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Epithermal Au-Ag
Products of large-scale hydrothermal convective systems driven by magmatic heat in the upper 1-6 km of the Earths crust. The term epithermal was coined by Lindgren (1922, 1933). Subdivision into:
1. high-sulfidation (alunite-kaolinite or acid sulfate), 2. low-sulfidation (adularia-sericite), [3. hot spring deposits]

Low-sulfidation Deposits

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Midas, Nevada

High-sulfidation and low-sulfidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits

The two deposit styles form from fluids of distinctly different chemical composition in contrasting volcanic environments. The ore of HS deposits is hosted by leached silicic rock associated with acidic fluids generated in the volcanichydrothermal environment. The presence of high sulfidation state sulfide minerals indicates high-oxidation states typical of acidic hypogene fluids. In contrast, the fluid responsible for formation of LS ore veins is similar to waters tapped by drilling beneath hot springs into geothermal systems; low sulfidation state minerals form from those reduced, neutral-pH waters.

Low Sulfidation Deposits

chloride waters acid sulfate steam-heated boiling springs, silica sinter waters mud pools, fumaroles CO2-rich steamheated waters cold groundwaters recharge
250C
300C
C 200

Magmatic heat source (plus volatiles?) Meteoric convection Peripheral bicarbonate waters Steam-heated acid sulfate waters

Neutral chloride LS waters

400C

2 km

2 km

Magma

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High Sulfidation Deposits

acid sulfate waters solfatara crater lake

Magmatic heat and volatile source Acid alteration in upflow & lateral outflow zones Volcanism may disrupt or destroy hydrothermal system

200C 300C 400C

acid chloride waters / brines

300C

2 km

2 km

Magma

Giant Epithermal Deposits

Cripple Creek Yanacocha Baguio Pueblo Viejo Porgera Ladolam

Low sulfidation deposits High sulfidation deposits

Pascua-Lama
Round Mountain El Indio Comstock Lode McDonald Hishikari Pachuca-Real Waihi Kelian Pierina Modified after Sillitoe, 1997

200

400

600

800

Au (t)

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Selected styles and geometries of epithermal deposits

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Ore Deposition
Low sulfidation Boiling is the principle mechanism Mixing occurs during collapse of the system High sulfidation Unequivocal evidence for mixing at some deposits Boiling is a viable mechanism for deposits where gold is transported as a bisulfide complex

Depositional Mechanisms
Boiling leading to loss of H2S
Au(HS)2- + H+ + 0.5H2 <> Au + 2H2S

Mixing with oxidized meteoric water

Au(HS)2- + 8H2O <> Au + 2SO42- + 3H+ + 7.5H2

Dilution of saline fluid destabilizing Clcomplexes (AuCl2-) and raising pH

Electrum, tellurides & base metal sulfides, Acupan, Phillipines

General characteristics of epithermal gold deposits associated with subaerial volcanic rocks Low Suldation High Suldation
Open-space veins dominant, stockwork ore common Disseminated and replacement ore minor Veins, cavity filling (bands, colloforms, druses), breccias Pyrite, electrum, gold, sphalerite, galena (arsenopyrite) Quartz, chalcedony, calcite, adularia, illite, carbonates KAlSi3O8 Au, Ag, Zn, Pb (Cu, Sb, As, Hg, Se) Disseminated ore dominant, replacement ore common Stockwork ore minor, veins commonly subordinate Wallrock replacement, breccias, veins Pyrite, enargite, chalcopyrite, tennanite, covellite, gold, tellurides Quartz, alunite, barite, kaolinite, pyrophyllite KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6 Cu, Au, Ag, As (Pb, Hg, Sb, Te, Sn, Mo, Bi)

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Alteration characteristics of epithermal gold deposits

Low sulfidation alteration
near-neutral pH thermal waters Core : ore vein Halo : smectite, illite, adularia (argillic alteration)

High sulfidation alteration

acidic pH thermal waters Core : most acid altered rock is a silica residue, termed vuggy quartz Halo: acid stable minerals such as alunite, dickite, pyrophyllite, diaspore (advanced argillic alteration assemblage) Outwards: illite/smectite (propyllitic alteration assemblage)

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Midas Bladed Calcite

Temperature stability of hydrothermal minerals Alunite:

KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6

Jarosite:
KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6

Schematic cross-section showing the main features of a hot-springs sub-type epithermal deposit.

Frequency and abundance of ore and gangue minerals in Aurich epithermal deposits

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Solubility of Au, Ag, Zn as a function of S and Cl concentrations at pH and redox of LS mineral assemblages. Clpoor solutions typical of Aurich LS ore deposits transport Au as bisulfide complexes, but cannot transport much chloridecomplexed base metals.

Broadlands Geothermal Fluids

Low-Sulfidation Systems

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High-Sulfidation Systems

HS Deposits - Genesis
ALTERATION ORE DEPOSITION

A
0 (km)
Cool meteoric water
Acid sulfate water with low Au solubility

Fumaroles

B1
Ores Alteration envelope
Absorption of high-P vapor produces reduced, acid low salinity water with high Au solubilities as AuHSaq) (

B2

300

Mixing with shallow meteoric water

Meteoric water transports gold as AuHS(aq)??

1
Magmatic vapors (incl. SO, HCl) 2

400 Heated groundwater

Alteration Vuggy quartz Alunite Kaolinite Sericite K-silicate

Heated ground-water convective cell

Acid brine transports gold as AuCl2- ??

Heated ground-water

Magmatic brine

Gas phase metal transport

Magmatic brine

Modified after Arribas, 1995; & White, 1991