DI MILANO Ingegneria dei Sistemi Edilizi PhD Program Sistemi Edilizi e compatibilita ambientale
This report provides an overview of the definition and description of the Urban Heat Island phenomenon, its causes, impacts, and factors that contribute to mitigating its effect.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 2 Report Objectives ................................................................................................... 2 URBAN HEAT ISLAND PHENOMENON .................................................................. 3 1. Definition | Description ..................................................................................... 3 - Surface UHI: ........................................................................................................ 3 - Atmospheric UHI: ................................................................................................ 4 2. Measurment ....................................................................................................... 5 3. Causes ................................................................................................................ 6 - Buildings ............................................................................................................. 6 - Properties of Surface Materials ............................................................................ 6 - Reduction of Vegetation in Urban Areas ................................................................ 6 - Anthropogenic heat ............................................................................................. 7 4. UHI Impact ......................................................................................................... 7 5. UHI Mitigation .................................................................................................... 8 - Trees, vegetation, and green roofs ....................................................................... 8 - Cool roofs ........................................................................................................... 9 - Cool pavements .................................................................................................. 9 COOL ROOFS ........................................................................................................ 10 Properties of Cool Roofs ...................................................................................... 11 - Solar Reflectance ............................................................................................... 11 - Thermal Emittance ............................................................................................ 11 - Temperature Effects .......................................................................................... 11 Cool Roof Types ................................................................................................... 12 - Material ............................................................................................................ 12 - Geometry ......................................................................................................... 13 Cool Roofs Contribution Conflict .......................................................................... 13 UHI and ENERGY BALANCE .................................................................................. 14 Energy Balance in the Urban Atmospheric layer ................................................. 14 Energy Balance in the Urban Surface layer .......................................................... 14 Storage and anthropogenic heat fluxes in the urban energy balance ................. 14 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 16 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................... 17
LIST
OF
TABLES
Tab.
1
Basic
Characteristics
of
Surface
and
Atmospheric
UHIs
..............................
4
LIST
OF
FIGURES
Fig. 1 Thermal Image Depicting Surface UHI in Atlanta (Georgia), on September 28th, 2000. ..................................................................................................... 5 Fig. 2 Scheme showing the difference in behavior between Cool and Hot Roofs. ..................................................................................................................... 10
I n t r o d u c t i o n
In
the
modern
age
of
urban
climatology,
much
emphasis
has
been
placed
on
observing
and
documenting
heat
island
magnitudes
in
cities
around
the
world.
The
first
scientific
observations
were
documented
on
this
phenomena
were
by
Luke
Howard
in
1833.
His
temperature
analysis
in
and
around
London,
England,
have
shown
a
city
distinctly
warmer
than
its
countryside.
These
studies
and
their
estimates
of
UHI
magnitude
are
unrivalled
(incomparable)
in
their
contributions
to
urban
climatology.
Although
the
size
of
literature
about
this
phenomenon
is
reasonable
enough,
recently,
scholars
have
been
questioning
the
authenticity
with
which
heat
island
observations
have
been
gathered
and
reported
through
history.
To
what
extent
does
this
literature
serve
the
aims
of
science?
Can
its
measurements
be
trusted?
So
far,
the
response
to
these
questions
is
not
obvious.
Modern
heat
island
investigators
such
as
Parry
(1956),
Chandler
(1962,
1970)
and
Bohm
and
Gabl
(1978),
for
example,
alluded
to
problems
of
methodology
decades
ago.
In
recent
years,
discussion
around
these
same
problems
has
been
open
and
direct.1
R e p o r t
O b j e c t i v e s
This
report
provides
an
overview
of
different
types
of
urban
heat
islands,
their
causes,
impacts,
and
factors
that
contribute
to
mitigating
their
effect.
The
report
will
discuss:
- Definition
and
a
brief
description
of
the
phenomenon,
and
its
types
(Surface
and
Atmospheric);
- Causes
of
urban
heat
island
formation;
- Urban
heat
island
impacts
on
energy
consumption,
environmental
quality,
and
human
health;
- Methods
of
mitigating
the
negative
impacts
of
the
phenomenon,
focusing
on
the
Cool
Roofs
as
a
possible
solution;
- Discussing
the
relation
between
the
energy
balance
and
the
UHI
Phenomenon.
- Highlighting
the
doubts
and
conflicts
in
the
authenticity
and
correctness
of
the
information
regarding
the
phenomenon,
and
how
grave
the
impact
of
it
on
global
warming.
Stewart,
I.
D.,
A
systematic
review
and
scientific
critique
of
methodology
in
modern
urban
heat
island
literature,
International
Journal
of
Climatology,
published
online
15
Apr.
2010.
DOI:
10.1002/joc.2141
1
temperatures. Surface UHI are present day and night, but they tend to be strongest during the day when the sun is shining. On average, the difference in daytime surface temperatures between developed and rural areas is (10 to 15C); the difference in nighttime surface temperatures is typically smaller, at (5 to 10C).6 Surface UHIs are typically largest in the summer and lowest in winter; because of the variation in radiation and temperature, due to the changes in the suns intensity with seasons. - Atmospheric UHI: Atmospheric urban heat islands refer to the existence of warmer air in urban areas compared to cooler air in nearby rural surroundings. Its often divided into two different types: 1. Canopy layer UHI: It exists in the layer of air where people live, from the ground to below the tops of trees and roofs. 2. Boundary layer UHI: It starts from the rooftop and treetop level and extend up to the point where urban landscapes no longer influence the atmosphere. Atmospheric urban heat islands are often weak during the late morning and throughout the day, and they become more marked after sunset due to the slow release of heat from urban infrastructure. The timing of this peak, however, depends on the properties of urban and rural surfaces, the season, and prevailing weather conditions. Following is a table summarizing the comparison between the main two types of the UHI phenomenon:
Tab.
1
Basic
Characteristics
of
Surface
and
Atmospheric
UHIs
7
We
could
also
mention
that
both
Surface
and
atmospheric
UHIs
are
interconnected
and
both
have
a
significant
impact
on
each
other.
Surfaces
in
the
urban
setting
radiate
heat
which
affects
on
the
atmospheric
temperature,
which
by
turn
reflects
back
on
the
surface
materials
(especially
dark
ones,
such
as
6
Numbers
from
Voogt,
J.A.
and
T.R.
Oke.
2003.
Thermal
Remote
Sensing
of
Urban
Areas.
Remote
Sensing
of
Environment.
86.
(Special
issue
on
Urban
Areas):
370-384.
7
Asphalt) forcing them to store more heat than that in the normal temperatures.
2 .
M e a s u r m e n t
To
identify
urban
heat
islands,
scientists
use
direct
and
indirect
methods,
numerical
modeling,
and
estimates
based
on
empirical
models.
Researchers
often
use
remote
sensing,
an
indirect
measurement
technique,
to
estimate
surface
temperatures.
They
use
the
data
collected
to
produce
thermal
images,
such
as
that
shown
in
Fig.
1.
Fig.
1
Thermal
Image
Depicting
Surface
UHI
in
Atlanta
(Georgia),
on
September
28th,
2000.
8
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=7205
3 .
C a u s e s
There
are
several
causes
of
an
urban
heat
island
(UHI).
Briefly
stated
as
follows:
- Buildings
Buildings
Block
Surface
Heat:
The
principal
reason
for
the
nighttime
warming,
radiating
into
the
relatively
cold
night
sky.
Geometric
Impact:
The
tall
buildings
within
many
urban
areas
provide
multiple
surfaces
for
the
reflection
and
absorption
of
sunlight,
increasing
the
efficiency
with
which
urban
areas
are
heated.
This
is
called
the
"urban
canyon
effect".
Urban
geometry
influences
wind
flow,
energy
absorption,
and
a
given
surfaces
ability
to
emit
long-wave
radiation
back
to
space.
In
developed
areas,
surfaces
and
structures
are
often
at
least
partially
obstructed
by
objects,
such
as
neighboring
buildings,
and
become
large
thermal
masses
that
cannot
release
their
heat
very
readily
because
of
these
obstructions.
Especially
at
night,
the
air
above
urban
centers
is
typically
warmer
than
air
over
rural
areas.
Nighttime
atmospheric
heat
islands
can
have
serious
health
implications
for
urban
residents
during
heat
waves
- Properties
of
Surface
Materials
Materials
commonly
used
in
urban
areas
for
pavement
and
roofs,
such
as
concrete
and
asphalt,
have
significantly
different
thermal
bulk
properties
(including
heat
capacity
and
thermal
conductivity)
and
surface
Radiative
properties
(Albedo
and
Emissivity)
than
the
surrounding
rural
areas.
Built
up
communities
generally
reflect
less
and
absorb
more
of
the
suns
energy.
This
absorbed
heat
results
in
an
increase
in
surface
temperatures
and
thus
contribute
to
the
formation
of
surface
and
atmospheric
UHIs.
Materials
such
as
solar
reflectance,
thermal
emissivity
or
heat
capacity
control
the
ability
of
the
material
to
have
a
lower
or
higher
contribution
to
the
increase
of
the
UHI.
For
example,
dark
surfaces
with
high
emittance
values
will
stay
cooler,
because
they
will
release
heat
more
readily.
- Reduction
of
Vegetation
in
Urban
Areas
In
rural
areas,
vegetation
and
open
land
are
dominant.
Trees
and
vegetation
provide
shade,
which
lowers
surface
temperatures
and
reduces
temperatures
through
evapotranspiration.
In
contrast,
urban
areas
are
characterized
by
dry,
impervious
surfaces,
such
as
roofs,
sidewalks,
roads,
and
parking
lots.
This
change
in
ground
cover
results
in
less
shade
and
moisture
to
keep
urban
areas
cool;
also
urban
areas
evaporate
less
water,
which
results
in
elevating
surface
and
air
temperatures.
Anthropogenic heat Refers to the heat generated by cars, air conditioners, industrial facilities, and a variety of other manmade sources, which contributes to the increase of the UHI as well as the urban energy budget, particularly in the winter. High Pollution Levels Various forms of pollution change the Radiative properties of the atmosphere. This causes a change in the energy balance of the urban area, often leading to higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas.9
4 .
U H I
I m p a c t
Increased
temperatures
from
UHIs,
especially
during
summer,
can
affect
a
communitys
environment
and
quality
of
life.
While
some
heat
island
impacts
seem
positive,
such
as
lengthening
the
plant-growing
season,
most
impacts
are
negative
and
include:
- Impact
on
Energy
Consumption
Increased
summertime
temperatures
in
cities
increase
energy
demand
for
cooling.
Research
shows
that
electricity
demand
for
cooling
increases
1.52.0%
for
every
(0.6C)
increase
in
air
temperatures,
starting
from
(20
to
25C),
suggesting
that
510%
of
community-wide
demand
for
electricity
is
used
to
compensate
for
the
heat
island
effect.10
Urban
heat
islands
increase
overall
electricity
demand,
as
well
as
peak
demand,
which
generally
occurs
on
hot
summer
weekday
afternoons,
when
offices
and
homes
are
running
cooling
systems,
lights,
and
appliances.
- Impact
on
Human
Health
and
Comfort
Increased
daytime
temperatures,
reduced
nighttime
cooling,
and
higher
air
pollution
levels
associated
with
urban
heat
islands
can
affect
human
health
by
contributing
to
general
discomfort,
respiratory
difficulties,
heat
cramps
and
exhaustion,
non-fatal
heat
stroke,
and
heat-related
mortality.
Heat
islands
can
also
exacerbate
the
impact
of
heat
waves,
which
are
periods
of
unusually
hot,
and
often
humid,
weather.
Sensitive
populations,
such
as
children,
older
adults,
and
those
with
existing
health
conditions,
are
at
particular
risk
from
these
events.
Excessive
heat
events
are
particularly
dangerous
and
can
result
in
above-average
rates
of
mortality.
The
Centers
for
Disease
Control
and
Prevention
estimates
that
from
19792003,
excessive
heat
exposure
contributed
to
more
than
8,000
premature
deaths
in
the
United
States.
This
figure
exceeds
the
number
of
mortalities
resulting
from
hurricanes,
lightning,
tornadoes,
floods,
and
earthquakes
combined.11
T.
R.
Oke
(1982).
"The
energetic
basis
of
the
urban
heat
island".
Quarterly
Journal
of
the
Royal
Meteorological
Society
108
(455):
124.
10
Akbari,
H.
2005.
Energy
Saving
Potentials
and
Air
Quality
Benefits
of
Urban
Heat
Island
Mitigation
(PDF)
(19
pp,
251K).
Lawrence
Berkeley
National
Laboratory.
11
Center
for
Disease
Control
and
Prevention.
2006.
Extreme
Heat:
A
Prevention
Guide
to
Promote
Your
Personal
Health
and
Safety.
- Impact on Air Quality Urban heat islands raise demand for electrical energy in summer. Companies that supply electricity typically rely on fossil fuel power plants to meet much of this demand, which in turn leads to an increase in air pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions. The primary pollutants from power plants include sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), and mercury (Hg). These pollutants are harmful to human health and also contribute to complex air quality problems such as the formation of ground- level ozone (smog), fine particulate matter, and acid rain. Increased use of fossil- fuel-powered plants also increases emissions of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), which contribute to global climate change.12 In addition to their impact on energy-related emissions, increased temperatures can directly increase the rate of ground-level ozone formation. Ground-level ozone is formed when NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight and hot weather. If all other variables are equal, such as the level of precursor emissions in the air and wind speed and direction, more ground-level ozone will form as the environment becomes sunnier and hotter. - Impact on Water Quality High pavement and rooftop surface temperatures can heat extra storm water. Tests have shown that pavements that are (38oC) can elevate initial rainwater temperature from roughly (21oC) to over (35oC). 13 This heated storm water generally becomes excess, which drains into storm sewers and raises water temperatures as it is released into streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes. Water temperature affects all aspects of aquatic life, especially the metabolism and reproduction of many aquatic species. Rapid temperature changes in aquatic ecosystems resulting from warm storm water runoff can be particularly stressful, even fatal to aquatic life.
5 .
U H I
M i t i g a t i o n
Will
the
urban
areas
benefit
from
heat
island
reduction?
The
answer
depends
on
a
number
of
factorssome
within
and
some
outside
of
a
community's
control.
Although
prevailing
weather
patterns,
climate,
geography,
and
topography
are
beyond
the
influence
of
local
policy,
decision
makers
can
select
a
range
of
energy-saving
strategies
that
will
generate
multiple
benefits,
including
vegetation,
landscaping,
and
land
use
design
projects,
and
improvements
to
building
and
road
materials.14
Following
are
some
of
the
most
effective
UHI
mitigation
strategies:
- Trees,
vegetation,
and
green
roofs
They
can
reduce
heating
and
cooling
energy
use
and
associated
air
pollution
and
greenhouse
gas
emissions,
remove
air
pollutants,
help
lower
the
risk
of
heat-related
illnesses
and
deaths,
improve
storm-water
control
and
water
quality,
reduce
noise
levels,
create
habitats,
improve
12
13
James, W. 2002. Green roads: research into permeable pavers. Stormwater 3(2):48-40. 14 http://www.epa.gov/heatislands/mitigation/index.htm
http://www.epa.gov/heatislands/impacts/index.htm#2
aesthetic
qualities,
and
increase
property
values.
- Cool
roofs
They
lower
cooling
energy
use,
peak
electricity
demand,
air
pollution
and
greenhouse
gas
emissions,
heat-related
incidents,
and
solid
waste
generation
due
to
less
frequent
re-roofing.
Later
in
the
report,
this
mitigation
technique
will
be
discussed
with
more
depth.
- Cool
pavements
They
have
the
potential
of
indirectly
reducing
energy
consumption,
air
pollution,
and
greenhouse
gas
emissions.
Depending
on
the
technology
used,
cool
pavements
can
improve
storm-water
management
and
water
quality,
increase
surface
durability,
enhance
nighttime
illumination,
and
reduce
noise.15
Using
these
strategies
in
combination
can
enhance
their
effectiveness.
For
example,
installing
a
permeable
pavement
parking
lot
that
includes
shade
trees
can
extend
the
longevity
of
the
pavement
and
vegetation.
Widespread
implementation
of
these
mitigation
strategies
also
provides
additional
benefits.
For
example,
a
single
cool
roof
will
mainly
result
in
benefits
to
the
building
owner
and
occupants.
Community-wide
cool
roof
installations,
though,
has
the
potential
to
provide
savings
to
the
building
owner,
occupants
and
to
the
community
at
large
scales,
as
a
large
number
of
cool
roofs
can
reduce
air
temperatures,
resulting
in
multiple
benefits
associated
with
cooler
summertime
air.
15
Ibid.
COOL
ROOFS
Are
the
roofs
characterized
with
high
Albedo
Solar
Reflectance
as
well
as
high
thermal
emittance.
These
two
characteristics
help
reflect
sunlight
and
emit
heat
away
from
a
building,
reducing
roof
temperatures.
Solar
Reflectance
of
the
cool
roofs
is
the
ability
to
reflect
the
visible,
infrared
and
ultraviolet
wavelengths
of
the
sun;
while
its
Thermal
Emittance
is
the
ability
to
radiate
absorbed,
or
non-reflected
solar
energy.
Cool
roofs
may
be
installed
on
low-slope
roofs
(such
as
the
flat
or
gently
sloping
roofs
typically
found
on
commercial,
industrial,
and
office
buildings)
or
the
steep-sloped
roofs
used
in
many
residences
and
retail
buildings.
Fig.
2
Scheme
showing
the
difference
in
behavior
between
Cool
and
Hot
Roofs.
16
Cool
roofing
products
are
made
of
highly
reflective
and
emissive
materials
that
can
remain
approximately
50
to
60F
(28-33C)
cooler
than
traditional
materials
during
peak
summer
weather.17
Cool
roofs
achieve
cooling
energy
savings
in
hot
summers
but
can
increase
heating
energy
load
during
cold
winters.18
Therefore,
the
net
energy
saving
of
cool
roofs
varies
depending
on
climate.
Without
a
proper
maintenance
program
to
keep
the
material
clean,
the
energy
savings
of
cool
roofs
can
diminish
over
time
due
to
Albedo
degradation
and
soiling.19
In
order
to
understand
how
cool
roofing
work,
first
Ill
start
by
explaining
how
their
properties
and
roofing
materials
fit
and
contribute
within
the
cycle
of
solar
radiation,
temperature
and
the
Urban
Heat
Islands
Phenomenon.
This
part
of
the
report
discusses
the
following:
http://www.custombiltmetals.com/cool-roof.php
Levinson,
R.,
H.
Akbari,
S.
Konopacki,
and
S.
Bretz.
2002.
Inclusion
of
Cool
Roofs
in
Nonresidential
Title
24
Prescriptive
Requirements
(PDF)
(64
pp,
492K).
Paper
LBNL-50451.
Lawrence
Berkeley
National
Laboratory.
18
United
States
Environmental
Protection
Agency
(2011).
Reducing
Urban
Heat
Islands:
Compendium
of
Strategies.
19
Bretz,
Sarah;
Hashem
Akbari
(1997).
"Long-term
performance
of
high
albedo
roof
coatings".
Energy
and
Buildings
25
(2):
159-167.
doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(96)01005-5.
17 16
10
P r o p e r t i e s
o f
C o o l
R o o f s
- Solar
Reflectance
Solar
reflectance,
or
albedo,
is
the
percentage
of
solar
energy
reflected
by
a
surface.
Solar
reflectance
measurement
methods
have
been
developed
in
order
to
determine
how
well
a
material
reflects
energy
at
each
solar
energy
wavelength,
then
calculating
the
weighted
average
of
these
values.
Traditional
roofing
materials
have
low
solar
reflectance
of
5
to
15
percent,
which
means
they
absorb
85
to
95
percent
of
the
energy
reaching
them
instead
of
reflecting
the
energy
back
out
to
the
atmosphere.
The
coolest
roof
materials
have
a
high
solar
reflectance
of
more
than
65
percent,
absorbing
and
transferring
to
the
building
35
percent
or
less
of
the
energy
that
reaches
them.20
These
materials
reflect
radiation
across
the
entire
solar
spectrum,
especially
in
the
visible
and
infrared
(heat)
wavelengths.
- Thermal
Emittance
Although
solar
reflectance
is
the
most
important
property
in
determining
a
materials
contribution
to
urban
heat
islands,
thermal
emittance
is
also
a
part
of
the
equation.
Any
surface
exposed
to
radiant
energy
will
get
hotter
until
it
reaches
thermal
equilibrium
(i.e.,
it
gives
off
as
much
heat
as
it
receives).
A
materials
thermal
emittance
determines
how
much
heat
it
will
radiate
per
unit
area
at
a
given
temperature,
that
is,
how
readily
a
surface
gives
up
heat.
When
exposed
to
sunlight,
a
surface
with
high
emittance
will
reach
thermal
equilibrium
at
a
lower
temperature
than
a
surface
with
low
emittance,
because
the
high-emittance
surface
gives
off
its
heat
more
readily.
- Temperature
Effects
Solar
reflectance
and
thermal
emittance
have
noticeable
effects
on
surface
temperature.
Conventional
roof
surfaces
have
low
reflectance
but
high
thermal
emittance;
standard
black
asphalt
roofs
can
reach
(74
-85C)
at
midday
during
the
summer.
Bare
metal
or
metallic
surfaced
roofs
have
high
reflectance
and
low
thermal
emittance
and
can
warm
to
(66
-77C).
Research
has
shown
that
cool
roofs
with
both
high
reflectance
and
high
emittance
reach
peak
temperatures
of
only
110
to
115F
(43-46C)
in
the
summer
sun.
These
peak
values
vary
by
local
conditions.
Nonetheless,
research
reveals
that
conventional
roofs
can
be
55
to
85F
(31-47C)
hotter
than
the
air
on
any
given
day,
while
cool
roofs
tend
to
stay
within
10
to
20F
(6-11C)
of
the
background
temperature.21
United
States
Environmental
Protection
Agency
(2011).
Reducing
Urban
Heat
Islands:
Compendium
of
Strategies:
Cool
Roofs.
21
These
temperature
ranges
are
compiled
from
the
following
individual
reports:
Konopacki,
S.,
L.
Gartland,
H.
Akbari,
and
I.
Rainer.
1998.
Demonstration
of
Energy
Savings
of
Cool
Roofs.
Paper
LBNL-40673.
Lawrence
Berkeley
National
Laboratory,
Berkeley,
CA.
Gartland,
L.
n.d.
Cool
Roof
Energy
Savings
Evaluation
for
City
of
Tucson.
Miller,
W.A.,
A.
Desjarlais,
D.S.
Parker,
and
S.
Kriner.
2004.
Cool
Metal
Roofing
Tested
for
Energy
Efficiency
and
Sustainability.
CIB
World
Building
Congress,
May
1-7,
2004.
Toronto,
Ontario.
Konopacki,
S.
and
H.
Akbari.
2001.
Measured
Energy
Savings
and
Demand
Reduction
from
a
Reflective
Roof
Membrane
on
a
Large
Retail
Store
in
Austin.
Paper
LBNL-47149.
Lawrence
Berkeley
National
Laboratory,
Berkeley,
CA.
20
11
These reduced surface temperatures from cool roofs can lower air temperature. For example, a New York City simulation predicted near-surface air temperature reductions for various cool roof mitigation scenarios. The study assumed 50- percent adoption of cool roofs on available roof space and ran models to evaluate the resulting temperature changes. Averaged over all times of day, the model predicted a city-wide temperature reduction of (0.2C). The city-wide, 3:00 p.m. average reduction was (0.3C) and ranged from 0.7 to (0.4 - 0.8C) in six specific study areas within the city.22
C o o l
R o o f
T y p e s
Cool
roofs
can
be
categorized
in
two
difference
manners:
- Material
Cool
roofs
for
commercial
and
industrial
buildings
fall
into
one
of
three
categories:
roofs
made
from
inherently
cool
roofing
materials,
roofs
made
of
materials
that
have
been
coated
with
a
solar
reflective
coating,
or
green
planted
roofs.
Inherently
cool
roofs
White
vinyl
roofs,
which
are
inherently
reflective,
achieve
some
of
the
highest
reflectance
and
emittance
measurements
of
which
roofing
materials
are
capable.
A
roof
made
of
thermoplastic
white
vinyl,
for
example,
can
reflect
80
percent
or
more
of
the
suns
rays
and
emit
at
least
70%
of
the
solar
radiation
that
the
building
absorbs.
An
asphalt
roof
only
reflects
between
6
and
26%
of
solar
radiation,
resulting
in
greater
heat
transfer
to
the
building
interior
and
greater
demand
for
air
conditioning.
23
Coated
roofs
This
type
of
intervention
works
also
for
retrofitting.
The
roof
can
be
made
reflective
by
applying
a
solar
reflective
coating
to
its
surface.
There
are
two
main
types
of
cool
roof
coatings:
Cementitious
and
Elastomeric.
Cementitious
coatings
contain
cement
particles.
Elastomeric
coatings
include
polymers,
which
are
added
to
reduce
brittleness
and
improve
adhesion.
Some
coatings
contain
both
cement
particles
and
polymers.
Both
types
have
a
solar
reflectance
of
65
percent
or
higher
when
new
and
have
a
thermal
emittance
of
80
to
90
percent
or
more.
The
important
distinction
is
that
elastomeric
coatings
provide
a
waterproofing
membrane,
while
cementitious
coatings
are
pervious
and
rely
on
the
underlying
roofing
material
for
waterproofing.
Green
roofs
Green
roofs
provide
a
thermal
mass
layer
which
helps
reducing
the
flow
of
heat
into
a
building.
The
solar
reflectance
of
green
roofs
varies
depending
on
the
Rosenzweig,
C.,
W.
Solecki,
L.
Parshall,
S.
Gaffin,
B.
Lynn,
R.
Goldberg,
J.
Cox,
and
S.
Hodges.
2006.
Mitigating
New
York
Citys
Heat
Island
with
Urban
Forestry,
Living
Roofs,
and
Light
Surfaces.
Sixth
Symposium
on
the
Urban
Environment
and
Forum
on
Managing
our
Physical
and
Natural
Resources,
American
Meteorological
Society.
Atlanta,
GA.
23
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cool_roof
22
12
plant types (generally 0.3-0.5).24 Because of the lower solar reflectance, green roofs reflect less sunlight and absorb more solar heat than white roofs. The absorbed heat in the green roofs is trapped by the greenhouse effect and then cooled by evapotranspiration. - Geometry Depending on the geometry of the roof, there are two categories: low-sloped and steep-sloped. A low-sloped roof is essentially flat, with only enough incline to provide drainage. It is usually defined as having no more than 2 inches (5 cm) of vertical rise over 12 inches (30 cm) of horizontal run. These roofs are found on the majority of commercial, industrial, warehouse, office, retail, and multi- family buildings, as well as some single-family homes. Steep-sloped roofs have inclines greater than a 2-inch rise over a 12-inch run. These roofs are found most often on residences and retail commercial buildings and are generally visible from the street. Low-sloped and steep-sloped roofs use different roofing materials. Traditionally, low-sloped roofs use built-up roofing or a membrane, and the primary cool roof options are coatings and single-ply membranes.
C o o l
R o o f s
C o n t r i b u t i o n
C o n f l i c t
Recent
works
executed
by
researchers
from
Stanford
University,
regarding
the
Urban
Heat
Island
phenomenon
claim
that,
if
all
the
roofs
in
urban
areas
were
painted
white,
it
would
increase,
not
decrease,
global
warming.25
How
correct
or
false
this
piece
of
information
is,
is
a
matter
of
scientific
research
and
discussion,
for
it
could
change
the
orientation
of
studies
implemented
for
remedying
the
phenomenons
negative
impact.
Levinson, Ronnen (2010). "Cool Roofs, Cool Cities, Cool Planet" (PowerPoint Slides). Retrieved 10 December 2011. 25 http://news.stanford.edu/news/2011/october/urban-heat-islands-101911.html
24
13
E n e r g y
B a l a n c e
i n
t h e
U r b a n
A t m o s p h e r i c
l a y e r
Within
the
Urban
Atmospheric
Layer,
energy
balances
are
governed
by
micro- scale
processes
mediated
by
the
site
conditions
of
the
immediate
surroundings.
These
conditions,
consisting
of
the
specifics
of
a
3D
surface
geometry,
substrate
materials
and
wetness,
wind
exposure,
shading
and
the
like,
are
subject
to
countless
variations
within
real
cities.
As
a
means
of
distilling
what
is
common
to
many
urban
landscapes
from
what
is
unique
to
the
particular
architectural,
cultural,
and
geographical
milieu,
much
urban
climate
work
has
adopted
the
construct
of
the
Urban
Canyons
(UC).
The
UC
consists
of
the
space
between
adjacent
buildings,
comprising
the
solid
surfaces
on
the
faces
of
those
buildings
and
the
street,
the
enclosed
air
volume,
the
open
top
at
roof
level
and
the
ends
of
the
canyon
at
street
intersections,
through
which
mass
and
energy
fluxes
may
occur
horizontally.
The
canyon
aspect
ratio
(AR),
the
ratio
of
wall
height
to
building
separation,
has
been
suggested
by
many
as
a
major
control
on
flow
within
the
UC,
on
turbulent
intensities,
on
radiative
environments
and,
hence,
on
the
total
energy
budget.
E n e r g y
B a l a n c e
i n
t h e
U r b a n
S u r f a c e
l a y e r
The
understanding
of
urban
energy
balance
cannot
avoid
the
issue
of
the
precise
definition
of
the
surface
to
which
the
balance
refers.
This
is
a
complex
and
interrelated
issue,
because,
while
it
is
generally
accepted
what
constitutes
the
surface
to
which
the
energy
balance
of
a
building
wall,
suburban
lawn
or
warehouse
roof
applies,
this
becomes
increasingly
vague
as
we
scale
up
through
individual
landscape
units,
like
UCs,
to
land-use
zones
and
even
whole
cities.
S t o r a g e
a n d
a n t h r o p o g e n i c
h e a t
f l u x e s
i n
t h e
u r b a n
e n e r g y
b a l a n c e
The
energy
balance
for
a
simple
plane
facet
may
be
written
as:
Q*
=
QH
+
QE
+
QG
(1)
Where:
Q*
is
net
radiation;
QH
and
QE
are
the
turbulent
fluxes
of
sensible
and
latent
heat
respectively;
QG
is
the
(primarily)
conductive
heat
flux
into
or
out
of
the
material
that
Arnfield,
A.
John,
Two
decades
of
Urban
Climate
Research:
A
review
of
Turbulence,
Exchanges
of
Energy
and
Water,
and
the
Urban
heat
Island,
International
Journal
of
Climatology,
published
online
28
Aug.
2002.
DOI:
10.1002/joc.859
26
14
constitutes the surface. Behavior of QG for simple facets can normally be evaluated using heat flux plates or by measuring time rates of temperature change if the heat capacity of the substrate is known. Oke (1988b) suggests that, at larger scales, for total urban landscapes, a useful approach is to evaluate the equivalent energy fluxes through the top of an imaginary volume, extending from a depth in the substrate below which energy exchanges are negligible at the time scale of consideration to a level roughly at roof level, at the upper margins of the UCL. The energy budget for this volume can be written as: Q* + QF = QH + QE + QS + QA (2) Where: QF is the anthropogenic energy releases within the volume; QA is net advection through the sides of the volume; QS is the storage heat flux. It represents all energy storage mechanisms within the volume, in air, trees, building fabric, soil, etc. In practice, by virtue of the sizes of heat capacities for air and solid fabric, QS can normally be equated to the aggregate QG for all airsolid interfaces within the volume. Incorporation of anthropogenic heat flux in simulation models of urban climate is relatively straightforward, involving the addition of a (usually constant) term in the surface energy budget equation. The evaluation of QF at local scales, for incorporation into energy balances for suburban terrain; are given by Grimmond and Oke (1991) and Schmid et al. (1991). They compute this term as: QF = QFV + QFH + QFM Where: QFV is the heat released by vehicles; QFH is the heat released by stationary sources such as house furnaces; QFM is the heat released by metabolism. It should be noted that, in some cases, QF is included implicitly. For example, the Terjung and Louie (1974), Mills (1993) and Arnfield (2000b) energy budget simulation models incorporate constant internal building temperatures, which reflect the investment of anthropogenic energy in heating and cooling living spaces. These schemes influence external climate by conductive heat fluxes through building walls and roofs. However, they dont incorporate energy releases to the external environment, like motor vehicle waste heat, chimney gases or air- conditioner heat output.
15
CONCLUSION
Although
urban
climatologists
have
been
studying
urban
heat
islands
for
decades,
community
interest
and
concern
regarding
them
has
been
more
recent.
This
increased
attention
to
heat-related
environment
and
health
issues
has
helped
to
advance
the
development
of
heat
island
reduction
strategies,
mainly
trees
and
vegetation,
green
roofs,
and
cool
roofs.
Interest
in
cool
pave- ments
has
been
growing,
and
an
emerging
body
of
research
and
pilot
projects
are
helping
scientists,
engineers,
and
practitioners
to
better
understand
the
interactions
between
pavements
and
the
urban
climate.
Cities
release
more
heat
to
the
atmosphere
than
the
rural
vegetated
areas
around
them,
but
how
much
influence
these
urban
"heat
islands"
have
on
global
warming
has
been
a
matter
of
debate.
Although
the
size
of
literature
about
this
phenomenon
is
reasonable
enough,
recently,
scholars
have
been
questioning
the
authenticity
with
which
heat
island
observations
have
been
gathered
and
reported
through
history.
To
what
extent
does
this
literature
serve
the
aims
of
science?
Can
its
measurements
be
trusted?
So
far,
the
response
to
these
questions
is
not
obvious.
Modern
heat
island
investigators
such
as
Parry
(1956),
Chandler
(1962,
1970)
and
Bohm
and
Gabl
(1978),
for
example,
alluded
to
problems
of
methodology
decades
ago.
In
recent
years,
discussion
around
these
same
problems
has
been
open
and
direct.27
Heat
emanating
from
cities
called
the
"urban
heat
island"
effect
is
not
a
significant
contributor
to
global
warming,
Stanford
researchers
have
found.
They
also
concluded
that
if
all
the
roofs
in
urban
areas
were
painted
white,
it
would
increase,
not
decrease,
global
warming.28
This
was
quoted
from
the
study
by
Stanford
researchers,
which
has
quantified
the
contribution
of
the
heat
islands
for
the
first
time,
showing
that
it
is
modest
compared
with
what
greenhouse
gases
contribute
to
global
warming.
"Between
2
and
4
percent
of
the
gross
global
warming
since
the
Industrial
Revolution
may
be
due
to
urban
heat
islands,"
said
Mark
Z.
Jacobson,
a
professor
of
civil
and
environmental
engineering
who
led
the
study.
He
and
his
students
compared
this
with
the
greenhouse
gas
contribution
to
gross
warming
of
about
79
percent
and
the
black
carbon
contribution
of
about
18
percent.
Black
carbon
is
a
component
of
the
soot
created
by
burning
fossil
fuels
and
bio- fuels
and
is
highly
efficient
at
absorbing
sunlight,
which
heats
the
atmosphere.
Stewart, I. D., A systematic review and scientific critique of methodology in modern urban heat island literature, International Journal of Climatology, published online 15 Apr. 2010. DOI: 10.1002/joc.2141 28 http://news.stanford.edu/news/2011/october/urban-heat-islands-101911.html
27
16
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1,
]
Stewart,
I.
D.,
A
systematic
review
and
scientific
critique
of
methodology
in
modern
urban
heat
island
literature,
International
Journal
of
Climatology,
published
online
15
Apr.
2010.
DOI:
10.1002/joc.2141
[2]
Oke,
T.R.
1982.
The
Energetic
Basis
of
the
Urban
Heat
Island.
Quarterly
Journal
of
the
Royal
Meteorological
Society.
108:1-24.
[3]
Glossary
of
Meteorology
(2009).
"Urban
Heat
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American
Meteorological
Society.
Retrieved
2009-06-19.
[4]
http://www.epa.gov/heatislands/about/index.htm
[5]
Berdahl
P.
and
S.
Bretz.
1997.
Preliminary
Survey
of
the
Solar
Reflectance
of
Cool
Roofing
Materials.
Energy
and
Buildings
25:149-158.
[6]
Numbers
from
Voogt,
J.A.
and
T.R.
Oke.
2003.
Thermal
Remote
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of
Urban
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Remote
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86.
(Special
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on
Urban
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370-384.
[7]
Oke.
T.R.
1987.
Boundary
Layer
Climates.
New
York,
Routledge.
[8]
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=7205
[9]
T.
R.
Oke
(1982).
"The
energetic
basis
of
the
urban
heat
island".
Quarterly
Journal
of
the
Royal
Meteorological
Society
108
(455):
124.
[10]
Akbari,
H.
2005.
Energy
Saving
Potentials
and
Air
Quality
Benefits
of
Urban
Heat
Island
Mitigation
(PDF)
(19
pp,
251K).
Lawrence
Berkeley
National
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[11]
Center
for
Disease
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and
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2006.
Extreme
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A
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Your
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[12]
http://www.epa.gov/heatislands/impacts/index.htm#2
[13]
James,
W.
2002.
Green
roads:
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Stormwater
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[14]
http://www.epa.gov/heatislands/mitigation/index.htm
[15]
Ibid.
[16]
http://www.custombiltmetals.com/cool-roof.php
[17]
Levinson,
R.,
H.
Akbari,
S.
Konopacki,
and
S.
Bretz.
2002.
Inclusion
of
Cool
Roofs
in
Nonresidential
Title
24
Prescriptive
Requirements
(PDF)
(64
pp,
492K).
Paper
LBNL- 50451.
Lawrence
Berkeley
National
Laboratory.
[18]
United
States
Environmental
Protection
Agency
(2011).
Reducing
Urban
Heat
Islands:
Compendium
of
Strategies.
[19]
Bretz,
Sarah;
Hashem
Akbari
(1997).
"Long-term
performance
of
high
albedo
roof
coatings".
Energy
and
Buildings
25
(2):
159-167.
doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(96)01005-5.
[20]
United
States
Environmental
Protection
Agency
(2011).
Reducing
Urban
Heat
Islands:
Compendium
of
Strategies:
Cool
Roofs.
[21]
These
temperature
ranges
are
compiled
from
the
following
individual
reports:
Konopacki,
S.,
L.
Gartland,
H.
Akbari,
and
I.
Rainer.
1998.
Demonstration
of
Energy
Savings
of
Cool
Roofs.
Paper
LBNL-40673.
Lawrence
Berkeley
National
Laboratory,
Berkeley,
CA.
17
Gartland, L. n.d. Cool Roof Energy Savings Evaluation for City of Tucson. Miller, W.A., A. Desjarlais, D.S. Parker, and S. Kriner. 2004. Cool Metal Roofing Tested for Energy Efficiency and Sustainability. CIB World Building Congress, May 1-7, 2004. Toronto, Ontario. Konopacki, S. and H. Akbari. 2001. Measured Energy Savings and Demand Reduction from a Reflective Roof Membrane on a Large Retail Store in Austin. Paper LBNL-47149. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA. [22] Rosenzweig, C., W. Solecki, L. Parshall, S. Gaffin, B. Lynn, R. Goldberg, J. Cox, and S. Hodges. 2006. Mitigating New York Citys Heat Island with Urban Forestry, Living Roofs, and Light Surfaces. Sixth Symposium on the Urban Environment and Forum on Managing our Physical and Natural Resources, American Meteorological Society. Atlanta, GA. [23] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cool_roof [24] Levinson, Ronnen (2010). "Cool Roofs, Cool Cities, Cool Planet" (PowerPoint Slides). Retrieved 10 December 2011. [25] http://news.stanford.edu/news/2011/october/urban-heat-islands-101911.html [26] Arnfield, A. John, Two decades of Urban Climate Research: A review of Turbulence, Exchanges of Energy and Water, and the Urban heat Island, International Journal of Climatology, published online 28 Aug. 2002. DOI: 10.1002/joc.859 [27] Stewart, I. D., A systematic review and scientific critique of methodology in modern urban heat island literature, International Journal of Climatology, published online 15 Apr. 2010. DOI: 10.1002/joc.2141 [28] http://news.stanford.edu/news/2011/october/urban-heat-islands-101911.html
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