Chapter 5 Michelson Interferometer

5.1 Theory

Michelson interferometer is the best known example of amplitude splitting interferometers. An outline of this interferometer is shown in Fig. 5.1. Light from the source S is divided into two beams of nearly equal amplitudes by a thin aluminum coating on the back side of the plane parallel plate M . The two beams are reected back by two highly reecting mirrors M1 and M2 and return to beam splitter M . The transmitted portion of the beam from M1 and the reected portion of the beam from M2 overlap and produce interference fringes. The compensator plate C is an exact replica (other than that it is not coated) of the beam splitter M and serves to equalize the optical paths in the two arms for all wavelengths. This is not essential for producing fringes with monochromatic light, but it is indispensible when a white light source ( or some other source with short coherence length) is used. The mirror M1 translates on straight, parallel ways by turning a screw whose pitch is quite accurately 1 mm. The mirror M2 is provided with tilt adjustment screws to make its image in M either parallel to M1 or at a small angle with M1 . The coated surfaces of the plates and mirrors must never be touched, as they cannot be cleaned without damaging them. The interferometer is aligned by rst making the optical paths MM1 and MM2 approximately equal with the aid of dividers or a ruler. Looking into the interferometer, one sees several images of a wire placed between the diuser screen and M . The strongest of these images will be due to reections originating at the aluminized surface of M . The tilt screws on M2 are adjusted until the strong images coincide in the eld of view. It should 46

5.1. THEORY

47

2d

2d cos

S2 S1

light source

*
S BS C M2
(a)

M2 M1

*
(b)

Figure 5.1: (a) Ray paths in the Michelson interferometer ; (b) Two-source interference arrangement equivalent to the Michelson interferometer. then be possible to see interference bands. On rening the orientation of M2 one obtains a set of concentric circles (Haidingers fringes) which do not expand or contract as the position of the eye is changed sideways or vertically. As M 1 is translated, the interference rings expand or contract. Let d be the dierence in the optical lengths of the two arms. Then the path dierence between the two interfering beams at the center of the interference pattern will be 2d because both beams traverse the inteferometer twice. As d decreases interference rings shrink and each time d decreases by /2 a ring disappears at the center. As d increases interference rings expand and each time d increases by /2 a ring grows out from the center. This provides a simple method for determining the wavelength of monochromatic light. If N rings appear or disappear at the center as d changes by D, the wavelength of light will be given by 2D . (5.1) N Michelson inteferometer can also be used to determine the wavelength of two closely spaced spectral lines emitted by a source. If the incident light contains two wavelengths, each wavelength will produce its own interference =

48

CHAPTER 5. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

L
1

2 2

Figure 5.2: Relative locations of the fringes at the center for the two wavelengths 1 and 2 as d is varied. 2 is assumed to be smaller of the two wavelengths. The minima in the two patterns (or the maxima) coincide at the center each time d changes by L. pattern. As d is varied the two interference patterns will shift relative to one another. The intensity at the center will be simultaneously a minimum for both patterns when 2d0 = p1 1 , 2d0 = p2 2 , (5.2) (5.3)

where p1 and p2 are two integers, and 2d0 is the optical path dierence at the center of the pattern. As d is increased the minima of the two interference patters will at rst shift farther apart and then come closer together again. The visibility of the total fringe pattern accordingly falls o and then increases to a second maximum. Figure 5.2 shows the relative positions of the minima (dark bands) in the two interference patterns as the position of M1 is varied. The two patterns are seen to resemble a vernier and a scale. When the minima of the two patterns at the center coincide, the fringes have high visibility; half way between the positions of maximum visibility, fringe visibility falls to a minimum and if both lines have equal intensity one sees a uniform illumination across the eld of view because the minimum of one fringe pattern coincides with the maximum of the other. At the next occurrence of maximum visibility, 2 (d0 + L) = (p1 + N ) 1 , 2 (d0 + L) = (p2 + N + 1) 2 , (5.4) (5.5)

5.1. THEORY

49

where L represents the displacement of M1 between successive visibility maxima, and N is the number of fringes 1 that pass by during the displacement of M1 . By using Eqs. (2)-(5) we nd that 2L = N1 , 2L = (N + 1) 2 . From these equations we nd that the ratio of the wavelengths is 1 N +1 . = 2 N (5.8) (5.6) (5.7)

If one wavelength is known, the other can be determined with the help of this equation, in principle. Even when the two wavelengths cannot be determined the dierence between the wavelengths can always be determined. From Eqs. (6) and (7) the wavelength dierence is 1 2 = 2L . N(N + 1) (5.9)

Usually L can be measured with good accuracy. It is easier to locate visibility minima than the maxima. The value of L is, therefore, best determined by observing at least two successive minima of visibility and obtaining the average of many such observations. It is usually too tedious and not very accurate to determine N by direct count. For example for sodium D-lines typically 1000 fringes must be counted. We can cast Eq. (9) in a form that does not involve N. Using Eqs.(5) and (6) on the right hand side of Eq.(9) to eliminate N and N + 1 we nd 1 1 2 1 = rmav , N(N + 1) (2L)2 (2L)2 (5.10)

where rmav is the average wavelength. It can be determined by adjusting the Michelson interferometer for maximum fringe visibility and counting the number of fringes that disappear or appear at the center as the path dierence is varied. Thus one may obtain a value for a wave-length interval which is not easily resolved.

5.1.1

Coherenc Time and Coherence Length

Michelson interferometer can also be used to illustrate several other concepts important for interference. In all experiments involving interference we

50

CHAPTER 5. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

have considered, the two interfering beams are always derived from the same source. We nd by experiments that it is impossible to produce interference fringes from two separate sources, such as two incandescent laments side by side. This is due to the fact that the light from any one source is not an innite train of waves. There are sudden changes in phase occurring on a very short time scale of the order of 108 s. Thus although interference fringes may exist for such short intervals, they shift their position each time there is a phase change, with the result that no fringes at all will be seen. In essence these sources produce wavetrains of average duration 108 s. This time is called the coherence time c of the source. The average length, c = cc , of the wavetrains emitted by the source, is called the coherence length of the source. Successive wavetrains even from the same source, in general, have no denite phase relation with one another. Special arrangements are necessary to produce sources of light that have a denite phase relationship to one another. In Youngs experiment, Lloyds mirror, Fresnels biprism, and Michelson interferometer the two sources always have a point to point phase correspondence since they are both derived from the same source. If the phase of the light from a point in S1 suddenly changes, that of the light from the corresponding point in S2 will shift simultaneously. The result is that the dierence in phase between any pair of points in the two sources remains constant, and so the interference pattern remains stationary. Sources that have this point to point phase relation are called coherent sources. Even when there is point to point phase correspondence between sources one further condition must be satised if stationary fringes are to be observed. The path dierence between the light coming from the two sources must not exceed the coherence length (average length of the wavetrains emitted by the sources) of the light emitted by the sources. If the path dierence exceeds the coherence length the two interfering waves are derived from dierent wavetrains that have no denite phase relation to one another. Cohertence length of lasers can be several meters. On the other hand for mercury and sodium lamp it is only about 102 m. Using Michelson interferometer we can actually measure the length of the wavetrains emitted by a source !

5.1.2

Polarization Dependence of Interference

Interference of light also depends on the vector nature (polarization) of light. Thus two beams having orthogonal polarization will not produce interference. This is easily illustrated by placing two linear polarizers in the two arms of

5.2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

51

Qty. Description 1 1 1 1 Michelson interferometer sodium discharge tube Helium-Neon laser white-light source

Table 5.1: Apparatus for the Michelson interferometer experiment. the interferometer.1 Keep one polarizer xed and rotate the other polarizer. It will be seen that no interference fringes occur when the transmission axes of the polarizers are orthogonal. On the other hand, sharp fringes with good contrast are produced when the transmission axes are parllel.

5.2

Experimental Procedure
Make at least three measurements of each quantity and then determine the average and the standard deviation of that quantity.

A simple technique for adjusting the angles of mirrors M1 and M2 is to look into the output port of the interferometer while holding a thin object like a mechanical pencil between a white-light or sodium light source and the input port of the interferometer. Ghost images of the object will be seen unless the mirrors are aligned correctly. Be sure to place the tip of the object in the middle of the eld of view.

5.2.1

Wavelength of HeNe Laser

In this step of the experiment, we use a HeNe laser as the light source, casting the fringes formed by the interferometer onto the wall or perhaps a sheet of some sort. DO NOT LOOK DIRECTLY INTO THE INTERFEROMETER ITSELF. These fringes are distinct enough that they may be counted as the path length of the Michelson interferometer is changed. While one person carefully turns the micrometer to move mirror M1 a distance DHeNe, the other person counts the number of fringes NHeNe that either collapse into the central bright
1

If the source produces polarized light you may need only one polarizer.

52

CHAPTER 5. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

spot or grow out from it. These data are recorded in Table 5.2, which includes entries for the initial and nal locations of the mirror M1 . Insert a linear polarizer in each arm. Keep one polarizer xed and rotate the other polarizer until a fringe pattern with good contrast is obtained. Record this position of the polarizer. Rotate this polarizer slowly and notice the brightness of the fringe pattern. When the fringe pattern vanishes record the polarizer reading. Compute the angular separation between the two positions of the polarizer. Explain your observations. Estimate the coherence length of the laser by moving one mirror and nding the distance at which fringes disappear.

5.2.2

Wavelength of Sodium D Lines

Next we use the sodium discharge lamp as a light source. Light from sodium lamp consists of two closely spaced wavelengths. We will determine the dierence between the two wavelengths. First we determine the average wavelength. Translate the movable mirror until you get fringes with good contrast. This happens when the minimum (or the maximum) of the two fringe patterns coincide at the center. Determine the average wavelength by counting, say 50, fringes that disappear at the center and recording the corresponding mirror displacement. Wavelength is then given by Eq. (1). To determine the wavelength dierence between the two sodium D lines measure the distance LNa between the fringe visibility minima as described in Sec. 5.1. Note that the eld of view will be evenly illuminated when the visibility of the fringes is at a minimum. Fringe visibility maxima correspond to the most distinct fringes. It is easier to determine when the eld of view is free of fringes than it is to decide when the fringes are most distinct. While looking into the output port of the interferometer, carefully rotate the micrometer until you recognize a fringe visibility minimum. Record the micrometer setting in Table 5.4 and then translate mirror M1 until you arrive at a second minimum, record that mirror position, and repeat for a third and nal time. Now you may determine a value for LNa using these three mirror positions. Repeat this procedure for a total of three trials, and then determine the average and standard deviation of LNa . Using the formulae given in Sec. 5.1, determine D2 and compare it with the accepted value 589.0 nm. Estimate the coherence length of the sodium lamp.

5.3. EXPERIMENTAL DATA

53

5.3

Experimental Data trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 average std dev

initial M1 nal M1 dHeNe NHeNe HeNe

Table 5.2: Wavelength of HeNe laser. The number of fringes N that pass by when mirror M1 is displaced by d allows a determination the wavelength via = 2d/N.

trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 average std dev Initial setting Pi Final setting Pf Angular separation |Pf Pi|
Table 5.3: Polarization dependence of interference. The coherence length of the laser was found to be
c

54

CHAPTER 5. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 average std dev min1 min2 min3 dNa NNa D2
Table 5.4: Wavelength of Sodium D lines. Distances dNa separating fringe visibility minima are recorded. Then NNa = 2LNa /D1 .