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1.

INTRODUCTION

According to snack food folk lore, the potato chip was invented in 1853 by a chef named George Crum at a restaurant called Moons Lake House in Saratoga Spring, New York. Angered when a customer, some sources say it was none other than Cornelius Vanderbilt, returned his french fried potatoes to the kitchen for being too thick, Crum sarcastically shaved them paper thin and sent the plate back out. The customer, whoever he was, and others around him, loved the thin potatoes. Crum soon opened his own restaurant across the lake and his policy of not taking reservations did not keep the customers from standing in line to taste his potato chips. Potatoes are the fourth most important vegetable crop in the world and the main utilization of processed potatoes includes table stock (31%), frozen French fries (30%), chips and shoestrings (12%) and dehydrated items (12%) (Miranda and Aguilera, 2006). Potatoes are grown in approximately 80% of all countries and worldwide production stands in excess of 300 million tons/year, a figure exceeded only by wheat, maize and rice. As the eating habits of consumers have become more sophisticated, much attention on has been given to the quality of fried and dehydrated food which is greatly affected by process and/or storage induced changes. Chemical composition of potato varies with cultivar, location of growth, agricultural practices, maturity at harvest and subsequent storage history, among others. Potatoes are mainly made up of water (~75% on average). Starch, comprising 65-80% of the dry matter content of the potato tuber, is calorically the most important nutritional component. The composition of potato starch is about 21% amylase, 75% amylopectin, 0.1% protein and 0.08% phosphorus. The content of reducing sugars is closely related to the final color and acrylamide formation of the fried potatoes. The two main factors that influence the sugar content of potatoes during post-harvest storage are variety and storage temperature. For frying, potatoes with high solids content (20-22%) are preffered, because they result in better texture, higher yields and lower oil absorption in the finished product (Lesinska and Leszczynski, 1989).

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POTATO CHIP MANUFACTURE

The unit operations in manufacturing potato chips are shown as below. Each is a saparate and important step, and has specific parameters with which the operator must be familiar to produce high-quality and uniform chips. Receiving and Grading

When potatoes are delivered at the chip plant, the receiving clerk should examine the truck or trail car for the condition of the vehicle and the overall condition of the load. Acceptability of the potatoes should be ascertained by: I. II. III. IV. Determining the pulp temperature. Examing the condition of the load for freezing injury, off-odors, cleanliness of the potatoes including freedom from soil, sporouts, and the soundness, appearance and general firmness of the tubers Noting if the vehicle is clean Sampling the load for quality evaluation by selecting, at random, three or more 10 to 25 lb samples.

Then the samples then should be evualated for specific gravity and graded for size and absence of external and internal defects. If all satisfactory, the load can be weighe in as an acceptable load for storage.

2.1

FLOW SHEET OF POTATO CHIPS PROCESSING

Destoning

Potatoes are destoned to remove any stones that may be in the load. Stones, cause serious damage to the equipment and problems in the slicing operation and typically are removed by floating the potatoes in the water, wherein the stones sink to the bottom and the tubers float. This may done with vertical screws or in riffle-type washers. Besides stones, metal, wood, plastic, and so on, must be removed. Usually, this is accomplished by visual inspection of the tubers on conveyor belts prior to the next operation.
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Peeling

Tubers may be peeled in batch machines or in continuous machines. They generally are peeled using carborundum rolls or with brushes depending on the age of the tuber. Washing, Sorting and Trimming

These unit operations are important for producing clean potatoes free from defects before slicing. Some manufacturers now use electronic sorters ahead of the slicer to remove off quality potatoes. By removing defective slices ahead of the fryer, energy and oil; are saved and cooking efficiency in improved. Slicing

Without doubt, this is the most important operation in a potato plant. Efficient slicing produces clean slices with no feathered edges or torn pieces. Good slices adsorb less oil and do not leave potato pieces in the oil, which hastens its breakdown. Washing Potato Slices

By taking the wash water temperature up to 180F (82C), with a dwell time of 30 seconds and 250-330 ppm hardness to wash the potato chip. So, the chip will taste more like a cooked potato and have a firmer texture. The slices may be blown dry with air knives to remove excess water prior to entering the fryer. The ''knives'' may be above and below the slices for maximum water removal before cooking. Alternatively, the slices may be shaken or vibrated to remove as much moisture as possible before entering the fryer.
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Drying and/or Frying

This unit operation is in evolution because the oil content of the finished ship is a significant concern to some customers who concern about low-fat or no-fat chips. Drying by itself or partial drying prior to frying is being used. Drying takes much more time and the resultant product is very mealy with little or no flavor other than dried potato flavor but the colour and moisture content of the chips enable easier to be controlled. To control the oil content of potato chips exist and should be exploited as many in the industry are doing. Generally, chip manufacturers control the oil content of their chips by: I. II. III. Carefully selecting varieties/cultivars that are high in total solids content. Slicing thick with less potato surface area for oil absorption. Using higher temperature and shorter dwell time in the fryer.

The types of frying oils used in a separate chapter dedicated to this subject. Each type of oil imparts different flavors to the chips, and some manufacturers specify the oil species because the market they have developed demands that type of oil flavor. Some manufacturers always use blends to keep the flavor more neutral and be more flexible when purchasing oils in the commodity market. Dried chips develop off-flavors more quickly than fried chips unless they are blanched before drying. A hot water blanch just before drying is acceptable. Inspection

Chips are inspected following the frying/drying operation to remove discolored, burned, or defective chips. Now, electronic equipment is available to ''kick out'' the defects-- the off-colored or unsuitable chips. The advantage of electronic inspection is that equipment works all the time without tiring, and is as effective as management wants it to be by appropriate adjustment. Salting and Seasoning

The most important characteristic of any snack food is the taste of the finished product. The objective is to give customers the consistent product they expect every time. Salt is the least costly of all the ingredients and is used to enhance the flavor of the chips. Generally, chips are salted directly from the fryer to take advantage of the hot oil for binding the salt crystals to the chip. The Snack Food Association has recommended a salt level of 1.75% plus or minus 0.25%. The seasoning is applied topically in rotary drums or sprinkled on top like salt is applied.
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Packaging and Casing

Most snacks are packaged on form, fill and seal machines using multilaminated bags for given regions of the world. Metalized foil is a prominent type of package. Selection of the packaging material should be based on the contempted shelf life of the product. Long shelf life ( >10 weeks) requires lowmoisture/ vapour proof films. All packages should be properly filled, sealed and cooled. The bag should be full and may be gassed packed using an inert gas(nitrogen) to prolong the keeping quality of the chips while in marketing channels. All packages snacks should be properly coded with the pull date (or last date of sale) included. The code is to protect the manufacturer as well as the customer and detailed information may prove very helpful. The last check in the operation is at the case to improve and facilitate handling practices. Nevertheless, they should be handled with tender, loving care to prevent breakage and retain product quality. Warehouse

Packaged chips are placed in warehouse to await shipment to distribution centers or stores. Warehoused chips should be handled with care, and first-infirst-out (FIFO) practice should be followed. Warehouse for holding the chips should be operated at or below temperatures to prevent shortening their shelf life.

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NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION
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Serving size: 28g Serving per package: 5.7 Energy Protein Fat - monosaturated fatty acid - polyunsaturated fatty acid - saturated fatty acid - trans fatty acid Cholesterol Carbohydrate - total sugars Dietary Fibre Sodium Potassium Per 100g 517 kcal (2164 kJ) 8.8 g 27.5 g 12.0 g 3.0 g 12.6 g 0g 0 mg 58.5 g 2.7 g 4.8 g 611 mg 668 mg Per Serving 145 kcal (606 kJ) 2.5 g 7.7 g 3.4 g 0.8 g 3.5 g 0g 0 mg 16.4 g 0.7 g 1.4 g 171 mg 187 mg

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FOOD QUALITY DURING PROCESSING Quality Control of Potato Chips

The quality of potato chips is dependent on the specific gravity of the raw potato, the quality (peroxide value and free fatty acid content) of the oil used in frying, proper salt and seasoning, and the MVTR (moisture vapor transmission rate) of the package. Auditing the finished product for moisture content, oil content, colour, texture and flavor is a basic requirement. Evaluation of the seal integrity and gas content of the package also required. Good- quality manfactured potato chips have shelf life of 10 weeks plus or minus 2 weeks depending on storage temperatures, packing materials and/or exposure to direct light. Store-shelf sampling in the market place is a must to ensure the quality of the product that reaches the customer. Customers must given what they expect under any given label all the time. Most of the desirable characteristics of fried foods are derived from the information of a composite structure: a dry, porous, crisp and oily outer layer or crust, and a moist cooked interior or core. The crust is the result of several alterations that mainly occur at the cellular and sub-cellular level, and are located in the outermost layers of the product. Deep-fat frying can be defined as well as the process of drying and cooking through contact with hot oil (Sahin et al., 1999). High heat transfer rates are largely responsible for the development of the desired sensorial properties in fried products (Hubbard
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and Farkas, 1999). Although the data are still inconclusive, it appears that longer times and lower frying temperatures lead to higher final oil contents in fried potato products. At high temperatures (130C 200C) and for a short frying time (5 10 min), only the surface layer of fried food is affected. The inner layers are rarely heated up to 100C during the normal frying process. The main reaction of proteins is denaturation. Most proteins denature at temperatures lower than 100C, so the protein fraction denatures even in the inner layers. The most important intermediary products are Amadori products, called premelanoidins, which are colorless. They are rapidly transformed into brown melanoidins under frying temperature (higher that 150C). Melanoidins ar partially cleaved with formation of volatile products, imparting specific flavor notes to the fried food. Deep brown coloration of the crust is favorable in bakery products as it conveys crispness and crunchiness. In contrast, it considered negative in french fries or potato chips, particularly in the United States. Their production requires special potato cultivars with low glucose content. In some other countries, consumers prefer golden or reddish brown fried potato products because of their agreeable, appearance and a more intense flavor. Changes in starch are very important when raw potato products are fried. Starch granules are rapidly gelatinized upon contact with hot oil. The rigid structure of raw potatoes is lost in 1-2 min, and the fried chips become soft. On further heating, a firm crispy crust is formed on the surface of fried particles, which is highly appreciated by the consumer. On the surface of chips, where the water content is much lower than in internal layers, the gelatinization is not so intensive, so starch granules partially retain their crystalline structure. The digestibility of starch after frying is important from the point of view of nutrition. The digestible starch is easily cleaved with amylases, and digested in the small intestine. Various factors influencing fat intake during frying are: Frying temperature Duration of frying Moisture content of food, especially in the surface layer Type, size, and shape of food gel strength
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Porosity of food, particularly of surface layers Prefrying treatments such as predrying or application of batter Type and quality of frying oil, such as the content of polar lipids or surface-active substances (oxidation products).

Potatoes are the most frequently fried food. The loss of water and the oil uptake are irrelated in fried potato slices. They are both linear functions of the square root of frying time and independent of temperature in the range of 145C - 185C (Pokorny et al., 1993). The effect of drying and the limited content of solids were studied in frying potato slices of different thinknesses (Baumann and Escher, 1995). However, their losses are much lower during frying in oil, as they are soluble in oily only in small amounts. 5.0 5.1 CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES, PRESERVATIVES AND ADDITIVES INGREDIENTS

Dried potatoes, edible oil (refined, blenched, deodorized palm spices olein), tapioca starch, dextrose, salt, sugar, spices, contains monosodium glutamate (E621) as permitted flavour enhancer. 5.2 SNACK FOOD SEASONINGS

Seasoning manufacturers do not construct complicated ingredient declarations to confuse the competition, but rather to create great-tasting snacks with well-balanced flavor and appetizing visual appeal. To accomplish this, seasoning formulators develop complex blends of ingredients that provide multiple flavor sensations. Each ingredient in the formula serves a specific function to help achieve flavor and appearance characteristics that customers. Numerous flavor enhancers, including monosodium glutamate (MSG) and salt, are in the formula. These enhance the overall flavor impact of the seasoning and give a mouth-watering sensation that attracts the customer to eat more. A complex acid profile results from the addition of sodium diacetate, lactate acid, vinegar or citric acid. The acid complex enhances the sweet brown flavors described previously. Every selected ingredients determine how the flavor releases, what the after taste will be, and whether the seasoning into salt, fillers, spray-dried dairy and vegetable powders, spices, compound flavors, flavor enhancers, sweeteners, acids, colors and processing aids helps to develop an understanding of how seasonings are formulated for salty snacks. Tapioca starch
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Tapioca starch function as thickener and stabilizer in potato chips. It can withstand long cooking times without breaking down. Besides, potato chips made with tapioca dont lose their quality when frozen or reheated because tapioca retains its thickening capabilities throughout these processes. It's neutral tasting without affect the taste of potato chips and yet it thickens quickly, and at a relatively low temperature. Tapioca starch creates a perfectly smooth filling and imparts a high gloss for a tasty-looking potato chips. Salt

Salt is the key ingredient in salty snack seasoning. The main purpose of salt is to potentiate the overall flavor of the seasoning. Without salt, it would have a bland flavor and lack intensity. Salt may present in many spray-dried dairy powder, hydrolyzed vegetable proteins (HVP). Besides, salt perception is enhanced by the use of monosodium glutamate and some organic acids in potato chips. These factors should be considered when adjustments are made to the salt level. Spices

Spices is used in nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for flavor or as a preservative that kills harmful bacteria or prevents their growth. It may be used to flavour potato chips too. Fillers (Dextrose)

The fillers used in potato chips is dextrose. Dextrose also known as glucose, is monosaccharide and has a high glycemic index (digested carbohydrates ability to raise blood glucose levels, called as GI) ranking at 100. Formulators use fillers to adjust the application level of the seasoning to ensure desired coverage and flavour impact. Dextrose, when added to the formula, it also has a mouth-colling effect and effectively used in BBQ flavour MisterPotato chips.

Flavor enhancers (Monosodium glutamate)

The flavor enhancers in Misterpotato chips are monosodium glutamate and hydrolyzed vegetable protein. Monosodium glutamate E621, also known as sodium glutamate or MSG, is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, one of the most abundant naturally occurring non-essential amino acids. As a flavor and in the right amount, MSG has the ability to enhance other taste-active compounds balancing and rounding the overall taste of certain dishes.
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Processing Aids

The seasoning must flow freely and not contain agglomerated particles. Otherwise, the snack product will appear unevenly coated. Problems from ineffective use of processing aids include excessive seasoning fall-off, clogging of the equipment and frequent shutdown for cleaning. In potato chips, vegetable oil is used. It function to coat ingredient that are hydrophilic, thus reducing the tendency of these ingredients to absorb moisture. This prevents the ingredients from agglomerating or causing lumps in the blend. 6.0 BENEFITS OF PRESERVATIVES

Food preservatives is a process by which certain foods are prevented fron getting spoilt for a long preiod for a long period of time. The colour, taste and nutritive value of the food is also preserved. Artificial preservatives are a common ingredient in most foods. The popularity of using preservatives comes from busy consumers' lifestyles and the convenience of purchasing prepared food individuals do not need to preserve on their own. Artificial food preservatives have allowed consumers to enjoy foods from other parts of the nation and the world. Emulsifiers and stabilizers are artificial preservatives found in foods. They help foods continually have the same texture and prevent the ingredients from separating and "caking" (such as salt on potato chips or foods that contain both oil/fat and water). Understanding Food Additives explains that molecules in emulsifiers have a part that likes to be in water and one that likes to be in oil; therefore, this additive makes it possible for oil and water droplets to not separate from each other in making potato chips. Preservatives may be antimicrobial preservatives, which inhibit the growth of bacteria or fungi, including mold, or antioxidants such as oxygen absorbers, which inhibit the oxidation of food constituents. Spices is used in nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for flavor or as a preservative that kills harmful bacteria or prevents their growth.

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POSSIBLE DANGER OF PRESERVATIVES Monosodium glutamate

The main problem with monosodium glutamate (MSG) stems from it being an excite toxin - this means that it that overexcites neurons (brain cells) to the point of cell damage and, eventually lead to cell death. Recent research has proposed that excessive brain receptor cell activation, caused by too
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much glutamate, which turn cells destroy. It has been further suggested that this could play a part in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's but the part that dietary glutamates contribute is still controversial. Since some of the side effects report have been: headaches, swelling, arthritis, joint problems, aches and pains, tiredness, photo phobia, and allergies.

Flavours

Processed snack foods dishes almost all contain added sugar, sodium and fats to improve the flavor of potato chips. All three are associated with major health risks: excess sodium can raise your blood pressure, excess sugar can aggravate diabetes and lead to weight gain and excess fats, particularly trans fats, can increase cholesterol levels and increase the risk of heart disease. Most potato chips contain added salt to enhance the taste. Too much salt in your diet can lead to several negative health problems, including high blood pressure and kidney disease. A serving of potato chips is about 1 oz., but most people consume far more than that amount at one sitting. A 1-oz. serving of plain potato chips contains 180 mg of added salt. Your body only needs 2,300 mg of sodium per day, and eating several ounces of potato chips can result in your getting too much salt from one small snack. Flavoured varieties can have even more added salt. Fats

High intake of saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol increases blood cholesterol levels, which, in turn, may increase the risk of coronary heart disease. Saturated fats tend to raise both HDL ("good") and LDL ("bad") cholesterol. Trans fats are produced by heating liquid vegetable oils in the presence of hydrogen. Trans fats are even worse for cholesterol levels than saturated fats because they raise LDL and lower HDL cholesterol. Low density lipoproteins (LDL) transport cholesterol away from the liver for use in the functions described above. However, when there is too much LDL cholesterol it tends to stick to the artery walls. This is known as thickening arteries or atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis can cause high blood pressure as the volume of the arteries is decreased. It can lead to blood clots if there are blockages in the arteries. This can lead to a stroke. Ultimately, too much cholesterol leads to heart disease. Trans Fat Many brands of potato chips are cooked in trans fats to preserve their shelf-life and achieve the crisp texture that you likely enjoy. Trans fats are the worst and most dangerous fats you can consume because they raise your bad cholesterol while lowering your good cholesterol. Read the ingredient label on your favourite brand of potato chips to see if they contain partially hydrogenated oils. These are trans fats and should be avoided in your diet. If you want to enjoy potato chips occasionally, look for a variety that does not contain partially hydrogenated oils.
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Saturated Fat Even if your favourite potato chips don't contain partially hydrogenated oils, they likely contain several grams of unhealthy saturated fat. Saturated fats can raise your cholesterol levels and increase your risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes. A 1-oz. serving of plain potato chips can have between 1 and 2.5 g of saturated fat, and if you eat more than that you will consume many more grams of unhealthy fat than would be in a healthier snack. Dextrose

The rapid absorption of dextrose leads to progressive dimunition of osmotic gradient. First, as the dextrose is metabolized the dilutional effect on plasma bicarbonate may cause systemic metabolic acidosis. Second, as serum glucose and insulin concentrations are elevated due to the effects of cardiopulmonary bypass, adding dextrose to the prime may further increase the level of blood glucose. This is especially a concern for diabetic patients. Furthermore, research has indicated that the glucose-containing priming solution may increase the risk of cardiopulmonary bypass related neurological complications although there was a lack of significant clinical evidence. BHA & BHT

Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydrozyttoluene (BHT) are added to oil-containing foods to prevent oxidation and retard rancidity. The International Agency for Research on Cancer, part of the World Health Organization, considers BHA to be possibly carcinogenic to humans, and the State of California has listed it as a carcinogen. Some studies show the same cancer causing possibilities for BHT. BHT and BHA are totally unnecessary. To avoid them read the label. Because of the possibility that BHT and BHA might cause cancer, both should be phased out of our food supply. To play it safe, phase them out of your diet.

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CONCLUSION

Most of the times these junk foods contains preservatives that are seasonings give harmful to the body. Not surprisingly, junk food not our health and also our mental intelligent. School days are full of educational challenges that require long attention spans and stamina. Poor nutritional habits can undermine these pre-requisites of learning, as well as sap the strength that children need for making friends, interacting with family, participating in sports and games or simply feeling
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god about themselves. We suggest that Ministry Health of Malaysia should authorize every school provide a balance nutrition food for every children, having camping with purpose implant the idea of healthy lifestyle.

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REFERENCES 1. E.W Lucas, L.W Rooney (2011). Snack Food Processing. CRC Press. pg 227-247. 2. Dr Judith Buttriss (2002). Adverse reactions to food: The report of the British nutrition foundation task force. Black Science Ltd. 3. Dean D. Metacafe, Hugh A. Sampson, Ronald A. Simon (2008). Food Allergy: adverse reactions to foods and food additives. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
4. Junk Food. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junk_food on 9 Dec 2011. 5. Cherie Brunetti (1998). How to Recognize Dangerous Food Preservatives. Retrived from website

http://www.ehow.com/how_4510221_recognize-dangerous-food-preservatives.html on 9 Dec 2011.


6. The effects of food additives and preservatives (2010). Retrieved from http://www.herdaily.com/health/892/the-effects-of-food-additives-and-

preservatives.html on 9 Dec 2011.


7. F.R Gustafson. What Are the Benefits of Artificial Food Preservatives?. www.eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/list_6468515_benefits-

artificial-food-preservatives_.html#ixzz1gc7WeQFD on 9 Dec 2011.

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