I

1
1I

(Structure 20.1 Introduction

Objectives

20.2 20.3

Water Transuortation Todav Planning of Water Transportation Facilities

20.3.1 20.3.2 20.3.3 20.3.4 20.3.5 20.3.6 20.3.7 20.3.8 20.3.9 Types of Water Transportation Facilities Features of Water Transportation Facilities Chancing Chnracter of Facilities - Types of Cargo of Some Considerations in Ma~lning Ports Methodology Port Pla~ulilg PreIi~ninary h~vestijiations . Engi~~eermng Detailed Engineering ~lliesti~at$ns Ship Dimrnsio~~s Wind Tides Waves Harbour Layout Elements Entrance Cha~mels Turning Basin Dilnensions of Indian Harbours Breakwaters Open Berth Wet Docks Slope and Dimensions of Docks and Basins 1)ock Walls Dock Entrances and Locks Dry Docks:

20.4

Harbours
20.4.1 20.4.2 20.4.3 20.4.4 20.4.5 20.4.6 20.4.7 20.4.8

20.5

Docks
20.5.1 20.5.2 20.5.3 20.5.4 20.5.5 20.5.6

[
k

20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9

Transit Sheds and Warehouses Jetties, Landing Stages and Wharves Inland Water Transport Cargo Handling Facilities
20.9.1 Cranes 20.9.2 Container Hand1i11g 20.9.3 Dry Bulk Handling 20.9.4 ~ i q u i d Bulk ~andiing

20.10 20.1 1 20.12 20.13

Illustrative Problems Summary Key Words Answers to SAOs

One of the most economical, fuel-efficient eco-friendly transport modes is wa,ter trans~ort. Water tsansport is practised in several forms. Oceanic shipping (overseas shipping), coastal shiiping and inland water transport are some of the popular forms. India has a vast coistline and a number of big rivers. There is, thus, a great scope for the use of water transport in India. Water transport infrastructure facilities include harbours, ports, jetties, inland water channels and cargo handling systems. These facilities are costly to construct and maintain. A great deal of engineering and economic expertise is needed for planning and designing these facilities. This work forms part of a civil engineer's task. This Unit deals with this p.art of Transportation Engineering.

I
I

Air, CVatcr

Objectives The objective of this Unit is to familiarise you with the civil engineering structures that form part of water transportation. The Unit gives a broad perspective of water transportation today globally and in India. The issues relevant to planning of water transportation facilities are discussed. The engineering aspects of design of harbours, ports, transit sheds, jetties, landing stages, wharves, inland water transport and cargo handling facilities are discussed.
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

Trmsports & Other Systems

know the current status of water transportation,

o o

understand how the planning of water transportation facilities is done, have a knowledge of Docks and Harbours, Transit Sheds, Jetties, Landing Stages and Wharves, know about Inland Water Transport, and have knowledge of cargo handling facilities in water transport.

20.2

WATER TRANSPORTATION TODAY

Water transport has been in existence for many centuries. Primitive forms of canoes and rafts gradually gave way to sailing ships. The history of colonisation is closely linked to the colonising country's supreinacy over the seas. The Industrial Revolution brought in steainships and the introduction of iron and steel as ship building materials. Steamer services grew carrying passengers and cargo across the world, along the coasts and along inland waterways. A more efficient fuel for propulsion was oil, which has now replaced coal. India occupies an important place in the geography of the world. The Arabian Sea surrounds it on the west, the Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay of Bengal in the east. Its long coastline (5660 km)gives it an advantageous position in the water transport. Centuries before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, Indian goods used to be transported by sea to distant lands. The country had good expertise in building ships in . timber. The colonisation of India dealt a deadly blow to the indigenous ship building industry and shipping. Valiant efforts during the first half of the century by Indian companies gave birth to modern shipping in India. After Independence, water transport has grown considerably, though it must be admitted that the full potential of this form of transport is yet to be tapped.

20.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Transport

The following are some of the major advantages of water transport: 1) No investments are needed on the path of travel (such as roads for road transpor and railway lines for rail transport). The only investments needed are on vehicles (ships) and terminal facilities.

2) The energy requirement of water transport is considerably less than that of land transport modes. This is because of the low frictional resistance between the steel bodies of ships and water, in contrast to high frictional resistance between roads and tyres and rail and;wheels of a train.
3)
4)

Water transportation does not create pollution as other modes do. Water transport is reasonably safe. It is not a complete mode in itself. It depends on other complementary modes like road transport, railways, and pipelines. Transfers are unavoidable. But the modern technology of containerization has reduced the transfer delays and troubles.

Some of the disadvantages of water transport are:

1)

2)

It is slower than land modes like road transport and railways, and very much slower than air transport. It is thus favoured for movement of raw materials, bulk cargo and heavy materials.
'

water Tranrpurtatio"

20.2.2 Forms of Water Transport

Water transport exists at various levels and forms such as:
1)

Oceanic shipping also called international shipping Coastal shipping within a country Inland Water Transport (I. W .T)

2) 3)

20.2.3 World Trends Today

In the area of oceanic shipping, the trend today is in favour of large size tankers, bulk carriers and container ships. There is an almost total demise of international passenger liner traffic.@ The period from 1970 to 1987 has registered a growth of international sea borne trade from 2,605 million tonnes to 3,505 million tonnes - an average annual increase of 1.8 per cent. This is a modest increase. The world fleet has an average age of 10 to 14 years depending upon the type of vessel. This shows that ship replacement takes place quickly for catching up with technology changes. It is worth noting that ports handled around 92% of world trade in tonnes and 94% of international trade in tonne-km. This highlights the supremacy of oceanic shipping and ports in international trade. Inland Water Transport (IWT) has been traditionally used to provide cheap transport of hulk cominodities with large volumes and low value to and from the hinterland of seaports or of large inland towns. They have the inherent advantages of low cost, low pollution and highenergy efficiency. They are also labour intensive. IWT is most frequently used to feed and distribute the goods to and from harbours. In countries like Bangladesh , large areas are accessible only by water, and IWT transports bulk of rural transport. Overseas shipping throughout the world is highly competitive. International shipping has organised itself into shipping conferences, which are a combination of shipping companies formed for the purpose of regulating or restricting competition.

20.2.4 Water Transport in India Today

In 1950, India hardly had a merchant marine worth the name with a few vessels aggregating to about 0.4 million gross registered tonnage (GRT). Over the last four decades, a rapid growth has taken place. In 1993, the Indian fleet had reached a level of 6.2 million GRT. India's share of world tonnage, which was hardly 0.5 per cent in 1950 is now around 1.5 per cent. India's total overseas sea borne trade in 1993 was 112 million tonnes, and this is expected to reach a value of around 150 by the turn of the century. The composition of the cargo is as under: General cargo: Bulk cargo:
.

19 % 52 % 29 %

Crude oil and Petroleum products:

Coastal shipping in India has not been performing an important role so far. The major constraints have been lack of port facilities and uneconomic nature of operations. The -bulk of cargo handled is coal (about 2.3 million tonnes). Since this movement is unidirectional, the empty returns problem is a serious handicap. Some salt movement takes place on return journey. If properly developed, coastal movement can increase to about 10 million tonnes by the turn of the century. Though India has some mighty rivers, 1.W.T has not developed to any appreciable level.

. The main problem with some rivers is that they are not perennial, and in summer they
sllrink to a mere trickle. Some movement takes place in the Brahmaputra River system io 55

w , tvnter 1r:r~lspottr & ~ ( ~ iSystems er

Assam and the Hooghly River in W .Bengal, The completion of a lock in the Farakka B;irr;ige has give11 a boost to the I.W.T. operations on the Ganges. Other navigable waterways conlprise of canals, backwaters and creeks. The irlaterials handled-are iron ort* (Goa), pelroleurn products, cements and fertiliser,. Some pa'senger traffic is ha~ldledin Kerala. India has two major ship building yards (Vishakapatnam and Cochin). There are 10 major ports: 2) Paradip Vishakapatnam Chennai Tuticorin Cochin New Mangalore Murnbai (including Nava Sheva)

3)
4) 5)

6)
7)

9)

10) Kandla There are 139 operational intermediatetminor seaports. The traft'ic handled at the major ports was 125 million tonnes in 1993-94 and this is expected to increase to above 300 inillivn tonnes in the year 2000.

20.2.5 Technology of Water Transport

In the technology of oceanic shipping, the world has witnessed many changes in the past. The main changes noticed are:
1)

Increase in size of ships: The largest ships in the world now are 500,000 dead weight tonnes (DWT, which refers to the tonnage of store fuel and cargo that a ship can transport). Shift towards containerised ships, bulk carriers, cellular ships (having compartments) and oil tankers. The drive towards fuel efficiency Higher speeds - speeds of 20 to 25 knots are now common (1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour, roughly 1.85 km per hour).

2)

3)
4)

As the ship size increases, length of berth and the draft needed at a port also undergo upward revisions. Big ships need a draft of 10 metres or even 12 metres. Handling facilities at ports require modernisation. Containers handling facilities and bulk cargo handling facilities are very specialised in nature. In the IWT area, the trend is to go in for large size barges, which are towed or pushed by powerful tugs. Self-propelled barges of capacity in the range of 500 to 1500 tonnes are uneconomical for larger operations. A powerful towboat of 6000 horsepower can push a string of barges carrying as much as 40,000 to 50,000 tonne of cargo. A draft of about 3m is needed. Speeds of 10 to 20 km per hour are possible. An emerging technology in the area of coastal shipping and IWT is RORO (Roll on Roll oft). Under this technology, trucks (or trailers units) which travel on highway are rolled on to specially built ships over ramps for performing the water leg of the journey. At the end of it, if the trucks or trailer units are again rolled off the ships and thereaftttr performs rhe remainder crf the land journey. RORO Ships can have truck storage decks at vdriorrh levels. Thus, the cost of operation is hrought dowll by partially substituting road journeir with trucks by journey on water. .AIY'~I from savir:gs in fuel and opera:ional cost. therc i\ a reduction in road accidents, road cs~~:gestion traftic poll~tioi~. systclrl is in and Tlie

operation along costs in U.K. and other countries. India can also introduce this technology.

Water Transportation

20.3

PLANNING OF WATER TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES

120.3.1 Types of Water Transportation Facilities

A transportation engineer has to plan, design, construct and maintain various types of transportation facilities. Definition of some of the commonly occurring terms are given

ort is derived from Latin word portus, which means a gateway. Thus a port is a gateway om the sea to the land and vice-versa. In other words, it is a place where transport of and materials changes from one mode to another, one of the modes being water d. A port constitutes a link in the chain of transport which may cover many modes, of thein being water based. To accomplish the change of mode, various facilities are eeded at the ports. The facilities consist of a safe enclosure where vessels can enter, rths where the vessels can transfer cargo and refuel, transit sheds and ware houses for oring goods and highway, railways and Inland Water Transport connections. q e e p o r t Zone o r Area (also Free Trade Zone) an area in or adjacent to a port which is isolated and policed and which is provided ith facilities for loading, unloading, refuelling, and storing goods which may be landed, ed, mixed, blended, repacked, manufachred or reshipped without payment of duties without the intervention of customs officials. The whole idea behind Freeport is to courage and expedite that part of a nation's foreign trade, which the government shes to free from restrictions by customs duties. A good example of a Freeport is dla in India. Hamburg in Germany is one of the biggest freeports.

H rbour
our is a haven for ships where they can be moored and sheltered from wind and s. It is an area partially enclosed and protected from storms and waves so as to de a safe suitable place for vessels seeking refuge, supplies, refuelling, repairs or

H hours can be of the following types: 1) Natural harbour

at

2)

Artificial harbour ral harbour is one, which is protected from the storms and waves by the natural ration of the land and water. Natural harbours are located in bays, tidal estuaries r mouths. Rio de Janeiro is one of the finest natural harbours in the world. in India, is a natural harbour located at the entrance to Vembanad Lake. ificial harbour, on the other hand, is one where artificial engineering measures like ction of breakwaters are needed for protecting the vessels from storms and waves. harbour is an artificial harbour. -natural harbour is intermediate between the above two, and may have natural ions on one or more sides and needing protection at the remaining sides. Figures d 20.2 show typical natural and artificial harbours.

(3) Semi-natural harbour

Har urs may also be classified according to the functions they perform: Harbours of refuge, which provide protection to the ships against the storms and waves in the high seas and which additionally provide facilities for transfer of cargo, refuelling and repairs.

dp

57

4ir, Water

2)
3)
4)

I'raesportq & Other Systms

Commercial harbours which, provide facilities for receiving refuelling, berthing and servicing of commercial ships. Military harbours, which provide facilities for navel fleet of the country. Fishing harbours, which are primarily intended for the promotion of fishing and which provides facilitates for receiving and berthing of fishing vessels, storage of tishes in refrigerated conditions and transfer of catch to other modes.

Sea

Land

E'igure 20.1: Natural Harbour

L
,------.I
I

.--,--, g
-------,'
I

Port Configuration

i------I

I L-------------------------J

Figure 20.2: Artificial Harbour

Dock

A dock is an artificial enclosure for the reception of ships. It can either be enclosed or
regulated by lock gates (examples: the Docks of Bombay) or open to the tides.

A wet dock is an area of impounded water within which vessels can remain at a uniform
level independent of external tide action.

A dry dock (also called a graving dock) is one from which water can be temperately
excluded in order that repairs to the hull and keel of ships can he carried out.

Slipway A slipway is a track on which vessels move after construction at a'dry place to the sea.

Marine Terminal
A marine terminal is that part of a port or harbour which provides for docking, cargo handling, and storage facilities. When only passengers are handled, it is called a passenger terminal. When freight or cargo is handled it is called a freight or cargo terminal. Some marine terminals are dedicated to a particular cargo. A typical example is the Oil Terminal at Butcher Island in Bombay.

Offshore Mooring
This is a facility provided at considerable distance from the shore where ships can anchor and transfer cargo. The transport of cargo to and from ship is effected by pipelines, trestle

conveyor or lighters. An offshore mooring is. provided for deep draught vessels, which cannot enter the shallow waters on the shore.

lraUs~"rtaU""

Wharf
A wharf is a continuous structure, generally acting as a retaining wall, along the opening edge of the sea or along the banks of a river, canal or other waterway.

A quay (pronounced as key) is the surface upon which are constructed railways and crane tracks with a view to handle the cargo to and from a vessel.

Jetty
A jetty is a structure that juts out or projects. In water transport structufes, it means facilities, which project from the general outline of the shore into the sea.

Pier

A pier is an isolated marine structure connected with the mainland in a slight and restricted manner.

20.3.2 Features of Water Transportation Facilities

Water transportation is one part in the continuous chain of transport from origin to destination. Take the case of export of iron ore from Bailadilla mines to Japan. This involves a number of steps. The ore is mined and transported by roads in trucks to Paradeep port. It is then transferred to bulk carrier ships through bulk handling equipment. At the destination end, the ports receive the ships, transfer the ore through the bulk handling equipment to some form of land transport which ultimately takes it to the steel mills.

'

The port should be able to receive the ships and berth them safely. It should protect them from tides and waves. he facilities at the port should be such that they are able to handle the cargo in the most conomical manner and in the shortest possible time. This will ensure that ships are not etained beyond the barest minimum. It must be remembered that ships are extremely ostly to acquire, own and operate and that their unproductive detention at ports will add the transportation cost. It has been roughly estimated that port costs including turnound cost of ships are nearly 50% of the total transport cost in oceanic trade. ome ports perform the task of processing cargo. A good example is New Mangalore , which palletises the iron ore received through pipeline in the form of slurry from remukh. Other forms of processing are liquefying and slurrying.

ort facilitates store the cargo during transit. Transit sheds and warehouses perform this &k. $onsolidations of cargo and containerisation are also done at ports.

y . 3 . 3 Changing Character of Facilities

he character of water transportation facilities has undergone rapid changes in the recent p t. Some of these are discussed below.
I

the olden days, ports used to receive and distribute traffic to /from a small hinterland. many situations, industries used to be located in the port cities themselves. This aracter is fast changing. The hinterland of ports is ever enlarging. type of cargo handled at port has undergone significant changes..In earlier days, ral cargo used to predominate. With the growing demands for petroleum products, one of the major commodities handled. Container traffic has increased dramatically. veloping countries are depending upon exports of raw materials like mineral ores and ultural products. These are best handled in bulk. All these changes dictate the design dern ports and handling facilities in them.

4ir, Watcr
rransports & Other Systems

The size of ships has itself undergone changes. Gia'nt oil tankers, bulk carriers and container ships have replaced the small size ships of the past. Old ports are finding themselves unable to cope up with large size ships. Better and quicker services now demand the construction of new ports, many of which are dedicated to special services. The marine oil terminal in Butcher Island in Bombay is marked the beginning of changes found necessary in Bombay. The recent completion of Nhava Sheva Port as its auxiliary is part of the process of modernisation. The same can be said of Haldia in respect of Calcutta. The proble~ns large ships, shallow coastline and non-availability of land in the coast of can now be surmounted by constructing offshore port facilities. Transfer of cargo is achieved through pipes, barges and conveyors.

20.3.4 Types of Cargo

The cargo handled in ports is of the following types:

I)
2) 3)
4)

Liquid bulk (petroleum crude and products, vegetable oil etc.,) Dry bulk (mineral ores, coal, food grains, fertilisers., etc) Liquefied or compressed gas Parcel or pseudo-bulk

5) Containers

6 ) Break bulk, general cargo

20.3.5 Some Considerations in Planning of Ports

The need for a port arises because of sea borne'trade. The type of port facilities depends upon the ty'pe of cargo to be handled and its volume. Special requirements like a naval base (example Karwar port in India) sometimes establish the need. The selection of sites for a port is governed by the following factors: 1) 2) 3) Availability of adequate land to accommodate the various facilities. Adequacy of channel depth for entry and exit of vessels of the size that is expected. Extent of protection needed against wind and waves.

4) Availability of inland communication like railways, highways and IWT. Ports and other water transportation facilities are very costly to build and operate. Since resources are limited, the planning of ports should be done so as to involve the most appropriate technology. Technological obsolescence must be guarded against future port plans. Port plans are prepared for the short term or for the long term. The short-term plans are generally paljiative measures to modernise the facilities to take care of immediate and short-term requirements. They fail to give the final and long lasting solutions. On the other hand, long-term plans (which are also called Master Plans) are conceived for a long time horizon (at least 20 years). Master plans can be prepared for individual ports or for all the ports of the country taken together. The latter has the advantage of taking a global look at the growth of the country's trade and allocating it efficiently to various ports. India is now engaged in preparing a long-term plan for the ports sector. In the port planning, it is necessary to consider a number of alternatives to achieve the desired results and evaluate each one of them technically and economically. The alternative, which emerges as the best, should then be selected. There is no room for hunch decisions or pre-conceived notions. The objective of planning should be to provide a least cost service, which inaximises the profit to the owner of the facility.

20.3.6 Port Planning Methodology

The methodology of the port planning is sequential and consists of a series of steps illustrated in Figure 20.3. The various steps and their brief description are given below.
Water

Formulation of Objectives
Any plan formulation needs a set of clearly defined objectives: These must be in step with the overall transport sector plan of the country and the overall economic deyelopment plan.

Collection of Data on Economic Indicators

Port traffic is closely linked to the general economy of the hinterland and the country. Factors that affect port traffic are: 1) Population 2) 3) Gross National Product, broken up into Agricultural and Industrial Sectors. Major traffic generators, such as mines, crude oil reserves, gas reserves, industries, agricultural belt etc.

Historical data on the above should be collected so as to establish the past growth rate of these indicators.

Traffic Study
Traffic study of ports should indicate the following: 1) Historic commodity flow, with type and tonnage of commodity and origindestination.
2)

Feeder transport network and inventory of facilities Present port capacity, facilities and technological bottlenecks Interface with roadlraillpipelines.

3)
4)

5 ) Tariffs

6) Ship arrivals, detentions.

7)

Trade pattern and policy

Formulating of Transport Models

The analysis of the past data on the ports traffic and economic indicators will yield models that synthesise the past trend. Two kinds of models will emerge: a) Historical growth of traffic

Tn =T0(l +r)"
where, Tn = Traffic in the nh year, To = Traffic in the oh year,

r = annual rate of growth

n = number of years

annual rate of growth

n = number of years
b) Econometric Models One form could be Loge T = A n where,

+ B Loge GNP

T,, = Traffic in year n

A = constant

B = Regression Coefficient
GNP = Gross National Product e = Base of national logarithm

In the above formulation, the value of B gives the demand elasticity with respect of GNP.

L, *
Decision to Adopt P W i Problem Definition, Formulation of Objectives

I
Collection of Data on Eeonomic Idicaton

Policy Vsriablea

I
Demand Forecast
I

Engineer@S~lmyr

and, Investigatiom

Akmtive P k

Eumomic 1 F i i a l Analysis

+
I

Implementation

Figure 20.3: Port Planning Process

Seleciion of Policy Variable The policy variables, which have an influence of future demand, are: 1) Time horizon
2)

Projected growth rate of population and economy

Demand Forecast Using the models formulated earlier and inputting the policy variables, it is possible to forecast the hture traffic. The growth is determined in the form of the following:

1)

Norinal traffic growth. Diverted traffic growth, and Generated traftic growth.

Water 'Trauspnrtatinu

2)

3)

Technology Assessment The planner assesses the present and future tecn!lologies and gets an idea of the various tecGnologic~l options for meeting the demand. The iteins coilsidered should include ship size, cargo form, handling and storage facilities, transfers etc. Engineering Surveys and Investigations The eilgiileering surveys and investigations should cover the following aspects:
1)

Site survey Geophysical studies Hydrographic surveys Navigational constraints and needs

2)

3)
4)

5) Meteorological Survey

6) Material survey
7)

Land use

8) Environmental impact 9) Availability of labour

Development of Alternative Plans All the possible engineering designs are worked out and their cost determined. Consideration must be given for future expansion and modernisation: Economical and Financial Analysis The economic and financial viability of the alternatives is worked out. The tariff structure is determined. Selection of the Best Alternatives The best solution that emerges is selected. Implementation The plan is implemented. Continuing Study and Updating As the project is implemented and thereafter, the collection of data is continued to check the accuracy of forecast made. Any change that appears to be necessary is made in the future at convenient time.

20.3.7 Preliminary Engineering Investigations

Like other transportation facilities, the preparation-of a water transportation project starts with preliminary engineering investigations. In this phase of activity, all available data from secondary sources are collected and some quick preliminary surveys are conducted. The activities involved are as under:
1)

Collection of information on the following: i) Depth of channel ii) Range of tides iii) Wind velocity, direction iv) Temperature variation V) Rainfall intensity

Air,, Water
Transports & Other Systems

The above information can be collected from Hydrological Survey Office, Geodetic Survey, Meteorological Office, etc. 2) Some quick soundings may be taken with a fathometer to check the data already available and to supplement it. An aerial survey is carried out to prepare a topographical map with contours, showing features,such as shoals, reefs, estuaries, etc identify the most protected location and one that involves the least dredging. The site should have adequate shore area for development of terminal facilities.
5)

3)

4) Many possible alternative sites for location are investigated, with a view to

Soil conditions below the sea are investigated. Poor soils like clay may increase the cost of dock walls.

6 ) The presence of rock and the depth at which it is present is found out by exploratory drilling.
The data collected from the above will enable some preliminary layouts and designs to be worked out. The estimation of cost of the various alternatives is then done and the best alternative is selected for detailed investigations. The Report prepared at this stage is known as the Feasi6ility Report. The economic and financial viability of the project is established using traffic forecasts and expected revenues.

20.3.8 Detailed Engineering Investigations

The detailed engineering surveys and investigations are carried out covering the following aspects: 1) 2)
3)
4)

Hydro-graphic data Topographic data Sub-soil investigations Current tidal studies Weather data collections Siltation studies

5) 7)

6 ) Hydraulic model studies

Hydrographic surveys are conducted for establishing the ground level under the body of water. The surveys should extend over an area considerably larger than the proposed boundary of the facility being planned. The surveys will be able to locate reefs. rock outcrops and sunken ships. Taking soundings does the work. The old method of manual sounding by lowering a string has been replaced by accurate methods. Echo sounding and the use of fathometers are common. The sound recorder instrument is used with a travelling motor boat. It is necessary to take readings at about 10-m intervals along lines 15 to 30 m apart. The spacing may have to be closer if the bottom is irregular. The sounding are plotted on a map, which is known as the hydrographic map. The scale adopted is about 1:2000. The map should show the contours, high and low water lines, the datum and prominent features of the land and the water. A contour iilterval of 0.1 to 1.0 m is convenient to give details to the desired accuracy. The topographic survey is the physical survey of the land area and is accomplished by standard survey instruments like the theodolite, level and distance meter. The survey should yield a map to a convenient scale (1: 1000 is often adopted), showing all important natural land features and artificial features (buildings etc) and contours at an interval of 0.5 or 1 m. Sub-soil investigations for harbour and channel area are intended to give an idea about the nature of soil and rock blow water. Bori~lgs taken to a depth of about 50 in or till are the rock is met with. Drilling through rtxk is necessary if rock is met with at elevations higher than the desired foundation level of the structures and the bottom level channels.
r \

-11.

.I,

1 .

..

. ..,.

"

,.

The horings are taken at important locations covering breakwaters, piers, dock walls. wharves, jetties etc. Where dredging is needed, borings are taken at intervals of 80 to 150 m centres extending to a depth of 0.5 to 10 m below the dredged bottom line. The soil samples are tested to determine the soil properties. Triaxial tests are conducted to determine the strength properties. Current and tidal studies are conducted to determine:
1)

TranSi'Ortnti"l'

Velocity and direction of currents

2 ) Direction. amplitude and height of waves 3) Level of tides Important weather data to he collected pertain to wind (velocity and direction) and rain. T is common practice to design the various components of water transportation facility t through studies on hydraulic models. Models to a scale of 1:100 to 1: 150 are common. Siltation studies are needed if there is a tendency of eroded materials to drift in any particular direction.

20.3.9 Ship Dimensions

Ship dimensions govern the design of port facilities. The inain characteristics of a ship that needs to he understood are:
1)

Weight Length Width Draft

2)
3)

4)

The weight of a ship is an indication of its size. There are many ways of designating a ship's weight. The displacement tonnage is the ship's weight and by the law of flotation is the weight of water she displaces. It may either be "loaded" or "light*; according to whether the ship is loaded fully, (upto what is known as the "Plimsoll mark") or whether it is without fuel, cargo and stores. Dead Weight Tonnage (DWT) is the carrying capacity of a ship in metric tonnes and is the difference between the displacement light and the displacement loaded. Thus it is the weight of cargo, fuel and stores, which a fully loaded ship carries. Gross Registered Tonnage (GRT) is the entire internal cubic capacity of a ship, converted into tonnage on a standard basis. Until World War 11, the size of ships was generally upto 30,000 DWT. Sizes have increased dramatically since then. 1960 crossed the barrier of 100,000 DWT and in 1976, the barrier of 500,000 DWT was crossed when the tanker "Batillus" was launched in France (DWT: 553, 662). There are possibilities that the barrier of one million tonne will be crossed soon. The draft of a ship is the depth of the keel of the ship below the water line. Obviously, the draft depends upon the extent of loading. Usually, draft is related to the conditions of loading: loaded or light draft. The: length of a ship is its maximum longitudinal dimension and the width its transverse dimension. The width is also known as the beam. The current trends in the ship dimensions are as under:
Type of Ship
General cargo ships Container ships

DWT
Up to 50,000 Up to 50,000 60,000-100,000 Upto 500,000

Length (m)
150-200 150-275 200-250 Upto 450

Width (m)
20-30 20-35
?

Draft (m)
8-10 8-12 12-15 Upto 30

Bulk carriers
Tankers

30-40 Upto 65

SAQ 1
& Other S)

a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of water transport'? b) What are the various forms in which water transport is practised? c) Why is coastal shipping in India not performing at full potential? d) Why is IWT not performing well in India? e) What are the major ports in India? f) What are the trends in technology changes in water transport? g) Define the following: i) Port ii) Freeport Area (Free Trade Zone) iii) Harbour iv) Artificial Harbour v) Natural Harbour vi) Dock vii) Slipway viii) Marine Terminal ix) Offshore mooring x) Wharf xi) Quay xii) Jetty xiii) Pier What are the features of water transportation facilities? What are the various types of cargo handled in a port? What are the considerations that govern the selection of site for a port? What is a Master Plan for ports? Describe the processes involved in port planning. What are the preliminary engineering investigations needed for designing a port facility'? What are the detailed engineering investigations needed for designing a port facility'? What are the current trends in ship dimensions?

20.4

HARBOURS

The definition of the term harbour and the types of harbours have already been covered in section 20.3. In this section, the engineering features of harbours are discussed. Natural forces like wind, waves and tides have a major influence on the harbour location and the design of its elements. Some understanding of these is also necessary and hence a brief treatment is given.

20.4.1 Wind
Wind has an influence on harbour design in the following manner:-1) Wind causes waves to be formed in the open seas. The height of waves is mainly governed by the length over the sea up to which the storms prevail. 2) Stormy conditions known by various names like typhoon, cyclone, tornado etc., cause considerable havoc in the harbour area and must be considered in its

Water Transportation

3) Wind, acting on ships, which are moored, txerts a pulling force on the bollards. This force must be allowed for in the design of dock walls. 4) The directions of prevailing winds determine the direction in which waves travel. The location of the harbour, its entrance an; the disposition of the protective works are governed by wind direction.

20.4.2 Tides
The level of ocean water undergoes a periodic rise and fall. This is known as a tide. Tides are caused by forces of attraction exerted by the moon and the sun. The influence of moon is greater of the two. Highest tides are those, which occur at intervals of half a lunar month, are called spring tides. They occur when the moon is new or full. At that time the sun, the moon and the earth fall in line, causing the tide-generating forces of the moon and the sun to be When the lines connecting the earth with sun and the earth with the moon form a right angle (this happens when the moon is in its quarters), the forces of the sun and the moon are subtractive. As a result the lowest tides of the month, known as the neap tides, occur. Thus, there are two spring tides and the two neap tides in every lunar month. On every lunar day (of duration 24 hours and 50 minutes), there are two rises and two falls in the sea level. These tides are called semidiurnal tides. The tidal range is the difference between the high level and the low level of the water for a particular tide. The tidal range of the spring tides is generally 1lh to 2 times the range of The mean range is the height of the mean high water aoove the mean low water. The midway level between the mean high water and the low water is known as the mean sea The mean range varies from the coast to coast. It is as high as 6 m in UK and France. In. USA it is generally less than 3 m. Bombay has a mean range of 2.6 m. In sheltered seas like Mediterranean, the mean range is very small, less than 0.6 m. The tidal range at a coast is of great importance in determining the types of productive works and facilities at the harbour. For example, where the tidal range is small, the rise and fall in the level of a berthed ship.wil1 be small. On the other hand if the tidal range is large, say more than 3 m, it is difficult to cope up with the large rise and fall in the levels of a berthed ships alongside a wharf. In such cases, it becomes imperative to create an artificial basin where the water level does not vary. Entrance locks and a pumping system becomes necessary.

20.4.3 Waves
'

As already mentioned, sea waves are caused by wind blowing over the surface of seawater. The formation of waves is an interesting phenomenon. As wind blows over a sheet of calm water, it exerts a tangential force on the surface, which generates small ripples. These undulations result in changes in the air stream. Pressure differential so caused sets in oscillatory motion at the surface. Under the continued influence of wind the waves grow in sue.

Air, \Vater Transports 8r Other Systems

In a wave. individual particles oscillate in a vertical plane and they do not move forward. Thus in deep waters, waves remain oscillatory and are not translatory. When waves break as in shallow water, they become translatory. The following relationships of waves are to be noted (Figure 20.4).
L = Wave Length
-

Trough
Figure 20.4: Wave Functions

where,

I. = length of waves
T = Wave period (i.e. time taken for two consecutive crests to pass a point).

v= Speed of wave form

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 1 m/sec2

It should be noted that H is independent of v, L, and T. It is determined by the area upto which storms are limited, known as the "fetch". The well-known Stevenson's formula, given below, relates the waves height to fetch.

where,

H = wave height in ft
F = Fetch in nautical miles
Converted to metric units,
H(in metres) =

0 . 3 3 6 G (in km)

In the present design of harbour works, the forces exerted by waves need to be considered. The actions of waves is very complex and has been the subject of a vast amount of literature. Briefly the following considerations govern:
1)

Waves cause enormous pressure against marine structures. The pressure comprises both hydrostatic and hydrodynamic.

II

2)

The pressure is dependent upon the height of the waves H. the wavelength L, and the depth of the water in the sea. Very higli waves cause extretnely high pressure. When a wave breaks, it produces shock pressures on impact with a wall. Vibrations tnay be set up as a result. For the design of coastal structures, a design wave height that is potentially most damaging is selected.

I'ra11511!'rtation

3)

4)

5) When waves travel over a sloped face, such as the slope of a break-water, the wave runs up the face and then the water flows down the face. The former is called up-rush and the latter is down-rush. These causes pressures on the structure.
6 ) Waves in deep and shallow water maintain a degree or symmetry through the depth. But breaking waves lose this characteristic. They have a rapid forward motion of the crest whereas the lower part moves slowly backward.

2 .4.4 Harbour Layout Elements

'P

e important elements of a harbour layout are as follows (Figure 20.5): 1 2)

3)

An entrance channel, through which the ships can enter the harbour. A turning basin, where ships can be manoeuvred into their mooriilgs. Break water, which protects the harbour from waves. Docks. where the ships are berthed.

1 4)

Entrance

-'

-'----

Sea

Break

//
Land Berth
Be"h

Dock'

II
Berth Land

'

Figure 20.5: Harbour Layout

y:mk
wall

20 .5 Entrance Channels
that connects the harbour to the deep sea is its entrance channel. It is maintained to a sufficient width and draft to receive ships of the sizes

k
I

Th following considerations should be kept in view in aligning an entrance channel:

1) The alignment should direct and ships should be able to approach berths without the need for manoeuvring.

2)
3)

and The alignment should be s~nooth devcid of sharp curves. The radius of the curve should be larger than five times the length of the largest ship expected. The entrance to the harbour should preferably be on the leeward side so that ships entering and leaving are protected from wind and waves.

The width of the entrance channel depends on several factors such as

I'rausports & Othrr Sy+tems

1) The maximum size of ships expected, 2) Accuracy of navigational aids, and 3) Whether the ships are allowed to cross or pass one another. The normal widths adopted are: Small harbours: Medium harbours: Large harbours: 100 ~n 100 to 150 m 150 to 300 m

The depth of the entrance of the channel should be adequate for safe navigation at the low water where ships are fully loaded. The depth must make allowallce for clearance under the keels. Generally the minimum draft should be the static salt water draft of the ship selected for design plus a clearance of 1.5 to 2.5 m. The higher value of clearance is appropriate when the bottom is of rock.

20.4.6 T r i g Basin unn

The turning basin is an enlargement of the entrance channel to accommodate turning of a ship. A radius at least twice the length of the ship designed for is desirable. When space for full turning is not available, turning can be accomplished by manoeuvring around a pier.

20.4.7 Dimensions of Indian Harbours

Table 20.1 gives the values of entrances width, depth and turning circles diameters of some Indian ports.

20.4.8 Breakwaters
Definition
A breakwater is a structure constructed with the purpose of protecting an area from the effect of sea waves so that ships can safely be moored in that area.

Types of Breakwaters Breakwaters are of three types: 1)

2)

Vertical sided Rubble mound Composite

3)

A breakwater, which substitutes a quay wall and which can be used as a platform for loading and unloading cargo in calm water is known as a mole.
Forces Acting on a Breakwater

A breakwater has to resist the forces set up by waves impinging upon it. The forces include the following:
1) Hydrostatic pressure due to the rise in the level of wave on the sea sides of the wall up to the crest of the wave.

2)
3)
4)

Hydrostatic pressures due to fall in the level on the seaside of the wall upto the trough of the wave. Hydrostatic pressure caused by breaking waves. Complex forces developed by the onrush and down-rush of waves on a sloping surface.

Tahle 20.1 : Dimension of Indian Harbours

Harbour Entrance Width (m)
350 366 250 245 185 162 244
'

IViltcr 1 r , t n ~ ~ ~ o r l , ~ l t ~ ~ ~ ~

Entrance Iiraft
I

'rurning Circlc t)iiameter(m)

Kn~lclla

4.3 10.9 13.7 13.5 11.8 10.4 18.5

500 366 480 590 260 488 558

Bombay Monnugoa New Mangalore Coclia Tut~cvrin Madra\ Visbakapatnam -1l111er Harbvur -Outer harbour Paradeep Calcutt:~
H;I~L~I:I

80 200 160 467 467

10.7 19 0
12. 8

3hh 610 520 549 316

6.7

6.7

Vertical Sided Breakwater

A vertical sided breakwater is a wall built with stone masonry, concrete blocks or caissc~iis.It call also be constructed with two walls of slieet piles and the area between the walls filled with concrete subsequently. A typical vertical sided breakwater is shown in Figure 20.6. Vertical sided breakwaters are preferably found on rock so that scour is avoided. The top width is inade at least equal to the height of the maximum wave.

Rubble Mound Breakwater These are tlie most common types of breakwaters. They are constructed with stone rubble. The mount consists of three parts:

1)

The armour (or cover) Tlie first under-layer The second under-layer (or core)

2)

3)

Figure 20.7 gives a typical sketch. The stability of the section depends upon tlie weight and shape of tlie arinour block. the interlock between individual blocks aiid the slopes to which they are laid. Heavy blocks are tlie best. Weights of individual stones in the armour call be as high as 5T to 10T. Tlie under-layer is made up of stones weighing roughly one-tenth tlie weight of the stones in the armour. The core is composed of small stones having individual weights. 11200 to 116000 of the armour stones. The slope 011 tlie seaward side is in the range of 1 in 1 .25 to 1 in 2. Tlie slope on the protected basin side is around 1 in 1.5. Very good interlock call be obtained by tetrapods, quadripods, liexapods etc., which are placed "pell-mell". A typical tetrapod is shown in Figure 20.8. Tetrapods have been used for the protection of the sea wall at Marine Drive in Bombay.. Co~rlposite Breakwater Composite hreakwaters are those with a rubble inound as a ma-jor foundation and a vertical sided wall as a super-structure (Figure 20.9).

Mass Concrete

6.0m
1

--

.I

. -- b

.:
1
C

Mass Concrete

;
0
I

.
A 'T '

RCC Caisson

-:
L
//
1

,
.r.

.I..

/!
C . .

C---I.Oin

I.- -

Figure 20.6: Vcrtical Sided Rreakwater

A r r n o ~ Slones ( 5 - 101') ~r

Figure 20.8: Tetrapod Used for Armour ~reakwater

('hoice of Type of Breakwater

U'atcr

The choice of the type of breakwaters depends on various factors such as the depth of the w'lter, nature of foundations, availability of materials (especially of large boulders), lead ot stone, duration of working season. handling equipments available etc.

- - . .

RCC Caisson, Sunk and Filled with Concrete

Rubble Stone Mound

141g~uc 2Ij.Y: Cuurpozrrc Urukwdtcr\

Vertical sided breakwaters are obviously suited for small depths (say, up to 20 m below MSL). They need a good storm free season for working. A good rocky foundation is also a must. Since they encroach on the least area, these are ideal where the space available is Rubble mounded breakwaters are the cheapest when good stone is available at ecoilomical lead. They can be constructed on a rocky bed. Some settlement is inevitable if the structure is founded on soft ground. Allowance must be made for such settlements. Composite breakwaters combine the good features of both the rubble mound and the vertical wall breakwaters. When the depth of the sea is excessively high (say above 30 m), a rubble mound becomes prohibitively costly. In such cases, the rubble is terminated at about 5 m froin low water level (LWL) and a vertical wall constructed above the base of the mound.

20.5
1)

DOCKS
Harbour docks Repair docks Floating dry docks

Docks are of the following types:

2)

3)

Harbour docks, also known as Wet Docks, are enclosed, or partially enclosed and sheltered basin, for the receiving ships. Repair docks, also' known as Dry Docks or Graving Docks, are basins generally made by excavations for the repair of ships. Floating Dry Dock is a structure capable of being submerged and lifted as desired to receive and float a ship into position for repairs.

20.5.1

Open Berth

A berth is a place where a ship docks for loading and unloading of cargo. An open berth faces the sea directly, as opposed to enclosed berth, which may be sheltered from the sea. An open berth has a "wharf" wall built along the shore. Details of wharf walls are given later in this Unit.

20.5.2 Wet Doclts

Wet Docks, called simply Docks, are sheltered and enclosed places where ships are received and berthed for loading and unloading. The water level inside the dock slioulcl he more or less constant to facilitate the loading and unloadi~~g cargo. of In Chennai port. for example. there are two wet docks, the Bharathi dock and the Dr. Amhedkar Dock.
The ricments of a dock are:

I)

[lock entrance An enclosed basin A clock wall, also know11 as quay wall Facilities for handling and storing of cargo.

2)
3)
4)

20.5.3 Slope and Dimensions of Docks and Basins

The basin receives the ships, and ships are docked in hertlis-along quay walls. The arrangement of quay walls can have various forms. as shown in Figure 20.10. 1 Basin

I.;

Ship

\-I

Quay Wall

Basin

aenn

aenn

The fingers shown in Figure 20.10 (a) call also be inclined. The length of a berth depends upon the ~naximu~n dimensions of the ships expected. The lengths of ships are: Tankers 150 to 500 m 200 to 300 ~n

Bulk carriers
(coal, ore etc)

General cargo 150 to 200 in Contai~ier ships 150 to 300 m Battle ships Cruisers 275 to 300 m 150 to 275 m

An additional length of 25 in on either side of the ship is needed in a berth for safety and

The deptli of the dock wall depends upon the draft of vessels. Modern ships need a draft of 7 to 10 m. Large tankers may need a draft as high as 30 In. The lengths of various hertlis in Clle~inai port are as under: General cargo 170 In Coal Oil 220 ~n 340 ~n

Iron ore Containers

220 m 200 m

Water Transportation

The depth of various berths in Chennai varies from 9 to 16 m.

20.5.4 Dock Walls

Dock walls are gravity type retaining walls. They are constructed in the mass type concrete or in concrete blocks or in stone masonry. The features of dock wall are:

I
I
I

1)

The front face should be vertical or nearly so, such that the ships can come as close to the wall face as possible. The front face should have a smooth finish. The face is often protected by fenders to reduce the impact from ships.

2)

The dock walls are designed to counter the following forces: 1) Dead weight of the wall 2) Live load on the space, immediately behind the wall, and this may be caused by wheel loads from trucks or locomotives travelling on rail tracks or cargohandling cranes and equipment. Docks handling oil or bulk materials through a conveyor or pipeline may be designed for a lighter load, say 1000 kglm2. General cargo docks are designed for heavier loads in the range of 3000 kg/m2 to 4000 kg/m2. Docks handling heavy metals, such as copper ingots, are designed for a still higher load of 500 kg/m2. Lateral earth-pressure when the dock is empty Maximum water pressure from the dock basin when there is no earth behind the wall Earthquake forces

3) 4) 5)

6) Impact load caused by striking vessels 7) Passive earth pressure of backfill Dock walls can be constructed in a variety of manners. A dock-wall with a concrete caisson filled with rock is shown in Figure 20.11. A solid mass concrete dock wall is shown in Figure 20.12.

Paved Apron

Figure 20.11: Dock Wall Made of Concrete Caisson Filled With Rock

20.5.5 Dock ~ntrances Locks and

When the fluctuation in the water level in the sea is within manageable limits, dock basins are directly open to the sea.

ler Sysl

Gran~te Coping Paved Area

13 In

'

Figure 20.12: Mass Concrete Dock Wall

Lock entrances are necessary when the level in the seawater fluctuates beyond manageable limits. The lock entrance consists of a lock chamber with a gate at either end, one facing the sea and the other facing the wet basin (Figure 20.13). To admit a ship, the dock side gate is closed, the water level in the chamber is brought to the level ot the sea and the sea side gate is opened. The ship then enters the chamber. The sea side gate is now closed. The water level in the chamber is brought to the level in the wet basin by pumping in or pumping out. The dock side gate is then opened and the ships are allowed to enter the dock.

1 [:
Open Sea

:ss Rece-- Chamber for /sliding Gate

-I
Wet Dock

I
I

dea Side Gate

Loc Chamber
Dock Side
Figure 20.13: PZam of Lock Gate

\k

at el

The cross-section of the lock is shown in Figure 20.14. The cross-section consists of two walls and an impervious floor. The length, width and depth of the lock should be sufficient to admit ships of the sizes expected. The length varies from 200 to 300 m, the width is in the range of 25 to 45 m and the depth is in the range of 8 to 18 m. The lock gates Can be of two types: 1) Ship caissons 2) Sliding caissons The ship caisson is a ship-like structure, which can be floated and lowered into the grooves of the gate entrance. The sliding caisson has a recess inside the dock to take back the gate when it is opened (Figure 20.13). Large sized punbps are needed to pump in and pump out the water.

Water Transportation

(. j
..
.

p o n c r e t c Wall

\.

-.

- Conduit for

Figure 20.14: Cross-section of a L t ~ k Gate

20.5.6 Dry Docks

Dry docks, also known as Graving docks, are meant for repair of ships. They are basins made by excavations in the foreshore of the harbour, having entrances closed with gates and of such dimensions as to be capable of receiving, with adequate clearance, the maximum sized ship to be docked therein. The dry dock gatk is first opened after the water level in the dry dock is equal to that of the water in the wet dock. The ship is floated into the dry dock, the gate is closed and the water in the interior is pumped out. The ship is made to settle on the keel blocks provided at the floor of the dry dock, and stays are provided to keep it in position. On completion of the repairs, the dock is flooded, the gate opened and the ship is allowed to move out. The dimensions of the dry dock are selected to suit the maximum dimensioils of ships expected to use the dock. Width can be in the range of 20 to 30 m, length can be in range of 200 to 300 m and the depth can be in the range of 8 to 15 m.

The walls and the floor must be watertight. They can be constructed in masonry or mass concrete.
A typical cross-section is given in Figure 20.15. A plan is given in Figure 20.16.

,
- .

Paving

urnping Water
. $ , '

, ,

. _ .'
.. * . :

*..

., . , .
. >

Rgllre 20.15 Cmss sertiou of Dry Dock

; -Recess for Housing Sliding Gate

Figure 20.16: Plan uf Dry Dock

r ne forces acting on the masonry of the dry dock are:

When empty

1)
2)

Upward hydrostatic pressure transmitted to side-wall by arch action. Downward weight of abutments and floor. Earth pressure on the side walls

3)

4) Surcharge load on the pavement adjacent to the side walls When empty and docked with ship
1)

Upward hydrostatic pressure transmitted to the side walls by arch action Downward weight of abutments and floor. Earth prassure' on the side walls Surcharge load on the pavement adjacent to the side walls Weight of ship transmitted through the keel and bilge blocks.

2) 3)
4) 5)

Dry Dock filled with water All the above loads plus the weight of water act on the structure. The weight of masonry weight below the water level and dry weight above. will be the submer~ed
Dry Dock during construction

Masonry loads, upward hydrostatic pressure and ead-pressure forces come into play as the construction proceeds, and the safety of the, structure must be checked under these conditions. Dry docks can also be of the 'floatingn type. A floating dry dock is a structure made of steel or reinforced Concrete, capable of being submerged by the admission of water to its interior compartments, at which stage, if desired, a ship is floated into position. The structure is then raised by remdving water from its interior compartments by pumping. Figure 20.17 gives a sketch of a floating dry dock.

Floating Dry Dock

Figure 2 . 7 Floating Dry Dork 01:

SAQ 2
a) In what way has wind an influence on the design of harbours? b) What is a tide? How is it caused? c) What are spring tides? What are neap tides? d) How many spring tides and neap tides occurs in a lunar month? e) How is the mean sea level (MSL) defined?
f)

What is a tidal range?

g) How are waves caused?

Water 'rransportatiou

h) What are the equathns that relate to wave functions? i) What is the Stevenson's Formula for wave height?
j)

What is "fetch"'?

k) What are the forces caused by waves on harbour works? 1) What are the elements of a harbour layout?

m) What are the considerations on selecting a layout for a harbour entrance

channel? n) What factors govern the width of a harbour entrance channel? o) What are the typical widths of harbour entrance channels? p) What should be the depth of harbourentrance channels? q) What should be the radius of a turning basin at harbour entrance? r) What is a breakwater'? s) What are the typical types of breakwater? t) What are the forces acting on a breakwater'?
u) What are wet docks and dry docks?

v) What is an open berth? w) What are the elements of a wet dock?

x) Give typical lengths of berths for various types of ships.

y) What are the typical depths of a dock wall?
z) What are the features of a dock wall?

aa) What are the forces for which a dock wall is designed? bb) What is a lock entrance? cc) What are the typical dimensions of a lock entrance? dd) What are the types of lock gates? ee) What are dry docks?
ff) What are the typical difnensions of a dry dock?

gg) What are the forces of which a dry dock is designed? hh) What is a floating dry dock?

20.6

TRANSIT SHEDS AND WAREHOUSES

Transit Sheds are covered structures one or two stories in height, devoted to the handling and distribution of incoming and outgoing cargo. They provide protection to the cargo from the rain and the sun. They are used for storage for a short time. They are provided behind the quays. On the other hand, warehouses are similar covered structures, which cater to storage of cargoes for a longer period. They are provided behind the transit sheds or on shore. "Bonded" warehouse are those which are used for the storage of dutiable articles, remaining under custom seal, until the customs duties are paid.

Air, water 'lrausports & Other Sjstems

20.6.1 Features of Transit Sheds and Warehouses

The following are the features of transit sheds and warehouses: lj 2) 3)
4)

They are generally constructed as framed structures in steel, R.C.C or prestressed concrete. They have a roof of corrugated G.1 sl~eets AC sheets or thin RCC shells. or They should be fire retarding. The width of the transit shed is in the range of 20 to 30 metres. There should be adequate openings, which can be closed or opened by sliding doorways.

5)

6 ) If the sheds are two storied, there should be a gallery outside the shed to receive the unloaded cargo and the outgoing cargo, which are handled by dock cranes.

7)
8)

They should be well lighted and ventilated. Adequate tire protection arrangements should be provided. There should be a sinall office space for the shed manager and his staft', co~nplete with telephone facilities.

9)

10) The clear height of the tloor is in the range of 5 to 7 metres. 1 1) Forklifts and other handling devices should be available. 12) The area between the quay wall and the shed should be wide enough to provide for a rail track, roadway and gantry cranes. A width of 8 to 25 m is desirable. The area should be well paved. 13) The area between the transit shed and warehouse should also be paved. of 14) The le~lgth the transit shed depends upon the quantum of cargo to be handled at the berth from one ship. The length has to bear a relation to the length of the berth. If the ship size is such that the length required is greater than the berth length, Inore stories are provided vertically. An illustrative problem of calculating the space required is given at the end of the Unit. A typical cross-section showing a transit shed in relation to the auay wall is given in Figure 20 117

Transit Shed --. - -. 25 m

25 m

--

Rock
Figure 20.18: Transit Shed and Warehouse Location

Ware House .....-25 m Space for Road and Rail

1
I

20.7

JETTIES, LANDING STAGES AND WHARVES

2 . . Jetties 071
Jetties are structures, which project into the sea from the shore. They can be constructed into deep sea or inside a protected basin. When they are inside a protected basin, as in a wet dock, they are designed with gravity wall just like a dock wall. A jetty inside a wet dock is shown in Figure 20.19. Such a jetty is also called a pier. An open jetty in tidal waters is shown schematically in Figure 20.20. It is also known by the term mole. The cross-section of the jetty consisting of pile foundations and R.C.C framework is also shown therein. The jetty accommodates a road and rail track. At the

a round shape enables vehicles to turn around. Fenders protect the R.C.C trestles impact from ships. Sea

Water

Wet Dock Berths

A F n t r a n c e

rn
Figure 20.20: RCC l'restle Jetty

SktLnX-X

#.7.2

Landing Stages

landing srage is a floating structure, usually a pontoon or a barge, which is secured, to e shore by mooring chains. Small ships can dock against the loading stage. The ading stage pontoon is connected to the shore by a bridge.

q.7.3 Wharves
wharf is a wall built along a shoreline to receive ships and facilitate the loading and loading of cargo. Wharf wall parallel to the shore is also known as quay wall. harves perpendicular to the shore line are known as piers or jetties. The wharf wall can of the gravity type, which has been dealt with under section 20.5. It can also be of piles driven sufficiently into the ground. Sheet piles can also be anchored.

lp.7.4 Dolphins, Buoys and Light Houses

olpl~ins marine structures for positioning (moorings) vessels. They are formed into are cluster of piles, which are wrapped in a.galvanised cable. The piles are driven into firm ta. They are designed to resist the forces due to impact of ships and current. For ling with bigger ships, sheet-pile cells or concrete cells may also be employed. oys are employed for demarcatioil of entrances, channels and dangers on shoals. They ced at intervals on either side of the channel-way. They are moored to heavy hors, which may be iron blocks or concrete blocks, by means of galvanised iron c bles.

Air, Water 'l'ransports & Other Systems

Light Houses

Light houses are permanent structures located on land or in an island or rock outcrop to warn against dangerous promontories, points and bars. They are specially provided at entrances to bays and harbours. The lights are fixed or revolving or tlashing. They are ge1,erally built like a tower, designed to resist forces of wind, wave and current. There is a main entrance door at the bottom and a flight of winding stairs leading to the light. At locations where permanent light houses cannot be built, light ships are employed. Such ships are of staunch constructions and need to be steady under severe storm conditions.

20.8

INLAND WATER TRANSPORT

Inland Water Transport (IWT) deals with the movement of men and materials in barges and boats on inland navigational waterways. The waterways can be: 1) 2) 3)
4)

Canals Rivers Lakes Backwater of seas Bays

5)

20.8.1 Advantages
The advantages of IWT operations are:
1)

They are very economical to operate They involve minimum of investment on channels and vessels They are highly labour intensive and generate considerable employment They are pollution free They make little demands on land

2) 3)
4)

5)

20.8.2 Sh~rtcomings
Their shortcomiilgs are: 1) 2)
3)
4)

Slow speed Seasonable limitations Low accessibility Involve transhipment and multi-model movement

20.8.3 IWT in India and Abroad

Many countries, like USA, Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and France have developed IWT to a high degree of efficiency. In India, IWT is yet to be developed on a large scale. The Ganga and Bramhaputra Rivers are being used for river navigation to some extent. The backwaters of Kerala provide good conditions for IWT.

20.8.4 Vessels for IWT, Draft and Width of Channel

Mechanically propelled boats and barges are the modern vessels used for IWT. Channels having a depth of 2 to 3 metres are required for good operational efticiency. A ininimuin width of 5 nt for a channel is needed. The barges may be self propelled or towed. The river waterways need to be continually dredged and maintained.

20.8.5 Terminal Facilities

For handling of cargo and passengers, landing stages or jetties are needed. Small cranes call load and unload the cargo quickly. Small sheds may be needed to store the goods and for providing shelter for passengers.

Ulater Transportation

20.9

CARGO HANDLING FACILITIES

At ports, cargo is loaded and unloaded from ships. Since time is valuable for port operations, mechanical handling facilities are common feature. Many ships have their own handling facilities such as masts, cargo booms, and winches and are able to handle the cargo by themselves. But to facilitate and ease the operations, shore cargo handling facilities are a must. They can be considered as follows: 1) 2)
3)
4)

Cranes Container Handling Facilities Bulk Cargo Handling Facilities Liquid Cargo Handling Facilities

20.9.1 Cranes
Cranes are the most common cargo handling facility in a port. They can be of various types: 1) Fixed 2)
3)

Travelling Floating

Fixed or stationary cranes are provided at important locations in a port where it is common to receive ships carrying heavy single loads. The capacity of such cranes can be in the range of 100 to 150 T. They are generally capable of revolving about the pedestal to give complete manoeuvrability. Travelling or movable cranes are the most common type. They can move along a track parallel to the quay wall. Their capacity is in the range of 3 to 15 T. The boom can be revolved, raised or lowered. The cranes are mounted on portal or semi-portal frames, designed to clear the roadway and the rail track below on the apron. A sketch of a portal . type crane is given in Figure 20.21.

Figure 20.21: Dock Craue

Floating cranes are mounted on a ship, which can move inside a dock basin. Capacity can be in the range of 50 to 200 T.

20.9.2 Container Handling

Standard containers are 20 ft and 40 ft long. The weight is in the range of 10 to 30 T. For handling them special gantry type of cranes are used. A container handling berth requires a considerable open space for stacking the containers md loading them on to railway flat cars or road vehicles. Special types of tyre ---- mounted

Air, Water
ran sports & Other Systems

handling equipments are used for stacking the containers one above the other and for loading them to rail cars and trucks. ~ h e j a r known as straddlers. e

20.9.3 Dry Bulk Handling

Dry bulk cargo consists of iron-ore, coal, food grains and fertilisers. They are handled b y , a system of conveyors or buckets. Belt conveyors and bucket conveyors are the most common systems. Clamshell bucket is commonly used for high speed unloading of bulk cargo. Materials like coal and iron ore brought in by railway wagons are emptied by bottom opening or rolling the cars over. The material is received in a depressed hopper, from where it is further conveyed directly to the ship by belt conveyors.

20.9.4 Liquid Bulk Handling

Liquid bulks like oil is handled by special pumps and a system of pipelines. Storage tanks are needed in the port area to store the liquid cargo. These are known as tank farms. Special precautions are needed while handling inflammable material.

SAQ 3
a) What are transit sheds? b) What are warehouses? c) What is a bonded warehouse? d) What arc the essential features of transit sheds and warehouses? e) What are the features of a jetty in tidal waters?
f ) What is a landing stage?

g) What are wharves? h) What are dolphins? i) What are buoys? j) What are light-houses? k) What are light ships? 1) What are the advantages of IWT? m) What are the disadvantages of IWT? n) What are the features of IWT operations?
e ' o) What are h various types of cargo handling facilities available in modem port?

p) What are the various types of cranes available in a port? What are their features'? q) What are the features of container handling facilities in a port? r) How is dry bulk cargo handled in a port?
,

s) H'ow is liquid bulk cargo handled in a port'?

20.10 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

Problem 1
The fetch of a harbour is 10 nautical miles. What is the height of wave expected?

I
I

Substituting Stevenson's formula,

= 4.74 m
I

Problem 2

The period of a wave is 5 seconds. Calculate the velocity of the wave and length of the wave.
Solution

I
(

Problem 3 A berth, 250 m long, caters to ships carrying 40,000 tomes of cargo. Design a ti-ansit shed to accommodate the cargo. The cargo has a weight of 1.5 tomes per cum.
Solution

40 000 = The volume of cargo = - 27,000 cu.m. 1.5

Assume a transit shed of 30 m width. Provide a shed of 7 r height. n Assume goods can be conveniently stacked to a height of 3 m by fork-lifts. 27,000 = Area required = - 9,000 sq.m. 3 Add one-third extra space for man occurring Total area required = 9,000 + 3,000 = 12,000 sq.m.

Length required =

12 000 -= 400 m. 30

Since the berth length is only 250 m, provide a two storied transit shed of 200 m length.

20.11 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been introduced to various aspects of water transportation Starting
with the current status of water transportation, you have been explained how the planning for water transportation facilities is done. You have been given details ofterminal %cilities such as harbours, ports, docks wharves, jetties, navigational aids, transit sheds, warehouses, and cargo handling equipment.

4ir, Water 'rrauspurts & Other Systems

Planning of water transport facilities requires knowledge of traffic, and the types of cargo to be handled. Carefully planned traffic surveys will be able to forecast the design year traffic. You have also been introduced to engineering surveys and investigations needed for port planning covering hydrographic, topographic and geotechnical surveys. You have also been presented with cargo handling facilities like cranes, container handling equipment and bulk cargo handling equipment that are features of modern ports. With the knowledge gained from this unit, you will be able to participate in the task of planning and designing water transport infrastructure facilities.

20.12 KEY WORDS

Harbour

An area partially enclosed and protected from storms and waves so as to provide a safe suitable place for vessels seeking refuge, supplies, refuelling, repairs or transfer of cargo. An artificial enclosure for the reception of ships. A dock from which water can be temporarily excluded to facilitate repairs to ships. An area of impounded water within which vessels can remain at a uniform level independent of tidal action. Facility provided at a considerable distance from the shore where ships can anchor and transfer cargo. A continuous structure, generally acting as a retaining wall, along the opening edge of the sea or a waterway. The surface on which railway tracks and crane tracks are constructed to handle cargo to and from the vessels. The structure that projects into the sea from coastal line. An isolated marine structure connected with the mainland in a restricted manner. The survey that is conducted to establish the ground level below the water. Physical survey of the land area. The depth of the keel of the ship below water line.
The periodic rise and fall of the level of ocean water.

Dock Dry Dock Wet Dock Offshore Mooring Wharf Quay Jetty Pier

Hydrographic Survey Topographic Survey Draft Tide Entrance Channel Turning Basin Breakwater Berth Dolphin Buoy Light House

The channel that connects the harbour to the deep sea. The enlargement of the entrance channel to accommodate turning of a ship. Structure that protects an area from the effect of sea waves.
A place where a ship docks for loading and unloading of cargo.

Marine structure for positioning vessels. Floating structure used for demarcation of entrances, channels and dangers on shoals. Pzrmanent structure to warn against dangers.

--

Water Transportation

Light Ship

Acts as light house where permanent light house cannot be built.

.

$0.13 ANSWERS TO SAQs

U
a) Refer section 20.2.2.
b) Refer section 20.2.3.

.-

c) Refer section 20.2.5.

d) Refer section 20.2.5.

e) Refer section 20.2.5.

t) Refer section 20.2.6. g) Refer section 20.3.1.

h) Refer section 20.3.2.

i) Refer section 20.3.4.

j)
1)

Refer section 20.3.5. Refer section 20.3.6.

k) Refer section 20.3.5. rn) Refer section 20.3.7. n) Refer section 20.3.8. o) Refer section 20.3.9. a) Refer section 20.4.2.
b) Refer section 20.4.3.

c) Refer section 20.4.3.

d) Refer section 20.4.3.

e) Refer section 20.4.3.

f) Refer section 20.4.3.

g) Refer section 20.4.4.

h) Refer section 20.4.4.
i) j)

Refer section 20.4.4. Refer section 20.4.4.

k) Refer section 20.4.4.

1) Refer section 20.4.5.

rn) Refer section 20.4.6.

n) Refer section 20.4.6. o) Refer section 20.4.6.

p) Refer section 20.4.6.

q) Refer section 20.4.7.

r) Refer section 20.4.9.1.

s) Refer section 20.4.9.2.

Air, Water

'[ransports cYr Other Systems

t) Refer section 20.4.9.3. u) Refer section 20.5.1 .

v) Refer section 20.5.2. w) Refer section 20.5.3.
x) Refer section 20.5.4.

y) Refer section 20.5.4.

z) Refer section 20.5.5.8 aa) Refer section 20.5.5.

bb) Refer section 20.5.6.

cc) Refer section 20.5.6. dd) Refer section 20.5.6.

ee) Refer section 20.5.7.
fF) Refer section 20.5.7.

gg) Refer section 20.5.7.

hh) Refer section 20.5.7.

SAQ 3

a) Refer section 20.6.1.

h) Refer section 20.6.1 .

c) Refer section 20.6.1.

d) Refer section 20.6.2.

e) Refer section 20.7.1.

f)

Refer section 20.7.2.

g) Refer section 20.7.3

h) Refer section 20.7.4

i)

Refersection20.7.4

j) Refer section 20.7.4

k) Refer section 20.7.4

1)

Refer section 20.8.2.

m) Refer section 20.8.3.

n) Refer section 20.8.5 and 20.8.6. o) Refer section 20.9.1.
p) Refer section 20.9.2.

q) Refer section 20.9.3.

r) Refer section 20.9.4. s) Refer section 20.9.5.