CHIN.PHYS.LETT. Vol. 25, No.

10 (2008) 3834

Viscous Dark Energy Models with Variable G and Λ

Arbab I. Arbab∗∗
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Khartoum, PO Box 321, Khartoum 11115, Sudan
Department of Physics and Applied Mathematics, Faculty of Applied Sciences and Computer, Omdurman Ahlia
University, PO Box 786, Omdurman, Sudan

(Received 27 May 2008)

We consider a cosmological model with bulk viscosity η and variable cosmological Λ ∝ ρ−α , alpha = const and
gravitational G constants. The model exhibits many interesting cosmological features. Inflation proceeds du
to the presence of bulk viscosity and dark energy without requiring the equation of state p = −ρ. During the
inflationary era the energy density ρ does not remain constant, as in the de-Sitter type. Moreover, the cosmological
and gravitational constants increase exponentially with time, whereas the energy density and viscosity decrease
exponentially with time. The rate of mass creation during inflation is found to be very huge suggesting that all
matter in the universe is created during inflation.

PACS: 98. 80. −k, 98. 80. Es, 98. 80. Cq, 04. 20. Jb, 04. 50. Kd

The present acceleration of the universe as mological constant Λ,

favoured by the supernovae data can be explained by ∫
1 √
hypothizing some exotic matter dominated the present S=− d4 x g(R + 2Λ) + Smatter . (1)
16πG
universe evolution that breaks the strong energy con-
dition, viz., p + 3ρ ≥ 0.[1,2] One variant of this exotic The variation of the metric with respect to gµν with
matter is the one violates the null energy condition, f (R) = R − 2Λ gives[12]
viz., p + ρ > 0. Such exotic matter can be modelled 1
f 0 (R)Rµν − f (R)gµν = −8πGTµν , (2)
by a scalar field as a dark energy having an equation 2
of state p > −ρ or a phantom with an equation of where Tµν is the energy momentum tensor of the cos-
state p < −ρ.[3] The phantom scalar field can be mo- mic fluid.
tivated by S-brane arising in string theory.[4,5] More- For an ideal fluid one has
over, phantom fields are introduced by bulk viscosity
(η) effects that are equivalent to replacing the pressure Tµν = (ρ + p)uµ uν + pgµν , (3)
p by an effective pressure, viz., peff. = p − 3ηH, where where uµ , ρ and p are the velocity, density and pres-
H is the Hubble constant. Viscous effects in an ex- sure of the cosmic fluid.
panding universe are connected with dissipations that Contracting Eq. (2), using Eq. (3) and taking its 00
are attributed to creation of energy (matter) in the components give the equations
universe.
Several authors suggested that the bulk viscosity Rf 0 (R) − 2f (R) + 8πGT = 0, (4)
can drive the universe into a period of exponential ex- 1
f 0 (R)R00 + f (R) + 8πGT00 = 0, (5)
pansion (inflation).[6−9] This is really the case, as the 2
effect of bulk viscosity in an expanding universe is to with T00 = ρ, T = ρ−3p and Tij = −p for i, j = 1, 2, 3.
decrease the pressure making the total pressure neg- For a flat Friedmann–Lematre–Robertson–Walker
ative. Inflation can also be induced by higher order metric,
corrections.[10] In scalar field, inflation stopped by the ( )
slow roll-down of the scalar field from the false vacuum ds2 = dt2 − a2 (t) dr2 + r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 ) ,
to the true vacuum. In this work, we investigate the ( ä ) (( ȧ )2 ä )
effect of coupling of gravity with vacuum and viscos- one has R00 = −3 and R = −6 + , where
a a a
ity. Provided that a certain conspiracy is maintained, a is the scale factor, so that Eqs. (4) and (5) yield
the evolution of the universe can proceed in an attrac- ( ȧ )2
tive way. We have found that such a recipe is possible 3 = 8π Gρ + Λ, (6)
a
and leads to interesting features related to the cosmic ( ä )
evolution. Inflation is triggered by the vacuum energy 3 = − 4π G(ρ + 3p) + Λ, (7)
a
bulk viscosity cooperation. This work generalizes our
and the energy conservation equation reads
recent model of phantom and dark energy models.[11] ( ȧ )
Consider the Einstein-Hilbert action with a cos- ρ̇ + 3 (ρ + p) = 0. (8)
a
∗∗ Email:aiarbab@uofk.edu
°
c 2008 Chinese Physical Society and IOP Publishing Ltd
No. 10 Arbab I. Arbab 3835

The pressure p and energy density ρ of an ideal fluid so that

ȧ
are related by the equation of state, = Ka−3(1+ω)(n−α) , (20)
a
p = ωρ, ω = const. (9) N A(n−α)
where K = − , ω 6= −1. Substituting it in
3 (1 + ω)
The Einstein field equation, with time-dependent G Eq. (13) and using Eq. (14), one reaches
and Λ, then yields two independent equations (6) and
(7) having the same form as in the standard model. a = Dt1/3(1+ω)(n−α) , (21)
Hence, we can now allow Λ and G to vary with time,
where D = A1/3(1+ω) [−N (n−α)]1/3(1+ω)(n−α) , n 6= α.
i.e., Λ = Λ(t) and G = G(t). Thought such ansatz
Substituting the above equation into Eq. (16), one
breaks Lorentz invariance, energy and momentum are
finds
formally conserved. In an expanding isotropic and ho-
mogenous universe, such ansatz is admissible, since all ρ = [−N (n − α)]−1/(n−α) t−1/(n−α) , n 6= α (22)
cosmic variables are time-dependent only.
The Bianchi identity so Eq. (15) becomes

1 Λ = 3β[−N (n − α)]α/(n−α) tα/(n−α) , n 6= α. (23)

(Rµν − Rg µν ); µ = −(8πGT µν + Λg µν ); µ = 0, (10)
2
Eq. (18) now reads
with Eqs. (2) and (3) implying that C
G= [−N (n − α)](1+α)/(n−α)
ȧ Λ̇ 8π
Gρ̇ + 3(p + ρ)G + ρĠ +
a 8π
= 0. (11) · t(1+α)/(n−α) , n 6= α. (24)

Bulk viscosity can be introduced in a uniform perfect Our present model can be compared with the Brans–
fluid by replacing the pressure term p by an effective Dicke (BD) theory in which the gravitational constant
pressure, peff defined by 4 + 2ωD 1
is related to the scalar function φ as G = ,
3 + 2ωD φ
peff. = p − 3ηH, (12) where ωD defines a coupling between the scalar field
2+2ωD
and gravity.[13] Accordingly, one has a ∝ t 4+3ωD and
where η is the coefficient of bulk viscosity. This is −
2
normally modelled by the relation G ∝ t 4+3ωD . Notice that a comparison with BD
model reveals that
η = η0 ρn , n, η0 = const. (13) [ (2n + 2) ]
α=− 1+ .
2 + 3ωD
Applying Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) and using Eq. (8), one
obtains[7] This means that the BD model is equivalent to a bulk
8π Ġρ + Λ̇ = 9η(8πG)H 2 . (14) viscous model with a cosmological constant varying
as Λ ∝ ρ−α . Or conversely, our model is equivalent
We consider here the ansatz
to the BD model where the scalar field is given by
3 + 2ωD 1
Λ = 3β/ρα β, α = const. (15) φ= , where G is given by Eq. (24). Notice
4 + 2ωD G
α
−
Integrating Eq. (11), using Eq. (12), we obtain also that one can write Λ ∝ φ 1+α . It is therefore
interesting to see that our model is equivalent to the
ρ = Aa−3(1+ω) , A = const. (16) BD model with a cosmological constant of the form
shown above.
Using Eqs. (6) and (15), Eq. (14) reads Now we consider the following cases:
( ρ̇ ) Case 1. Now let n = α/2 where −1 < α < 0 and
Ġ 3αβ
− = 3η0 ρn (8πGρ + 3βρ−α ). (17) 1 + ω > 0. In this case, Eqs. (21) and (22) reduce to
G 8πGρ(α+1) ρ
a ∝ t−2/3α(1+ω) , ρ ∝ t2/α , (25)
Now consider the following functional dependence of
the gravitational constant and Eqs. (23), (24) and (13) yield

8πG = Cρ−(α+1) , C = const. (18) G ∝ t−2(1+α)/α , Λ ∝ t−2 , η ∝ t, (26)

Eqs. (17) and (18) imply that where C > 3β > 0, i.e., G > 0. These represent
the viscous analogue of the dark energy model.[11] . In
3Cη0 (C + 3β) particular, a viscous cosmological model with Λ ∝ H 2
ρ̇ = N ρn−α+1 , N =− , (19) is equivalent to a viscous dark energy model with
C(1 + α) + 3αβ
3836 Arbab I. Arbab
Λ ∝ ρ−α if narb. = 1 + α/2, where narb is the in-
dex of viscosity in Ref. [7]. Moreover, we have shown
that the variation Λ ∝ H 2 is equivalent to Λ ∝ ρ.[14]
Case 2. Now let α > 0 and n < α. In this case,
Eq.(22) implies that one has a phantom energy so-
lution where the energy density increases with time.
However, since the scale factor is an increasing func-
tion of time, Eq. (21) with the condition n < α im-
plies that 1 + ω < 0. Since N > 0, one requires here
C < 0 so that G < 0, and for β > 0 one has Λ > 0.
This solution is found by Ref. [11] and the above so-
lution represents its viscous analogue. It is clear here
that though the energy density increases, gravity (de-
creases) and viscosity (increase) conspire not to allow
the phantom energy density to dominate.
We notice from Eq. (20) that when n = α > 0, we
obtain
ȧ Cη0 (C + 3β) 1 bulk viscosity and decreasing gravitational constant
=K= . (27)
a C(1 + α) + 3αβ (1 + ω)
This implies that
a = Γ exp(Kt), Γ = const, (28)
where K > 0, for 1 + ω > 0. Equations (16) yields
ρ ∝ exp[−3K(1 + ω)t], (29)
so that Eqs. (15) and (18) become
Λ ∝ exp[3αK(1 + ω)t],
G ∝ exp[3K(1 + ω)(1 + α)t], (30)
and the bulk viscosity, Eq. (13),
η ∝ exp[−3αK(1 + ω)t]. (31)
Notice, however, during inflation ω 6= −1 as evident
from Eq. (24). This is unlike the standard case where
inflation requires ω = −1. It is also remarkable that
the cosmological constant during inflation increases
exponentially with time, whereas the energy density
decreases exponentially with time. Whatever the ini-
tial value of the cosmological constant before inflation,
its value at the end of inflation will be enormously
large. This may explain why Λ was large in the very
early universe, as suggested from particle physics con-
siderations. The universe exited from inflation due to
the huge growth of the gravitational force that halts
the exponential expansion. Thereafter, the universe
enters a radiation dominated phase. The large de-
crease of the bulk viscosity during the inflationary era
has allowed the universe to isotropize, and eventually
led to the isotropic and homogenous universe we ob-
serve today. In the standard de-Sitter model the infla-
tionary expansion is led by the cosmological constant
Vol. 25
(Λ), where the energy density stays constant. We no-
tice from Eqs. (28) and (29) that the mass created (an-
nihilated) during inflation is M ∝ ρa3 ∝ exp(−3Kωt).
However, since ω > −1, one has for −1 < ω < 0, a
positive mass creation rate. Hence, one would pre-
sume that all matter constituting the universe mass
was produced during inflation.
It is remarkable to notice that inflation is induced
by dark energy only. Thus, dark energy played an
important role by driving the early universe into an
exponential expansion, and the present universe into
a accelerated expansion. Hence, the existence of dark
energy is very crucial to the evolution of the universe.
In summary, we have studied the effect of bulk vis-
cosity on the evolution of dark matter and phantom
energies. We have shown that non-viscous dark matter
models are equivalent to viscous ones. The increasing
do not allow the phantom energy density to conden-
sate. During inflationary era the universe isotropizes
and the cosmological constant attained a vary large
value. After inflation the cosmological constant de-
creases with time quadratically (e.g., for n = α/2).
This evolution provides a viable mechanism for the
smallness of the present cosmological constant, i.e.,
why today the cosmological constant is vanishingly
small compared with its inial value!
I am grateful to the Swedish International Devel-
opment Agency (SIDA) for providing financial sup-
port for my visit to Abdus Salam International Cen-
ter for Theoretical Physics, Trieste, Italy, where this
work was carried out.
I would like to thank the referees for their critical
comments.
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