Bryant Scharenbroch Introduction to Soil Science ACCA & The Morton Arboretum
Today
Alkalinity, salinity, sodicity Review questions: Chapter 10: 5, 6, and 11 Review article: Savin et al. 2004 (Sarah) Laboratory exercise: pH and EC
Next time
Soil Ecology Review questions: Chapter 11: 6, 7, and 9 Review article: Gregorich et al. 2006 (Kevin) Laboratory exercise: CEC
Arid soils
Islands of fertility
Restitution Organisms Wind traps SOM Nutrients Aggregation Surface biopores infiltration
NPP
(serc.carlton.edu)
Desert pavement
Thin (single) layer of rock fragments (coarse gravel to cobbles) via wind erosion or shrink-swell and uplifting >65% surface coverage is considered desert pavement Provides protection from wind erosion and traps additional soil particles Increased pavement = decreased infiltration Impacts plant water availability and salt leaching Creates water sinks (high infiltration and low runoff) Creates water sources (low infiltration and high runoff)
(USGS)
Microbial crusts
Thick, dark, jagged coating Algae, fungi, and cyanobacteria Fragile Reduce wind and water erosion Rough types increase infiltration Smooth types decrease infiltration
(serc.carlton.edu)
Calcium-rich layers
Cl: Low precipitation P: Calcareous soil materials (with free Ca carbonates) Conditions may induce P or micronutrient deficiency Cementation (e.g., petrocalcic or duripans) Depth of calcic and gypsic horizons determined by depth of leaching
Stony Gypsisol, Israel, with desert pavement; a massive petrogypsic horizon occurs near to the surface (Yermi-Epipetric Gypsisol)
Saline seeps
Emergence of saline groundwater via cultivation
Removal of deep-rooted plants Reduced EVT
Increased percolation
Alkaline soils
Alkalinity
EVT > PPT Accumulation of cations (K, Na, Ca, and Mg) released from weathering Base cations are non-hydrolyzing and do not produce H upon reacting with water like Fe or Al (pH 7) pH > 7 as a result of OH reactions Hydroxyl generating anions carbonate (CO32-) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) from calicite of carbonic acid react with water to form OH ions, thus increase pH Reactions go to left with increasing biological activity and to the right with increasing calcite dissolution
Insoluble at high pH Often requires irrigation and chelation Systemic or foliar application
Tree Fe deficiencies
Arborjet
http://www.canr.msu.edu/vanburen/ffc14.jpg
B, Mo, and Cu
Inner-sphere complexation of B increases with pH Mo availability increases with pH to toxic levels Molybdenosis in ruminant animals as a result of high Mo and low Cu
Dissolved Ca and Mg ions constrain dissolution of P carrying minerals Soluble P reacts with Ca to form insoluble Ca-P Fungi, bacteria, and Brassica plants excrete organic acids to dissolve Ca-P
http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/ikmp/images/F05790a.GIF
Soil clay particles can be unattached to one another (dispersed) or clumped together (flocculated) in aggregates. Soil aggregates are cemented clusters of sand, silt, and clay particles. Dispersed Particles Flocculated Particles
Flocculation is important because water moves mostly in large pores between aggregates. Also, plant roots grow mainly between aggregates.
In all but the sandiest soils, dispersed clays plug soil pores and impede water infiltration and soil drainage.
Most clay particles have a negative electrical charge. Like charges repel, so clay particles repel one another.
A cation is a positively charged molecule. Common soil cations include sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+), and calcium (Ca2+). Cations can make clay particles stick together (flocculate).
+
Negatively charged clay particle Negatively charged clay particle
Cations with a single charge and large hydrated radii are the poorest flocculators. Cation Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calcium Charges per molecule 1 1 2 2 Hydrated radius (nm) 0.79 0.53 1.08 0.96 Relative flocculating power 1.0 1.7 27.0 43.0
(Jim Walworth, U. Ariz)
Aggregate stability (dispersion and flocculation) depends on the balance (SAR) between (Ca2+ and Mg2+) and Na+ as well as the amount of soluble salts (EC) in the soil.
Ca2+ and Mg2+
+
++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Na+
+ + + + + +
SAR
EC
Lower EC
Higher EC
Flocculated soil
Dispersed soil
(Jim Walworth, U. Ariz)
Soil particles will flocculate if concentrations of (Ca2+ + Mg2+) are increased relative to the concentration of Na+ (SAR is decreased).
+ +
Na+
+
SAR
EC
Flocculated soil
Dispersed soil
(Jim Walworth, U. Ariz)
Soil particles will disperse if concentrations of (Ca2+ + Mg2+) are decreased relative to the concentration of Na+ (SAR is increased).
Na+
SAR
+ + + +
+ +
EC
Flocculated soil
Dispersed soil
(Jim Walworth, U. Ariz)
Soil particles will flocculate if the amount of soluble salts in the soil is increased (increased EC), even if there is a lot of sodium.
+
Na+
+ + + + + +
SAR
EC
Lower EC
Higher EC
Flocculated soil
Dispersed soil
(Jim Walworth, U. Ariz)
Soil particles may disperse if the amount of soluble salts in the soil is decreased (i.e. if EC is decreased).
Na+
SAR
+
EC
Lower EC
Higher EC
Flocculated soil
Dispersed soil
(Jim Walworth, U. Ariz)
Salinization
What is salinization?
Salinization
Processes that result in the accumulation of neutral soluble salts PPT/EVT of 0.75 Low, flat areas and high water tables Soluble salts (chlorides and sulfates of Ca, Mg, Na, and K) from weathering are moved from wetter to drier areas (up profile and across landscape) Salts are left as water evaporates
Salinization
16 million ha (increasing 10% annually) 1/3 of US arid soils are salt impacted
Soluble salts
Neutral salts (CaSO4, Na2SO4, NaCl, and CaCl2) will tend to lower pH by moderating alkalizing reactions due to the common ion effect A salt will be less soluble if one of its constituent ions is already present in the solution More common ions will reduce dissolution of carbonates
EC
Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity, and conductivity increases with salts Electrical conductivity is an indirect measure of salt EC > 2 dS m-1 will adversely affect sensitive plants EC > 4 dS m-1 will adversely affect most plants
Electromagnetic induction
Measures electrical current in the body of soil, related to EC, thus salt Magnetic field is generated and generated currents are measured Measures to depth and without disturbance
Exchangeable Na percentage
Relates Na on CEC ESP = exchangeable Na (cmolc kg-1) x 100 CEC (cmolc kg-1) ESP > 15 are associated with deteriorated soil physical properties
SAR
The ratio of bad to good flocculators gives an indication of the relative status of these cations:
+ + +
+ +
+ +
Na+
++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
Infiltration, aggregate stability, and aeration are not problematic Referred to as white alkali soils, due to white salt crust
Saline-sodic soils
EC of > 4 dS m-1 ESP of > 15 (SAR < 13) Plant growth hindered by salts and Na Intermediate dispersion, infiltration, aggregate stability, and aeration But, neutral salts contribute cations that move in close to CEC, thus reducing dispersion If soils are leached of salts, they will become sodic
L. MacDougal
Hydraulic conductivity
Readiness of water movement KSAT is so low for sodic soils that infiltration rate is zero
Puddling
Low salt concentration and high Na content will encourage dispersion and increase puddling
De-icing salts
Impact is usually temporary as long as drainage is adequate KCl or sand are better options than NaCl
Leaching ratio
Leaching ratio indicates minimum amount of water to be leached through wet soil and meet plant EVT needs; it is multiplied by the water added If EC in water is high (high ECiw) and the plant has a low salt tolerance (low ECdw); it will require more water to leach LR = ECiw / ECdw Leaching ratio is figured from a salt balance (Siw + Sp + Sf + Sm = Siw + Sp + Sf + Sm) (irrigation water, deposition, fertilizers, mineral weathering = drainage water, crop removal, chemical precipitation of carbonates and sulfates)
Reducing Na
Replace with Ca (gypsum, tons ha-1) Deep-rooted plants will increase gypsum percolation
Reducing Na
S yielding sulfuric acid, changes sodium bicarbonate to leachable sodium sulfate and also decrease pH
For 6.5 cmolc/kg: 0.86g/cmolc x 6.5 cmolc = 5.6g CaSO4 2H2O/kg soil Express gypsum needed for 1 hectare 30 cm deep: One hectare 15 cm deep weighs 2 x 106 kg 5.6g gypsum/kg x 4 x 106 kg/hectare = 22.4 x 106g gypsum/ha This is 22.4 x 103 kg/ha or 22.4 Mg gypsum/ha