
u
2L
Iur n = 1, 2, 3,
For example, n = 1 is called the first harmonic frequency or the fundamental frequency. For n = 2, the term
second harmonic frequency is used or in trickier terms, the first harmonic above the fundamental. The
fundamental frequency always refers to the lowest possible frequency.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3 : (Fundamentals of Physics 8
th
Edition Walker: 16-50) A rope, under a tension of
2uu N and fixed at both ends, oscillates in a second harmonic standing wave pattern. The displacement
of the rope is given by:
y = u.1u m (sinnx2)(sin12nt)
where x = u at one end of the rope, x is in metres, and t is in seconds. What are (a) the length of the
rope, (b) the speed of the waves on the rope, and (c) the mass of the rope? (d) If the rope oscillates in a
third-harmonic standing wave pattern, what will be the period of oscillation?
SOLUTION 3a| Since it is oscillating at a second harmonic, n = 2. We can also see from the function that
k = n2 and = 12n. So:
1
z
=
n
2I
=
1
I
I = z =
2n
k
= 4.u m
SOLUTION 3b| : =
o
k
= 24 ms
SOLUTION 3c| m = pI =
:L
2
=
200(4.0)
(24)
2
= 1.4 kg
SOLUTION 3d| =
n
2L
=
3(24)
2(4)
= 9.u Ez I =
1
]
= u.11 s
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 10
CHAPTER 17
S OU N D WA V E S
A longitudinal mechanical wave refers to waves in which elements oscillate in a direction parallel to the
direction of the wave. The most common example of this wave in nature are sound waves.
SECTION 17.3 | THE SPEED OF SOUND
The speed of sound changes through different mediums. In air, we generally assume it is S4S ms. Still, if B
is the bulk modulus of the medium and p the density, the speed of sound : is given by:
u = Bp
SECTION 17.5 | INTERFERENCE
As explained in the last chapter, two waves of the same wavelength, frequency and amplitude will interfere
with each other and their resultant wave is dependent on the phase difference, . This phase difference is
directly related to the path length difference, I = |I
2
-I
1
|:
=
AL
2
2a
In particular with sound, we can find positions about two points sources at which sound is maximum or minimum:
AL
2
= , 1, 2, (Iully unstruttve tnterIerenemaxtmum)
AL
2
= . 5, 1. 5, 2. 5, (Iully destruttve tnterIerenemtntmum)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4: (2010 Problem Solving 1) Two loudspeakers at A
and B are driven by a common oscillator. The distance AB is 6.uu m. A
detector moves along CE, parallel to AB, with C being equidistant from
A and B, and B being perpendicular to both AB and CE. The
detector indicates a minimum between C and , the next minimum at ,
and the next minimum at E. The wavelength of the sound is u.8uu m.
Calculate (a) the distance B and (b) the distance E.
A
B
C E
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 11
SOLUTION 4a| Since C is equidistant from A and B, there is a maximum at C corresponding to
L
x
= n =
u. Since there is a minimum between C and , the minimum at corresponds to:
I
z
=
S
2
I =
S
2
z |A -B| = 1.2u A = B +1.2
By Pythagorean Theorem, we also know that: |A|
2
= |AB|
2
+|B|
2
(|B| +1.2)
2
= 6
2
+|B|
2
Solving for B, we find that B = 14.4 m
SOLUTION 4b| The minimum at E corresponds to:
I
z
=
S
2
|AE -BE| = 2.uu |AE| = |BE| +2.uu
Let the BE to be . We then obtain that () sin =
|L|
|BL|
and by cosine law on triangle ABE:
|AE|
2
= |AB|
2
+|BE|
2
-2|AE||BE| cos(9u +) (|BE| +2)
2
= S6 +|BE|
2
-12|BE|(-sin)
By expanding and simplifying and (), we can reduce this equation to: |BE| -S|E|=8
By Pythagorean Theorem on triangle BE:
|BE|
2
= 14.4
2
+|E|
2
(8 +S|E|)
2
= 2u7.S6 +|E|
2
|E|
2
+6|E| -17.92 = u
By quadratic formula: |E| = 2.19 m
SECTION 17.6 | INTENSITY AND SOUND LEVEL
To measure the intensity of a sound wave is how powerful the sound is in an area. In more complicated terms,
it is the rate of energy transfer through the area of a detecting surface. For point like sources of power P
S
,
we can find the intensity of sound at a distance r away to be:
I =
P
S
4ar
2
For a sound wave of displacement amplitude s
m
:
I =
1
2
pumx
m
2
Intensity is measured in wm
2
.
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 12
B
C A
S
It is often more convenient to measure a sound in terms of its sound level, which is a comparison of a sounds
intensity to a standard reference intensity I
0
= 1u
-12
wm
2
. Sound level, [, is measured in decibels, JB,
and is found using the formula:
= 1lug
I
I
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5: (2010 Problem Solving 1) A point source of
sound waves is placed at point S. At point A, sound level is
76.u JB. At point B, the sound level is 71.u JB. AC = 4.uu m
and BC = 12.u m. Calculate (a) the distance SC and (b) the power
emitted by the source.
SOLUTION 5a| For [
B
representing the sound level at B and [
A
the
sound level at A:
[
A
-[
B
= 1ulog _
|SB|
2
|SA|
2
_
By Pythagorean Theorem: |SB|
2
= |SC|
2
+|BC|
2
and |SA|
2
= |SC|
2
+|AC|
2
and so:
[
A
-[
B
= 76 -71 = S = 1ulog _
|SC|
2
+|BC|
2
|SC|
2
+|AC|
2
_ = 1ulog(
|SC|
2
+144
|SC|
2
+16
)
1u|SC|
2
+161u = |SC|
2
+144 |SC| =
_
144 -161u
1u -1
= 6.S7 m
SOLUTION 5b| We will consider the intensity at A:
I = 1u
0.1[-12
=
P
4nr
2
P = 4n|SA|
2
1u
0.1[-12
= 29.6 mw
SECTION 17.7 | SOUNDS AND MUSIC
Many instruments produce music by generating a standing wave pattern through a pipe, some closed at one
end and others open at both ends. With : representing the speed of sound, the resonant frequencies in pipes
of length I are as follows:
=
nu
xuund
2L
Iur n = 1, 2, 3, (upen at buth ends)
=
nu
xuund
4L
Iur n = 1, 3, 5, (lused at une end)
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 13
Remember that the k
th
harmonic refers to the k
th
possible harmonic. For example, the second harmonic
frequency for a pipe open at both ends corresponds to n = 2 but for a pipe closed at one end, n = S.
When we hear two sounds of different frequencies we hear an average of the two frequencies along with a
variation in the intensity of the combined sound at wavering beats. This phenomenon is used in tuning
instruments. The beat frequency heard is found by:
heat
= |
2
-
1
|
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6: (Fundamentals of Physics 8
th
Edition Walker: 17-48) A tube 1.20 m long is closed
at one end. The wire is 0.330 m long and has a mass of 9.60 g. It is fixed at both ends and oscillates in
its fundamental mode. By resonance, it sets the air column in the tube into oscillation at that columns
fundamental frequency. Find (a) that frequency and (b) the tension in the wire.
SOLUTION 6a| For a pipe closed at one end:
=
n:
4I
=
1(S4S)
4(1.2)
= 71.S Ez
SOLUTION 6b| For a wire resonating at its fundamental frequency:
=
n:
2I
=
(1)p
2I
= 4
2
mI
Since the wire will oscillate at the same frequency as the pipe:
= 4I
2
2
p = 4(71.S)
2
(u.uu96u)(u.SSu) = 64.7 N
SECTION 17.9 | THE DOPPLER EFFECT
The speed of sound changes in different situations. For example, since the speed of sound is dependent on
the air it passes through, a wind can help carry or slow down the speed of sound. As well, if the source of the
sound or the listener/detector is moving, the sound frequency heard differs from its actual frequency. This
phenomenon is termed the Doppler effect. The detected frequency and the emitted frequency are
related as follows:
i
=
u _u
D
u _u
S
The signs on the speed of the detector, :
i
=
: _:
: _:
S
= 8uu
SSS +1u
SSS +2u
= 779 Ez
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 15
CHAPTER 21
E L E C T R I C C H A R G E
Objects in nature have a characteristic known as electric charge based on an imbalance between the
electrons on protons of the fundamental particles making up those objects. If there is a balance, the object is
said to be neutral. If there are more electrons, it is said to be negative and if there are more protons it is
said to be positive. Electric charge is a measure of that an imbalance and is quantized. This means that any
charge, q, can be written using the formula:
q = ne
The constant c is called the elementary charge and c = 1.6u2 1u
-19
C. You can see that charge is
measured in coulombs, C. The imbalance, or number of electrons, is represented by n.
Charges exert a force on each other called electrostatic force. Charges with the same electrical sign repel
or push each other away. Charges with opposite electrical signs attract or pull each other closer. If the
charges are separated by a distance of r, then this force can be calculated using Coulombs Law:
F
F
=
k|q
1
||q
2
|
r
2
The constant k comes from the permittivity constant, e
0
= 8.8S 1u
-12
:
k =
1
4as
= 8. 99 1
9
It is worth repeating that forces are vector quantities and so the magnitude and direction of the net force on a
charge must be found by adding forces using components. Free body diagrams of the central object (the
object on which we are focusing on) are not required but are helpful. To calculate the direction of
electrostatic forces remember that: like charges repel and opposites attract.
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 16
CHAPTER 22
E L E C T R I C F I E L D
Take a point charge q
0
at some point A. In certain situations, it becomes useful to calculate the electrostatic
force on a charged object independent of the charge of q
0
. We refer to this calculation as the electric field
at A. Since we are independent of the charge of q
0
:
F
=
F
The electric field due to a point charge can then be given by:
F
=
k|q|
r
2
It is important to note that this is a vector quantity so direction is important. The direction is determined by
imagining q
0
to be a positive point charge (attraction force from negative charges, repulsion for positive
charges). Furthermore, if we wish to calculate the electric field due to a system of point charges, then vector
addition is required.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8: Question about electrostatic force and electric field.
SOLUTION 8|
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 17
SECTION 22.9 | ELECTRIC DIPOLES
An electric dipole consists of two charges, both of charge magnitude q, but opposite in direction. They are
separated by a distance J. Every dipole is an associated quantity called the dipole moment denoted by p.
The direction of p is from the negative charge to the positive charge and its magnitude can be calculated
using:
p = qd
The electric field can be created by this dipole can be calculated at any point P a distance z from the center
of the dipole (refer to the figure below). The magnitude of the electric field at this point is given by:
F =
2kp
z
3
We can create a uniform electric field by setting up two differently charged large plates, I and R. In the
figure below, the electric field points to the right. This means that a positively charged particle (which we
assume for the measurement of electric field) would travel towards the right and a negatively charged
particle towards the left.
To generate this field, the charge of R must be less than the charge of L. Here are three examples:
i. I = 2u C onJ R = -2u C
ii. I = -2u C onJ R = -4u C
iii. I = 2u C onJ R = 1u C
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 18
If we place a dipole in the electric field, then a torque (turning force) acts on the dipole to more align the
dipole moment p with the field E
:
x = p E
= pEstn6
And the dipole will have a potential energy associated with it for different configurations:
U = -p F
= -pFus 0
The potential energy is a maximum when the dipole moment and field are anti-parallel and a minimum when
they are parallel (or aligned).
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 19
CHAPTER 24
E L E C T R I C P OT E N T I A L
Recall from Chapter 8, that with every force there comes an associated energy. In many cases, there is an
associated potential energy that changes with different configurations of a system. For example, the
gravitational potential energy is associated with the gravitational force and changes with respect to the
height of the object measured from some reference point. Another example would be the spring potential or
elastic potential energy associated with the spring force that changes with respect to the stretched or
compressed position of the object with reference to the springs natural length or equilibrium position.
Instead of calculating the potential energy at some point, it is often more useful to calculate the change in
potential, u, between two points or positions. We relate u to the work done by the force, w, and the
work done applied, w
upp
, when moving the object from one point to another as follows:
U = -W = W
app
The electrostatic force, F
L
, has an associated electric potential energy, sometimes denoted by u
L
. The
magnitude of the electric potential energy of the object is influenced by the magnitude of its charge, say q.
Direction is not applicable since energy is a scalar quantity. If we wish to calculate the electric potential
energy independent of the charge of q, much like we do for the electric field, we are determining what is
referred to as the electric potential at point P. We denote the electric potential difference with I:
F
-F
|
= F =
U
q
=
U
q
-
U
|
q
= -
W
q
=
W
app
q
SECTION 24.5, 24.10 | ELECTRIC FIELDS AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Recall: since the electrostatic force is a variable force, we calculate the work done by the force using:
w = _ F(x)Jx
x
]
x
i
So, to calculate the electric potential difference, we can divide by q on both sides:
F = -
W
q
= -_ F(x)dx
x
x
|
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 20
If we are given the graph of the electric field function with respect to position (an E vs x curve), the formula
above indicates that the potential difference is calculated using the negative area underneath the curve.
Consider a situation in which the electric field is uniform: the curve would be a horizontal line. This would
give:
F = -F x
We can thus calculate the uniform electric field according to:
F = -
F
x
This would also be the negative slope of a v vs x curve.
SECTION 24.7| ELECTRIC POTENTIAL FROM POINT CHARGES
If we integrate the electric field from a point charge at some point P, we would obtain the electric potential
at that point P:
F =
kq
r
Since this is a scalar quantity, the electric potential from a finite system of charges is simply given by:
F
|
= F
1
+F
2
+F
3
+ +F
n
n
|=1
SECTION 24.8 | ELECTRIC POTENTIAL FROM AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE
The electric potential from a dipole at some point P, a distance r from the center of the dipole is given by:
F =
kpus 0
r
2
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 21
The angle 0 is the angle made between the dipole moment p and the radial line from the center to the point,
r.
SECTION 24.11 | ELECTRIC POTENTIAL FROM A SYSTEM OF CHARGES
If we wish to calculate the electric potential energy of a system, we can do this by calculating the
work required to assemble the system. A manipulation of the formula above gives:
U = W
app
= Fq
In this case, q always refers to the charge that is being moved. I
A
d
Sometimes, we insert a dielectric material in between the plates of a capacitor in order to increase its
capacitance. If we completely fill the region in between the plates, then capacitance becomes:
C =
s
A
d
The charged plates are each equipotential surfaces and there is a potential difference between the two
plates. Instead of using the notation I like in the previous chapter, we simply use I. there is a potential
difference between the two plates. We also call this quantity, voltage. The charge of the plates of a
capacitor can be given by:
q = CF
To charge a capacitor, work from some external agent is required in order for electrons to flow. It is equal to
the electric potential energy u of a charged capacitor which can be determined by:
U =
q
2
2C
=
1
2
CF
2
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 23
SECTION 25.4 CAPACITORS IN CIRCUITS
A capacitor may be hooked up by wires to a battery thus forming an electric circuit, a device through which
charge can flow. Charge flows because a battery maintains a certain potential difference between across its
terminals. Several capacitors may be connected in the same circuit. There are two special types of
connections: parallel and series.
A parallel connection is formed when a wire essentially splits into different wires and later joins back
together. Capacitors on each of those wires are said to be in parallel. The charge along the original wire
will split across the subsequent wires, not necessarily equally. However, the voltage across each of
those wires remains the same as the original wire.
Capacitors in parallel can be reduced to an equivalent capacitor using:
C
eq
= C
1
+C
2
+C
3
+
A series connection is accomplished by connecting capacitors along the same wire. In this case, the charge is
the same for each capacitor but, the potential difference across the ends of the wires is split between
the connected capacitors. Again, it is not necessarily divided equally.
Capacitors in series can be reduced to an equivalent capacitor using:
1
C
eq
=
1
C
1
+
1
C
2
+
1
C
3
+
Capacitors may also be connected without a battery. Prior to connecting, each of the capacitors often have a
certain charge already on their plates. To analyze the circuit, we can use two concepts:
(1) Charge is conserved. The net charge of an isolated system will always remain the same. For two
capacitors then:
q
1
+q
2
= q
1
i
+q
2
i
(2) The connected capacitors will reach an equilibrium if they are not connected by a battery and the
voltage on each capacitor will be the same:
I
1
= I
2
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 24
CHAPTER 26
C U R R E N T A N D R E S I S T A N C E
As studied in the previous chapter, when an electric potential is maintained across a conducting wire, an
electric field is set up through the wire and charge begins to flow. However, the flow through a certain point
may happen at different rates, a measured quantity we call current, denoted by i.
| =
dq
dt
As opposed to coulombs per second, the units for current is there ampere, denoted by A. By convention, we
say that the current is flowing in the same direction that positively charged particles (or positive charge carriers)
would be forced to move. Thus, conduction electrons would flow in the opposite direction. We may choose to
analyze the current density, [, which is the amount of current flowing per area. This has the same direction as
the current. If the current density is uniform, and is perpendicular to the area, then:
] =
|
A
But in general:
| = _]
dA
The flow of positive carriers has a slow drift speed, :
d
, in the direction of the electric field. If nc represents
the carrier charge density, the amount of charge per unit volume, then we can also calculate the current
charge density using:
] = (ne)u
d
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 25
SECTION 26.4 RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY
If we maintain the same potential difference between the ends of geometrically similar wires made of two
different conductive materials, we will find that the current is not the same. This is referred to as the wire's
electrical resistance. The larger the electrical resistance, the smaller the current:
| =
F
R
We measure resistance in ohms, . A device that is meant to provide a certain resistance is called a resistor.
A property of materials is its resistivity, p, which can be determined by considering the electric field and
current density through a point:
p =
F
]
Its reciprocal is referred to the conductivity of a material:
o =
1
p
The unit for resistivity is ohm-meter, m, and thus for conductivity, ( m)
-1
.
The resistivity of a material will vary with temperature according to the following formula:
p -p
= p
u(T -T
)
The quantity o is called the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
Provided that we make a cylindrical wire or device of some conducting material with length, I, and cross
sectional area, A, the resistance of that wire or device can be found using:
R = p
L
A
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 26
CHAPTER 27
C I R C U I T S
We now return to the analysis of circuits: several electrical devices connected by wires (which we take to have
negligible resistance). We use an emf device, such as a battery, to maintain a potential across a circuit so
that charge can flow. We can classify them as ideal or real emf devices, the latter having an internal
resistance and the former without. In other words, a real emf device has a potential difference across its
terminals different from its emf when a current runs through it.
27.7 RESISTORS IN CIRCUITS
Using the same principles as those mentioned in Chapter 25: The current along the original wire will split
across the subsequent wires, not necessarily equally. However, the voltage across each of those wires
remains the same as the original wire.
Resistors in parallel can be reduced to an equivalent capacitor using:
1
R
eq
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
+
1
R
3
+
Further, the current is the same for each resistor connected in series but, the potential difference across
the ends of the wires is split between the connected resistors. Again, it is not necessarily divided
equally.
Resistors in series can be reduced to an equivalent capacitor using:
R
eq
= R
1
+R
2
+R
3
+
27.7 KIRCHHOFFS CIRCUIT LAWS
Kirchhoffs two circuits also help us to analyze circuits. For the use of these laws, we must make an educated
assumption as to the directions of the current.
KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW (KVL) or LOOP RULE
The algebraic sum of the changes in potential encountered in a complete transversal of any loop of any
circuit must be zero. This is used in combination with:
RESISTANCE RULE: For a move through a resistance in the direction of the current, the change in potential is
iR; in the opposite direction it is +iR. Also, for a move
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 27
EMF RULE: For a move through an ideal emf device in the direction of the emf arrow, the change in potential
is +; in the opposite direction it is -.
KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW (KCL) or JUNCTION RULE
The sum of the currents entering any junction must be equal to the sum of the circuits leaving that
junction.
27.9 RC CIRCUITS
When an emf is applied to a resistor of resistance, R, and capacitor of capacitance, C, in series, the
capacitor is being charged. The charge on the capacitor increases according to:
q = C8_1 -e
-
t
RC
]
The quantity C is the final charge of the capacitor. The quantity RC is also called the capacitive time
constant and is sometimes denoted by . If there is an initial charge on the capacitor q
0
, then:
q = C8_1 -e
-
t
RC
] +q
e
-
t
RC
During the charge, the current through the capacitor is:
| = _
8
R
] e
-
t
RC
When the emf device is removed, it may discharge through the resistor and the charge decreases according
to:
q = q
e
-
t
RC
In this case, q
0
, does not necessarily refer to the final charge C, but instead to the initial charge on the
capacitor when t = u s. During the discharging, the current through the capacitor is:
| = -[
q
RC
e
-
t
RC
PHYSICS 141 WINTER 2012
Mario Salvador www.windsorsos.com Page 28
POWER
The power, or rate of energy transfer, in an electrical device across which a potential difference of I is
maintained is given by:
P = |F
For resistors, the rate at which energy is dissipated (electrical potential energy being transferred into thermal
energy) is given by:
P = |
2
R =
F
2
R
The rate at which the chemical energy in the battery changes is:
P
em
= |8