NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY

Integrated Project Delivery and Landscape Architecture Curriculum:

Perceived Benefits & Challenges to Curricular Integration
W.C. Harrison 5/8/2012

This paper examined benefits and challenges of including Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) systems into landscape architecture curriculum. It provides a literature review of IPD (specifically, Information Modeling (IM) and derivatives) and effects of IPD integration into corollary design practices. Through literature review and Diffusion of Innovations Theory, this paper hypothesizes: 1) IPD and IM can enhance landscape architecture project delivery, particularly in the design development phase, and 2) landscape architecture academia represents the late majority and knowledge stage of innovation adoption. Diffusion of Innovations seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. Speculative benefits included enhanced visualization of design change impacts and more efficient calculations of materials and sharing of design documentation with corollary professionals. A survey solicited perceptions of benefits and barriers to IPD

1 adoption from the site design community specifically targeting landscape architecture faculty Also a phone survey was conducted to assess the level of IPD and IM implementation into landscape architecture programs. Survey results provided insight into the challenges associated with adopting new technologies. The phone survey revealed that 79% of landscape architecture programs were not considering including IPD or IM into future curriculum while 2% have integrated them. Approximately 58% of electronic survey respondents were not aware of IPD. Although not conclusive, findings suggested IPD and IM were becoming more prevalent in site design. Landscape architecture lags behind corollary professions in implementation of integrated innovations. Failure to embrace innovations places landscape architect programs at a huge disadvantage in professional practice.

Keywords: Building Information Modeling (BIM), Site Information Modeling (SIM), Information Modeling (IM), Landscape architecture curriculum, Site Design, Technology, Diffusion of Innovations

Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4 Research Question ...................................................................................................... 11 1.0 Literature Review ....................................................................................................... 12 1.1 Landscape Architecture Curricula .................................................................... 12 1.2 Design Development in the Landscape Architecture Curricula ................ 14 1.3 Integrated Project Development (IPD) & Information Modeling (IM) ....... 15 1.4 IPD and Landscape Architecture Curricula .................................................... 26 1.5 Diffusion of Innovations Theory ........................................................................... 31 Summary of Findings ................................................................................................... 36 2.0 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 37 3.0 Results .......................................................................................................................... 40 3.1 Benefits and Challenges ...................................................................................... 40 3.2 Diffusion of Innovations Theory ........................................................................... 41 4.0 Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 45 5.0 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 47 6.0 References.................................................................................................................. 49 Appendix ........................................................................................................................... 53 Figure 1. Survey ............................................................................................................. 53 Acronyms ....................................................................................................................... 59

3 Definitions....................................................................................................................... 61 Organization Overview............................................................................................... 66 Figure 3. Survey Results ............................................................................................... 75 Figure 4. Phone Survey ................................................................................................ 82 Figure 5. Question Matrix ............................................................................................ 84 Figure 6. Word Cloud .................................................................................................. 85 Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... 86

Introduction
No man is an island unto himself, John Donnes (1572-1641) famous quote applies to landscape architecture. Much of what landscape architects do touches upon and is often dictated by other disciplines; i.e., architecture, engineering, and construction management. Certainly, landscape architecture is not an island unto itself, making it imperative to implement IPD systems. Landscape architecture does not want to find itself alone on an island. Why should landscape architecture programs implement IPD systems and what challenges will be encountered? Design development, the process of translating conceptual design ideas into implementable documentation, is a critical skill set for landscape architecture project delivery. In professional practice and in education, the successful achievement of efficient design development processes can greatly enhance the quality of design projects. Additionally, with increasingly complicated design projects requiring more complex collaborations with corollary professions, there is a need for increased clarity and efficiency in the design development process. Landscape architects have adopted numerous conventions to this end with Computer-Aided Design (CAD) being the most prominent set of tools used to streamline design development. Architecture, engineering, and construction management disciplines have also been in the pursuit of increased efficiencies in project delivery. Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) emerged as a process to address this pursuit. IPD is a project delivery approach that integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that collaboratively harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to optimize project results, increase value to the owner, reduce waste, and maximize efficiency through all phases of design,

5 fabrication, and construction. (AIA, 2011) IPD emerged from innovations in project management and the need for more effective design project integration with increasingly complex sites and collaborative design partnerships. Building Information Modeling (BIM) emerged as an application of IPD that uses visualization and database tools to create efficiencies in communication and decision making in design project delivery. Although more common in large scale architecture and engineering projects, Jim Sipes, ASLA, a national leader in BIM training, writes, The concept of BIM can be expanded beyond buildings to include Site Information Models (SIM), Land Information Models (LIM), and even Program Information Management (PIM). (Sipes, pg. 10) Examples of Information Modeling (IM) approaches in Landscape Architecture practice include (Sipes, pg.32-37): United States Coast Guard (USCG) Command Center Approximately three million square feet of facilities was rendered in high detail using Graphisoft ArchiCAD. In its Command Center project at Yerba Buena Island, California, the USCG sought to develop a BIM application that would allow it to focus on the big picture. This complex project included developing a 1,200 square foot sector command center, renovating 6,000 square feet of existing office space, and converting 11,000 square feet of barracks into new office space. Disney's California AdventureParadise Pier Walt Disney Imagineering (WDI) used 4D models to plan the construction of Paradise Pier, which is part of Disneys California Adventure in Anaheim, California. Paradise Pier includes the longest roller coaster track in the world. It was critical that the track erection sequence allow for ride test and adjustments so the project would be completed on time. BIM was used to model the track and other attractions at the pier and to help

6 coordinate the contractual sequence of the work. The BIM model enabled the design team to produce very accurate, detailed construction documents for the project. As a result, bids were within two percent of each other because contractors had a good understanding of what was expected. Change orders were minimal and the construction was completed on time and within budget. Higginson Park Higginson Park is the major open space in Marlow, United Kingdom. In 2005, a limited design competition was held for a new modern pavilion in the park. The scheme selected was developed by the firm of Markland Klaschka Ltd. with landscape architect Whitelaw Turkington. According to Markland Klaschka, the primary reason for using a BIM workflow was to achieve the design flexibility it delivers. We had to produce production information to prove the scheme buildable, says Robert Klaschka (2006 BE Awards). The visual images were important, in part because this was a design competition, but also to help communicate the impact the pavilion would have on the park. According to Robert Klaschka, We knew that if we just went with the visuals, although they are really juicy, that wasnt going to be the only thing to win the competition. BIM really allows us to push the model hard: It gives us the ability to do more than one thing (2006 BE Awards). Increasingly, the professional practice demands for IM approaches will impact Landscape Architecture curricula, especially in design development. Not unlike the impact of AutoCAD on design development curricula, it is conceivable to speculate that BIM and SIM could have the same impact on courses. The universities listed are just a sample of the many schools beginning to implement IM and IPD into their curriculum (Autodesk, 2012):

Penn State University Penn State stresses IPD concepts throughout its architecture and engineering curricula, training students to participate effectively in interdisciplinary design teams. In their final years, students participate in collaborative cross-departmental courses and studios, using BIM solutions to help develop, explore, and analyze building designs and experience first-hand the benefits of using an interdisciplinary IPD approach. Two studio courses in particular emphasize collaboration between students across disciplines. One is a BIM capstone project that focuses on integrating AE mechanical, structural, lighting, and construction engineering students. The other is an interdisciplinary collaborative BIM studio offered during a students fourth, fifth, or graduate year depending on the academic program. Both studios rely upon BIM software for design development and information sharing. In the collaborative BIM studio, graduate and undergraduate students from six different disciplinesarchitecture, landscape architecture, construction, and structural, mechanical, and lighting/electrical engineeringare tasked with the design of a project using BIM software for data collection, analysis, design development, data coordination, and project presentations. Outside design professionals participate in work sessions and project reviews. By closely engaging students in each others work, the studio experience gives them insight into the technical, aesthetic, and social aspects of a collaborative design process. In 2011, this studio received an honorable mention in the NCARB Prize Program for Creative Integration of Practice and Education in the Academy.

8 Cincinnati University The University of Cincinnati offers a capstone design course for its structural engineering undergraduate students and first year operativeeducation-based Master of Architecture students. This capstone experience introduces the students to the concepts and applications of BIM and IPD, as well as fostering online collaboration between the students, preparing them for leadership and innovation in an increasingly globalized industry. During the latest capstone project, structural engineering students participated in the course for three quarters of their senior year and the architecture students for two quarters. With this format, the teams developed a preliminary design during the first quarter of the course. The architecture students had early access to structural engineering expertise, helping them make design decisions based on constructability and cost. In the following quarters, the teams progressed into design development, with the structural engineering students finishing the course with more advanced structural design and analysis. The capstone course featured a real building client and building project a large multinational hotel chain expanding into the United States. The client is developing standardized hotel designs that will appeal to a Generation Y market from an aesthetic and functional point of view. In addition, the standardized design must be structurally suited for all areas of the United States, including earthquake, hurricane, and heavy snow zones. Each teamwhich included both architectural and engineering studentstackled market research, design studies, program reviews,

9 schematic design, design development, and structural analysis. The student teams interacted virtually with each other throughout the project as well as with the client, who provided input and feedback on the design development throughout the project. Yale University Yale Universitys School of Architecture offers a collaborative design course to its second year graduate students. The course is an integrated workshop and lecture series in which students use BIM software to develop the technical systems of preliminary design proposals from their earlier studio work. Coursework includes the advancement of structural form and detail, environmental systems, and envelope design, as well as an understanding of the constructive processes from which a building emerges. In this course, the student architectural teams are challenged with the task of turning an architectural design into a building design and addressing issues of constructability and the integration of building systems. During their classwork, the teams are shepherded by architects, structural engineers, and mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) engineersgenerally outside design professionalsto simulate a multidiscipline environment. Kent State University Kent States College of Architecture and Environmental Design (CAED) offers degree programs in architecture, interior design, urban design, and architectural studies. In their undergraduate years, CAED students receive BIM training in computing classes and use computer applications in their coursework, including classes in digital fabrication.

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In their senior year, students participate in an integrated design studio. This integrated design studio has been a mainstay of the professional program in architecture at the Kent State for more than 30 years and is the culminating class of a CAED students education. Using the knowledge gained throughout their undergraduate experience, students develop a capstone project that includes architectural, structural, and ME design disciplines. The school reaches out to the commercial sector to represent the structural and MEP disciplines. The course objective is for students to formulate well-conceived design solutions by integrating base knowledge from their prior coursework, including the interrelationship of building systems. In addition, a significant aspect of the learning experience is the teamwork necessary to successfully complete the project. The students work primarily in teams of two or three people (not including the outside structural and MEP consultants). In addition to the preparation of students for employment at firms that use BIM, some speculations on benefits are possible. These benefits include: enhanced comprehension of design decisions, enhanced cross-discipline collaboration, and enhanced comprehension of the materials being used. Gordon V.R. Holness P.E., former society treasurer of The American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) writes, Experience has shown that not only can BIM deliver projects faster, cheaper and better but also have the potential to gain the added benefits of being safer and greener. (Holness, pg. 44)

11 Research Question Forty-five percent of landscape architecture programs reported having no plans to incorporate IPD or IM into their curriculum. Approximately 58% of electronic survey respondents reported not even being aware of IPD. Is the scarcity of landscape architecture curricula, including IPD, a reflection of a lack of professional demand for the IPD skill set? Is it a lack of faculty training and expertise? Is it a lack of facilities and technology to effectively teach it? Since the few curricula that include IPD are in multi-disciplinary environments IPD (Penn State, Cal Poly, etc.), is the lack of IPD in many landscape architecture curricula a reflection of the lack of IPD in the curricular interests of corollary professionals? Little is known about the perceived benefits and challenges to IPD integration into landscape architecture curricula. This paper asks the following research question: what are the perceived benefits and challenges to incorporating IPD into landscape architecture curricula by landscape architecture faculty? This paper uses a literature review to introduce Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) and Information Modeling (IM). It describes professional and academic efforts to apply IPD strategies and begins to identify how IPD resulted in more efficient project delivery, especially in design development. IPD integration into design practice and curriculum is discussed in the context of Diffusion of InnovationsTheory (Rogers, 1995), and the literature review is used to frame issues related to potential benefits and challenges to integration in landscape architecture curriculum. Some hypothesized benefits include: 1) enhanced visualization of the impacts of design changes, 2) better understanding of materials, 3) a promotion of collaborative multidisciplinary studio, and 4) improved efficiencies. Additionally, some hypothesized challenges with curricular integration are presented. These challenges include: 1) lack of departmental/program awareness; 2) faculty skill and experience with IPD; 3)

12 lack of training resources and facilities for IPD training; 4) lack of resources to purchase and use IPD, and 5) lack of corollary professional pressure for IPD training (particularly in landscape programs sharing curricula with architecture, engineering, and construction management programs). The literature review frames questions used in a survey of site design professionals with an emphasis on landscape architecture faculty. The survey probes the perceived benefits and challenges to integrating IPD into curricula. The findings of the survey interrogate the initial assumptions about perceived benefits and barriers to IPD integration and provide valuable insights for educators considering implementation of enhanced design development capabilities.

1.0 Literature Review

1.1 Landscape Architecture Curricula

Lei Feng, Xiaodan Zhao, & Yan Liu from the Department of Architecture, Henan Technical College of Construction, describe four major problems that exist in current Landscape Architecture curricula: 1) insufficient training for students in basic skills; 2) insufficiency in comprehensive quality; 3) unvaried teaching content and methods; and 4) lack of students engaging in practical teaching. Another interesting point raised by Lei Feng, Xiaodan Zhao, & Yan Liu is the administration of design theory. In order to avoid prating design theory, the teachers should combine with the most updated scientific development and hot issues in the selected cases, so as to make the students know and manage the up-to-date information and development. (Lei Feng, Xiaodan Zhao, & Yan Liu, pg. 139) Though this approach is debatable, some credence should be given to the confusion experienced by students when first exposed to design

13 theory. Smith, professor of Architecture at the University of Cincinnati, writes, A curriculum should be thought of as a well-designed package of integral components each of which serve in the capacity of the others. It is not an effective educational strategy merely to introduce material in a sequential pattern or link courses together, such as giving a theater design project while the students are taking an introductory acoustics course. We must adopt a model of architectural education in which the various germane issues are presented in terms of their theoretical foundations and their architectural significance in a manner that is integral to the rest of the curriculum. (Smith, pg. 7) Smith goes on to explain that some architectural programs are creating faculty teams to guide studios. These teams are comprised of faculty with different areas of expertise, to provide students with a more holistic resource to inform their design decisions. Smith writes, Unfortunately, successful teams are difficult to assemble in today's world of academia where most faculty are often overworked, underpaid, and/or not fully committed to the concept of the team. (Smith, pg. 8) There are many sources on the integration of technology-mainly multimediainto primary and secondary curricula but very little into site design curricula. Most of the information pertaining to CAD in the site design fields speaks about their application and not implementation into curricula. Though written in the late 80s, Dr. Marscaleks, from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, paper, A New Approach to Curriculum Development in Environmental Design, does include a production related category in his curricula description, which one would assume would have included computer related topics in present time. Lei Feng, Xiaodan Zhao, & Yan Liu write, It (multimedia teaching) is good for cultivating students' creative thinking and improving their image thinking ability. Therefore, multimedia teaching is one of the best teaching methods of Landscape Architecture education. (Lei Feng, Xiaodan Zhao, & Yan Liu, pg.

14 139) Again, this looks at the implementation of multimedia tools, but not CAD, and certainly not augmentations of it. There is a definite need for study in this area to help facilitate the implementation of technical tools to assist in the increasingly complex and interwoven site design practice.

1.2 Design Development in the Landscape Architecture Curricula

The needs of Landscape Architecture practice presumably impact the content and delivery of Landscape Architecture curricula. Design development, the translation of conceptual design into implementable documentation, is achieved using a wide range of tools and techniques, and is increasingly reliant on competencies in digital design media. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) revolutionized the design development process by using technology to draft, modify, and share design documentation more efficiently. These advantages over what was previously a hand-drawn documentation process are well established. These efficiencies impacted Landscape Architecture professional expectations of student learning, faculty skill sets, and resources dedicated to the design development process. The Landscape Architecture Body of Knowledge (LABOK) report articulates a base framework and expectation of the body of knowledge expected from Landscape Architecture curricula. Of the nine domains identified, two are focused on design development and the transformation of concepts to implementable documentation: 1) Site design engineering: Materials, Methods, Techniques and Applications; and 2) Construction Documentation and Administration. Through the guidance of a working group and analysis of program survey results, the LABOK report provides a snapshot of professional and academic

15 perceptions of the needs of Landscape Architecture curricula. When asked what design development skill sets were very important to professional practice, 82.75% of respondents reported that the ability to prepare construction documents was very important (Table 19).

1.3 Integrated Project Development (IPD) & Information Modeling (IM)

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) has become an integral component in the design process and, with the exponential growth of technology, will only become more essential. CAD is software used in art, architecture, engineering, and manufacturing to aid in precision drawing. Ivan Sutherland is often credited as being a major contributor to CAD with his PhD thesis Sketchpad, at MIT in the 1960s. Ironically, unlike most CAD systems today, Sketchpad enlisted the use of a light pen that designers used to draw directly onto their computer monitor. Today, over 60 years later, there is a focus on creating more intuitive and natural ways for users to interact with computers. This has manifested in CAD as tablets, touch screens, and even incipient gesture recognition interface technologies. Integrated Project Delivery, sometimes referred to as concurrent engineering, is a recent category in the evolution of CAD in the site design world. IPD is a strategy that replaces the traditional sequential site development process with one in which tasks are performed analogously by all design team members. It provides instant feedback to all team members as they manipulate the site design by showing how their manipulations affect those made by the rest of the teams, both graphically and non-graphically. The goals of IPD are to optimize project results, reduce waste, and maximize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication, construction, and even maintenance. Holness stated, The

16 benefits [of IPD] can be substantial, with the potential savings in construction cost alone expected to range from 15% to 40%, with parallel reductions in construction schedules and improvements in quality. (Holness, pg. 39) An example is a landscape architect who is grading a site. In order to accommodate the grading, a civil engineer would review a digital or print representation of the change, or at best an x-ref. The civil engineer would then proceed to modify the storm water management systems and relay the changes back to the landscape architect in a circular, yet sequential order. In an IPD environment, as soon as the landscape architect made the grading change they would be instantly informed how their manipulation to grade has affected run off velocity, storm water management systems, and all of the other site components. These innovations lend themselves to the ever more connected world of site design. The ability to work on one file concurrently, provide instant quantitative and qualitative feedback, and being able to expand these abilities to a design team stationed virtually all over the world are the essence of IPD. Information Modeling (IM) is an integral component of IPD and is a system of evaluating geometry, spatial relationships, light analysis, geographic information, quantities, and properties of a buildings components. Though Building Information Modeling (BIM) is the most prevalent form of IM, it can be expanded beyond buildings to include Site Information Models (SIM), Land Information Models (LIM), and even Program Information Management (PIM). (Sipes, pg. 10) The Building Smart Alliance, a council of the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) is an organization, helping to make the North American real property industry more efficient by leading the creation of tools and standards that allow projects to be built electronically before they are built physically using

17 Building Information Modeling (BIM).( Building Smart Alliance, 2012) They are currently working with the following governmental and private organizations to promote the use of BIM (an overview of the organizations can be found in the Appendix D):

Governmental Organizations

1. General Services Administration (GSA) 2. U.S. Air Force Building Information Modeling for MILCON Transformation 3. U.S. Army - Civil Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL) 4. U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)

Private Organizations

1. 7group 2. American Institute of Architects (AIA) 3. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) 4. American Society for Quality (ASQ) 5. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 6. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 7. American Society of Professional Estimators 8. American Society of Interior Designers (ASID) 9. Association of General Contractors of America (AGC) BIM Forum 10. Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) 11. Continental Automated Buildings Association (CABA) 12. Canadian Green Building Council (CaGBC)

18 13. Center for Facilities and Environment (CIFE) 14. Construction Industry Institute (CII) 15. Construction Managers Association of America (CMAA) 16. Construction Owners Association of America (COAA) 17. Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) 18. Construction Users Round Table (CURT) 19. Design Build Institute of America (DBIA) 20. FIATECH 21. Georgia Tech AEC Integration Lab 22. Institute for Market Transformation to Sustainability (MTS) 23. International Center for Facilities (ICF) Ottawa 24. International Code Council (ICC) - SMARTcodes 25. International Facilities Managers Association (IFMA) 26. Lean Construction Institute (LCI) 27. National Academy of Sciences Federal Facilities Council (FFC) 28. National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) 29. National Association of Surety Bond Producers (NASBP) 30. Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) 31. Open Standards Consortium for Real Estate (OSCRE) 32. PRO IT: Finnish Consortium of Modelers 33. Project Management Institute Design Procurement Construction Specific Interest Group (DPC-SIG) 34. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association (SMACNA) 35. Specifications Consultants in Independent Practice (SCIP) 36. Sustainable Buildings Industry Council (SBIC) 37. U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC)

19 NIBS also reported that recently the United Kingdom g\Government initiated a strategy for the requirement of building information modeling (BIM) on all projects within 5 years. Although a minimum project size was initially set, it is felt this was arbitrary and will likely be eliminated. The starting point for the UKs implementation is Construction Operations Building information exchange (COBie) using a spreadsheet as a base from which everyone can work. They see BIM and COBie as significant parts of their carbon reduction strategy. COBie is open BIM standards based using the international standard ISO 16739 or IFC, which is at the heart of the building SMART alliance approach. COBie was recently added to the National BIM Standard-United Statess. Sipes forecasted this trend in his 2008 Landscape Architect Technical Information Series contribution, Soon, all major design and construction projects will require BIM at one level or another. There will be opportunities for collaboration at a much higher level than ever before, and landscape architects should play a major role in addressing even the most complex design, planning, and construction projects. (Sipes, pg. 2) Even though IM has been on the market since the 1980s and has been embraced by many private and public organizations, it has not been embraced by the Landscape Architecture profession. Flohr wrote, Currently IPD and BIM software are being developed by the software and construction industry with American Institute of Architects at the helm, and landscape architects have little to no voice in this process. (Flohr, pg. 170) According to Holness, compared to other industries (automotive, aircraft, petrochemical, etc.), the design and construction industry has been slow to embrace the tremendous opportunities afforded by this technology. Perhaps one way to explain this disparity is three myths described by Marc Goldman who led the global BIM business efforts for Pinnacle InfoTech Inc. and Satellier Inc. in a 2011 Design Intelligence article (Goldman, 2011):

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Myth: Not Enough Content

Due to the relatively recent introduction of IM into the site design field, a common complaint is the lack of a complete library for IM applications. This issue is averted by the ability for all IM software to provide functionality for customizing and creating new content.

Myth: Its Immature

Goldman writes, There exists a belief that BIM software is immature or simply not applicable to the field of Landscape Architecture. This is the leading barrier to adoption of BIM for landscape. (Goldman, 2011) However, IM applications can be successfully applied to landscape because IM is fundamentally about intelligent objects that work on a database foundation. There are also several existing applications such as Civil3D, Landmark, and Revit that can currently be used for the landscape architecture practice.

Myth: Poor Data Exchange

Due to the information latent nature of IM, the issue of content access and sharing is an important issue. This is essentially where the overarching concept of Integrated Project Delivery comes into action. Numerous workflow solutions that improve collaboration are being developed along with IM standards, such as the efforts being made by the Smart Building Alliance.

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However, IM is quickly becoming integrated into site design practice for professions corollary to Landscape Architecture. The most prominent manifestation of IM is Building Information Modeling (BIM) which focuses on built structures. At the 2009 AIA Convention, Neeley wrot, Design professionals are moving to BIM [at least two] times faster than the transition from hand drawing to CAD, which took about fifteen years. (Deutsch, pg. 4) Strong described, In many ways, the move toward BIM is an owner-driven change. Technological evolution coupled with owner demand for better, faster, less costly construction projects and more effective practices are driving change in the construction industry in general and architecture practice in particular. (Sipes, pg.4) With increasingly complex projects and with numerous professional colleagues in different locations working simultaneously, IM might become more appropriate for mainstream Landscape Architecture practice and, therefore, education. Travis Flohr, RLA, from the Department of Landscape Architecture at Penn State wrote, With current economic pressures, and clients demanding faster project delivery with a higher degree of accountability, BIM can provide an advanced software solution (Flohr, pg.170) Sipes stated that, Landscape architects frequently work with architects, many of whom are already using BIM. Being able to work with the same BIM files as architects is a huge advantage for any sub-consultants wanting to work on architecture-oriented projects. (Sipes, pg. 24) There is also opposition to BIM integration into architectural design. Peggy Deamer stated during the Autodesk Yale University symposium in 2010 that, more fundamentally the intimacy of the design process is deeply shaken by a software (BIM) whos main attribute is precisely to do away with that intimacy, an intimacy that is threatened by no longer believing in a singular author and no longer believes in the myth of inspiration. (Deamer, 2010) Renee Cheng, Head

22 of the Department of Architecture from the University of Minnesota, stated, one can easily fear a future where BIM has effectively made us too stupid to question the rules and assumptions we are meant to control. (Cheng, 2006) Integrated Project Development (IPD) and Information Modeling (IM) offer both benefits and challenges in their inclusion into site design practice. These benefits and challenges have been identified with respect to Landscape Architecture, Architecture, Engineering, and Construction Management practices:

Benefits

1. Enhanced design visualization As the nature of BIM is 3-dimensional, a virtual model of a design is able to be seen before it is constructed, or non-digitally modeled. This provides designers with almost instant aesthetic feedback on their design decisions. Three-dimensional models have great importance not only in their traditional role as a means of communicating design information but also in externalizing the designers thought process by allowing visualization of the design product. (Nahm, Y. -. & Ishikawa, H., pg. 137) 2. Reduced errors and omissions IPD can instantly detect potential flaws or errors in design schematics before an actual structure is built. This is done not only within the landscape architects scope of work, but with other collaborating fields. Sipes wrote, BIM can be used to check for compliance with building codes, Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) standards, and other requirements. This same approach can apply to a site as well. (Sipes, pg. 5) Flohr echoed this by referencing Eastman, BIM can also eliminate inefficiencies in the design and construction process. Working with a

23 central file allows for real-time updates of information so every consultant is working with current information. Automated construction documentation and centralized file repositories have saved time and money by reducing change orders (Eastman 2008). (Flohr, pg. 169) 3. More focus on value-added tasks Because BIM enables the designer to essentially work concurrently with their design and the constructability of that design, more time can be appropriated to further design exploration. James Sipes also wrote, BIM also provides opportunities to explore a broader range of design alternatives and to analyze life cycle costs for these alternatives. With a greater level of collaboration at the beginning of the project, it is possible to make many critical decisions earlier during the design part of the process. (Sipes, pg. 5) 4. Less waste of materials and time; less reworking There are ample opportunities for improving efficiency and productivity in the construction industry. The U.S. General Services Administration estimates that an integrated delivery can help reduce waste in the construction industry by more than 30 percent (Cote 2008). The increase in ability to analyze construction sequencing, means and methods, procurement evaluation, and schedule analysis will lead to faster, more efficient fabrication and construction, indicated Dan Kirby, Director of Development Services for Boyken International, Inc. (Kirby 2007).(Sipes, pg. 5) A big benefit provided by IPD and IM is increased productivity and project efficiency. Any BIM package is going to give you a change in productivity, saids AEC Infosystems President, Dianne Davis. We have documented our change as being about a 40 percent increase in productivity, and that is significant (Davis 2007). Holness stated, The

24 benefits can be substantial, with the potential savings in construction cost alone expected to range from 15% to 40%, with parallel reductions in construction schedules and improvements in quality. (Holness, pg. 39) Holness went on to explain that through these enhanced efficiency, reduced both scrap handling, and on-site transportation, lessened the use of on-site aerial lifts, minimized site disturbance, and reduced overall energy use through shorter construction schedules. (Holness, pg. 44) 5. Fewer translation errors and losses By using real-time, object based imaging and building information modeling database techniques, the architectural/engineering (A/E) drawings can facilitate the direct, seamless, and simultaneous flow of information to all parties in the construction process: owners, program managers, consultants, code officials, general contractors, trade subcontractors, suppliers, distributors, vendors, and manufacturers. The potential exists to significantly reduce the number of communication steps, eliminate the need to translate or transfer information, thereby, reducing time and cost while increasing accuracy and quality. (Holness, pg. 39)

Challenges

1. Investment Costs A major challenge to the integration of IPD and IM into both academia and professional practice is the investment costs. Holness stateds, One might ask why this radical change to using BIM hasn't already occurred. The answer lies in part in the original investment cost, which is significant. In today's highly competitive market, it is tough to cover the upfront cost. Someone has to develop the electronic database and software for every

25 component going into a building. Some of this development is being done by commercial software companies. Some work will be done by the building component manufacturers, as part of product development. Some will be done by the A/E companies themselves, tailoring and integrating the various software packages. (Holness, pg. 46) A specific aspect of this investment cost is the amount of storage space required by BIM. Sipes writes, Because of the data needs for BIM, storage is a major issue. (Sipes, pg. 7) Sipes goes on to mention the exponential growth of storage capacity that will eventually make this a mute issue. 2. Training Due to the complexity of BIM software, it is critical that practitioners receive proper training. Sipes wrote, The intelligence of BIM is built upon the experiences of countless designers and engineers who have had input in creating the software and defining the rules that govern BIM. It is critical that more experienced designers, project managers, and principals be able and willing to validate, check, and modify the data in BIM. One approach is to incorporate adequate verification points and milestones during the design and construction process to keep a project on track and to validate decisions. (Sipes, pg. 6) 3. Ownership and Liability Another challenge is the shifting and dissemination of liability amongst project participants. Sipes wrote, The increased level of integration and collaboration comes with a risk. The BIM approach is collaborative, data is shared, and the design process is iterative. Because of this, liability and risks are shared by the owner, the designer, the builder, and all other parties involved in a project. In the short term, this could cause some significant concerns because of the legal liabilities. Under the existing

26 contract structure, Landscape Architecture firms are simply not set up to accommodate the shared risk that comes with BIM. (Sipes, pg. 7)

1.4 IPD and Landscape Architecture Curricula

As stated previously, several universities have already begun incorporating IPD and IM into their curriculas. An AutoDesk report describes lessons learned and faculty advice from the implementation of BIM and IPD into Penn State, Kent State, Cincinnati University and Yale Universitys design curriculas (Autodesk, 2012): Lessons Learned

During the BIM and IPD studios, students gain skills in team building and communication, but this collaborative experience can also negatively influence the quality of the project if there is too much design by consensus. Faculty need to balance the need for practical compromises against students taking the path of least resistance.

Penn States collaborative studios can only accommodate a portion of its students based on the complexity of organizing and managing the logistics, educational schedules, student teams, and outside design professionals. As the studios and their pedagogical goals evolve, the faculty is constantly working to balance the goals against the required effort and results.

A collaborative team environment and design process can be frustrating for many students who typically work independently.

27 Expectations for team behavior and goals are discussed early in the process and monitored throughout the studio by the faculty. For students to master the basics of the BIM software and use it productively on their capstone project, software self-training needs to be paired with external expert training. The students immediately embraced the interactive, online collaboration aspects of the course. In addition, the online collaboration forced them to plan for their virtual meetings and communicateboth verbally and digitallymore precisely. However, coordinating the schedules and computing platforms of students from two colleges (architecture and engineering) was challenging. In such an interactive course, both students and faculty must be flexible with their schedules, as project dialog and critiques can occur at various timesincluding weekends and eveningsvia both scheduled and spontaneous review sessions. Charging the students with producing designs that were both innovative (architecturally) and practical (structurally) in the course timeframe was sometimes challenging for the students and reduced the quality of the student projects. The major challenges of using IPD in an educational curriculum relate to the students knowledge of the interrelationship of building systems. It is important to address a students knowledge of integrated design earlier in their education, optimizing the value of collaborative teams and decision-making in their culminating studio experience. In prior classes and studios, architectural students should go beyond

28 conceptual design to confront detailed design and the integration of building systemsproving the constructability of radical forms when appropriate. The use of building simulation software and multidiscipline design solutions in lower grades helps students explore the relationship between design and construction. This enables them to integrate their conceptual design thinking with building methods and materials, and better understand how a range of factors including aesthetics, cost, and environmental impact can influence design decisions. At the beginning of the studio, some architectural students are uncomfortable working outside their own academic discipline and are reluctant to embrace the collaborative experience. The faculty must impress upon the students that design development is a continuation of the design process and that building systems can be used as tools to advance their design. Students should receive training in the BIM software earlier in the curriculum, enabling them to focus on the collaborative design goals of the studio without the distraction of learning new software.

Faculty advice

To prevent unbalanced student teams, the faculty should be closely involved in the formation of the studio teams.

29 In schools without construction disciplines, collaborative classes and design studios should include outside construction professionals who can provide real-world input and experience. Work closely with other faculty members to produce studios that meet the needs of the students. Due to the additional faculty and resources required to manage collaborative studios, administrative support and enthusiasm is essential for the studios success. Work closely with other faculty members to produce studios that meet the needs of the students and different educational programs, building support for the studio amongst the faculty and administration. The student teams should have a critical mass to challenge each other and promote a healthy level of competition between the teams. Administrative commitment and support is crucial for a success due to the additional resources (faculty and infrastructure) required for the course. The use of a real project and a real client greatly enhances the students learning and whenever possible should be incorporated into the collaborative studio experience. Though the majority of the articles referenced were from the perspective of corollary fields and professional practice, many of the same benefits and challenges can potentially be applied to Landscape Architecture curricula:

30

Benefits

1. Enhanced design visualization 2. Reduced errors and omissions 3. More focus on value-added tasks 4. Less waste of materials and time and less reworking required 5. Fewer translation errors and losses 6. Promotion of cross-discipline collaboration

Challenges

1. Investment Costs 2. Training

31

1.5 Diffusion of Innovations Theory

Given the measurable benefits provided by adoption of IPD strategies in corollary design professions, as well as a small segment of landscape architecture curricula and practitioners, how can these trends inform the investigation of perceived barriers to a more widespread adoption of IPD in landscape architecture? Diffusion of Innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. Diffusion refers to the process in which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. Innovations are new ideas, the new application of innovations, or an idea perceived as new. When it comes to the adoption of innovations and ideas, one of the central questions surrounding diffusion research is the identification of differences between early and late adopters. Innovativeness refers to the willingness and ability to adopt new ideas earlier than other people or groups. (Diffusion of innovations, 2009) The Diffusion of Innovations theory identifies six factors that characterize adopters along with the nature of their environment: 1. Societal entity of innovators 2. Familiarity with the innovation 3. Status characteristics 4. Socioeconomic characteristics 5. Relative position in social networks 6. Personal characteristics

32 Another significant component of Rogers theory is the rate of adoption of the innovation. Five factors of adoption are described below (Diffusion of innovations, 2009): 1. Relative advantage of the innovation in comparison to existing solutions and practices 2. Compatibility with existing and potential needs and experiences 3. Complexity in terms of the degree of understanding 4. Trialability, that is, to experience the innovation to a certain degree and time period 5. Observability or degree to which an innovation or its results are observable. The thesis is that if individuals see the success of an innovation they are more likely to adopt it. Rogers theory addressed the stages of adoption of the innovation. Five stages of adoption are described below (Rogers, page 20): 1. Knowledge occurs when an individual (or other decision making unit) learns of the innovation's existence and gains some understanding of how it functions 2. Persuasion occurs when an individual (or other decision-making unit) forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation. 3. Decision occurs when an individual (or other decision-making unit) engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation.

33 4. Implementation occurs when an individual (or other decision-making unit) puts an innovation into use. Re-invention is especially likely to occur at the implementation stage. 5. Confirmation occurs when an individual (or other decision-making unit) seeks reinforcement of an innovation-decision that has already been made, but the individual may reverse this previous decision if exposed to conflicting messages about the innovation.

Rogers also identified five categories of adopters described below (National Network of Libraries of Medicine, 1997): 1. Innovators are the first 2.5 percent of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation. Venturesomeness is almost an obsession with innovators. This interest in new ideas leads them out of a local circle of peer networks and into more cosmopolite social relationships. Communication patterns and friendships among a clique of innovators are common, even though the geographical distance between the innovators may be considerable. Being an innovator has several prerequisites. Control of substantial financial resources is helpful to absorb the possible loss from an unprofitable innovation. The ability to understand and apply complex technical knowledge is also needed. The innovator must be able to cope with a high degree of uncertainty about an innovation at the time of adoption. While an innovator may not be respected by the other members of a social system, the innovator plays an important role in the diffusion process-- that of launching the new idea in the system by importing the innovation from outside the system's boundaries. Thus, the innovator plays a gatekeeping role in the flow of new ideas into a system.

34

2. Early Adopters are the next 13.5 percent of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation. Early adopters are a more integrated part of the local system than are innovators. Whereas innovators are cosmopolites, early adopters are localites. This adopter category, more than any other, has the greatest degree of opinion leadership in most systems. Potential adopters look to early adopters for advice and information about the innovation. This adopter category is generally sought by change agents as a local missionary for speeding the diffusion process. Because early adopters are not too far ahead of the average individual in innovativeness, they serve as a role-model for many other members of a social system. The early adopter is respected by his or her peers and embodies successful, discrete use of new ideas. The early adopter knows that to continue to earn esteem of colleagues and to maintain a central position in the communication networks of the system; he or she must make judicious innovation-decisions. The early adopter decreases uncertainty about a new idea by adopting it and then conveying a subjective evaluation of the innovation to near-peers through interpersonal networks. 3. Early Majority is the next 34 percent of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation. The early majority adopt new ideas just before the average member of a system. The early majority interact frequently with their peers, but seldom hold positions of opinion leadership in a system. The early majority's unique position between the very early and the relatively late to adopt makes them an important link in the diffusion process. They provide interconnectedness in the system's interpersonal networks. The early majority are one of the two most numerous adopter categories, making up one-third of the members of a system. The early majority may

35 deliberate for some time before completely adopting a new idea. "Be not the first by which the new is tried, nor the last to lay the old aside," fits the thinking of the early majority. They follow with deliberate willingness in adopting innovations, but seldom lead. 4. Late Majority is the next 34 percent of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation. The late majority adopt new ideas just after the average member of a system. Like the early majority, the late majority make up one-third of the members of a system. Adoption may be the result of increasing network pressures from peers. Innovations are approached with a skeptical and cautious air, and the late majority do not adopt until most others in their system have done so. The weight of system norms must definitely favor an innovation before the late majority are convinced. The pressure of peers is necessary to motivate adoption. Their relatively scarce resources mean that most of the uncertainty about a new idea must be removed before the late majority feel that it is safe to adopt. 5. Laggards are the last 16 percent of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation. They possess almost no opinion leadership. Laggards are the most localite in their outlook of all adopter categories; many are near isolates in the social networks of their system. The point of reference for the laggard is the past. Decisions are often made in terms of what has been done previously. Laggards tend to be suspicious of innovations and change agents. Resistance to innovations on the part of laggards may be entirely rational from the laggard's viewpoint as their resources are limited and they must be certain that a new idea will not fail before they can adopt.

36 Summary of Findings

There is very little information about the structuring of landscape architecture curricula or the integration of technology into landscape architecture curricula. The literature suggests that the majority of landscape architecture academia is not on the cutting edge of the latest technological innovations for site design practice. However, with the current economic condition, the demand for faster and more efficient project delivery, and more complex projects, IPD and IM will become more prevalent in the site design industry. Corollary professions to landscape architecture are using IPD and IM more frequently in both professional practice and academia. In addition to the economic challenges to implementing these innovations, there are also psychological barriers that contribute to current status of IPD and IM in landscape architecture academia.

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2.0 Methodology
To evaluate the hypothesized benefits and challenges associated with IPD integration, an electronic survey (Appendix A) was created to solicit the perceptions of landscape architecture faculty. In addition, a phone survey (Appendix F) was conducted to assess the level of IPD and IM implementation into landscape architecture programs in the United States. The surveys were in part informed by Everett Rogers Diffusion of Innovations Theory, a highly regarded social theory created by Rogers in 1962. The electronic survey was created and distributed online using Wufoo. Wufoo is an Internet application that enables users to create online forms. When you design a form with Wufoo, it automatically builds the database, backend and scripts needed to make collecting and understanding your data easy and efficient. Both surveys were targeted at the 70 accredited and candidacy landscape architecture programs described by the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA). Accreditation is administered by the Landscape Architectural Accreditation Board (LAAB). The accreditation process evaluates each program on the basis of its stated objectives and compliance to externally mandated minimum standards. The electronic survey was also distributed through Land8Lounge, a social networking site that is specific to site design students and professionals. An electronic survey was used because of its ability to be completed at the respondents pace, produce faster results, reduce errors, analyze data, and be easily disseminated. It was comprised of 16 multiple choice questions and 1 open-ended question. Due to low percentage of responses from the electronic survey, a phone survey was also conducted to generate additional statistical analysis information about the use of IPD/IM into landscape architecture curricula. One of the disadvantages to using the survey method is the generalization of questions in order to make them appropriate for all respondents, which can result in an exclusion of information. To alleviate this,

38 other selections were available for all applicable multiple choice questions. Additionally, respondents were able to contribute other comments during the phone interview. The electronic survey yielded a response rate of 44%. The phone survey yielded a response rate of 60%. The electronic survey was analyzed and the results organized into two categories which are further elaborated on in the Results section:

2.1 Benefits 1. Enhanced visualization of the impacts of design change 2. Better understanding of materials 3. A promotion of collaborative multidisciplinary studio 4. Improved efficiencies 2.2 Challenges 1. Lack of departmental/program awareness 2. Faculty skill and experience with IPD 3. Lack of training resources and facilities for IPD training 4. Lack of resources to purchase and use IPD 5. Lack of corollary professional pressure for IPD training The phone survey was used to collect additional statistical information about the use of IPD and IM in national landscape architecture programs. Respondents of the phone survey were asked if their program used IPD or IM in their current curricula, and if not, were they considering incorporating them. Anecdotally, some respondents offered additional information which was added to the statistical data. Both surveys results were also analyzed through the lens of Rodgers Diffusion of Innovations theory to determine landscape architecture academias potential

39 level of innovation acceptance. The portions of the Diffusion of Innovations theory that were used were characterization, stages of adoption, and adopter category:

Participant Characterization These questions are rooted in two of the six factors that characterize adopters: Societal entity of innovators; and Familiarity with the innovation.

Participant Stages of Adoption These questions are rooted in the five stages of adoption: knowledge; persuasion; decision; implementation; and confirmation.

Participant Adoption Category The questions are rooted in the five categories of adopters: innovators; early adopters; early majority; late majority; and laggards.

40

3.0 Results
The Results section is an analysis of both the Wufoo and phone surveys. The statistical information was gathered to provide insights into the challenges associated with adopting new technologies and to determine landscape architecture academias potential level of innovation acceptance. The first section analyzes the hypothesized benefits and challenges of IPD and IM implementation into landscape architecture curricula. The second analyzes the survey information through the lens of Rogers Diffusion of Innovations theory to determine landscape architecture academias level of innovation acceptance. Only characterization, stages of adoption, and adopter category from Rogers theory were used in the assessment.

3.1 Benefits and Challenges Benefits Due to the 69% of electronic survey respondents who reported not using IPD in their design development courses or 58% who reported not being aware of IPD, it was difficult to examine the hypothesized benefits of IPD and IM integration. However, 6% of respondents reported observing a decrease in student work time, an increase in accuracy, and improved visualization. Of the 13% of respondents who used IPD in their courses, 75% agreed that IPD had enhanced their design development courses. Of the respondents that had IPD in their design development courses, 50% indicated being undecided about its ability to make their students more competitive for professional work. None of the respondents commented on promotion of enhanced multidisciplinary studios due to the implementation of IPD or IM.

41 Challenges The electronic survey yielded more insightful information about the hypothesized challenges than the benefits. The lack of resources to purchase IPD/IM was reflected by 10% of respondents who indicated that increased resources for software would improve their ability to adopt IPD in their courses. This was followed by 7% who cited increased departmental support and awareness for IPD. Faculty skill and experience with IPD/IM was limited. Forty-two percent of respondents indicated they were not familiar with IPD, and 16% did not have the skill to use IPD in their curricula. Additionally, 13% responded that they were not experiencing any departmental pressure to implement IPD as the reason for not using innovation. Interestingly, 35% were familiar with Building Information Modeling (BIM), while only 29% were aware of Site Information Modeling (SIM). Thirty-two percent reported learning about IPD through interaction with other design professionals, and 6% knew about IPD before teaching. Three percent indicated an increase in practitioner demand for IPD would improve their ability to adopt it. Approximately 67% of respondents were undecided whether or not IPD could enhance their students competitiveness for professional work.

3.2 Diffusion of Innovations Theory Characterization These questions are rooted in factors that characterize adopters. The only factors assessed were: societal entity of the innovator and familiarity with the innovation. The other factors-- status characteristics, socio-economic characteristics, relative position in social networks, and personal characteristics-were omitted as they had no relevance to this study: Societal entity of innovators (people, universities, regions, etc.)

42 Through this lens the survey respondents are classified as educators in landscape architecture. Familiarity with the innovation Forty-two percent of electronic survey respondents indicated knowledge of IPD. Additionally 31% indicated they used IPD in their courses. The 31% was only based upon 18 responses of the possible 31. With the lack of responses and consistency to the questions, I am inclined to believe that there is, in general, a lack of familiarity with IPD and IM among landscape architecture educators. Additionally, the phone survey resulted in only 2% of the schools indicating that they use IPD or IM in their curricula. Categories of Innovation adopters The categories of innovation of adopters are comprised of innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. Based upon the survey responses and literature review, the level of academia adoption is late majority. The late majority category was selected due to a lack of innovation leadership, innovation skepticism, and low levels of innovation adoption. Approximately 70% of electronic survey respondents indicated that they did not use IPD in their curricula. Also, only 31% of respondents indicated they used IPD. However, 50% of respondents indicated they were not aware of IPD. Four respondents did report either having IPD-based studio electives, course integration, or IPD project submission requirements. The phone survey revealed only 21% of schools are considering the inclusion of IPD or IM into their curricula, although 40% volunteered that they do encourage their use. Innovation skepticism is expressed both in the literature review and in the survey. Peggy Deamer of Yale University stated that, more fundamentally the intimacy of the design process is deeply shaken by a software (BIM) whose main attribute is precisely to do away with that intimacy, an intimacy that is threatened by no

43 longer believing in a singular author and no longer believes in the myth of inspiration. (Deamer, 2010) Renee Cheng, Head of the Department of Architecture from the University of Minnesota, stated, one can easily fear a future where BIM has effectively made us too stupid to question the rules and assumptions we are meant to control. (Cheng, 2006) One survey respondent, when asked, why dont you use IPD in your curricula answered, I try to avoid singular platform approaches to developing design senses. In addition, 56% of electronic survey respondents were undecided about IPDs ability to enhance their design development courses.

The lack of innovation leadership is expressed by the general lack of responses to the electronic survey. Seventy percent of electronic survey respondents indicated they were not using IPD in their curricula, and 55% were undecided of IPDs ability to enhance their design development courses. James Sipes also writes, Landscape architects frequently work with architects, many of whom are already using BIM. (Sipes, pg. 24) This is echoed by Flohr, Currently IPD and BIM software are being developed by the software and construction industry with American Institute of Architects at the helm, and landscape architects

44 have little to no voice in this process. (Flohr, pg. 170) The electronic survey results support this statement.

Participant Stages of Adoption The five stages of adoption are comprised of knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation and confirmation. Based upon both the electronic and phone survey, landscape architecture academia seems to be in the persuasion stage of adoption. Forty-two percent of respondents reported being aware of IPD/IM, but only 2% of respondents from the phone survey were using IPD/IM in their curricula Thirty-one percent electronic survey respondents were using IPD, placing them in the implementation stage. Only 29% reported having knowledge of SIM. This would indicate that there is still a large majority of landscape architecture academia who are not even aware of the derivatives of IM that is most applicable to them, placing them in the knowledge stage. Though the total range of stages, with the exception of confirmation, can be found in the surveys, the collective statistics describe the vast majority of respondents still hovering between the persuasion and decision stages.

45

4.0 Analysis
The introduction of IPD/IM appears to parallel that of AutoCAD. Neither was readily accepted and embraced by the site design professions. Even though the implementation of BIM is happening faster, it still took about 15 years for designers to move from hand drawing to CAD. (Duetch. p. 4) Innovators saw the need and potential for both technologies; however, the majority of the profession was/is slow to embrace them. A healthy amount of skepticism and resistance to new ideas is good. It forces us to carefully examine what we are proposing and to think more critically about it. However, as Rogers theory of Diffusion of Innovations suggests, there is more to resistance than just Socratic apprehension. By examining the results of the surveys conducted, it is apparent that: 1) IPD and IM can enhance landscape architecture project delivery, particularly in the design development phase, and 2) landscape architecture academia represents the late majority and primarily are in the knowledge stage of innovation adoption. Ultimately, the premise behind the implementation of IPD and IM is to improve the quality and efficiencies of our design processes. There is, however, a practical importance for the implementation of such software in site design. Paradiso of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) wrote, The digitallyaugmented environments of tomorrow will exploit a diverse architecture of wired and wireless sensors through which user intent, context, and interactive gesture will be dynamically extracted. (Paradiso, pg. 345) It only makes sense to infer that the designers of these structures and spaces will have to evolve their design processes to accommodate the added complexities of these integrated technologies. As a matter of pragmatism, it is becoming imperative that the software we use in the design process has the ability to organize, display, extrapolate, mind, and troubleshoot data concurrently. IPD and IM are the

46 inevitable response to the complexities of modern design. While some people find the prospect of this ubiquitous future exciting, others might find the constant connection to our spaces invasive. Marianne Peterson, from the University of Aarhus, Department of Computer Science, wrote, We see a danger in that people may lose their sense of control in environments where they are seamlessly tracked and profiled. Thus, instead of striving for technology to become invisibly embedded in our environments, we seek to make technology visible and remarkable [4]. After all, we want to exploit that the most intelligent in our environments remain the people who inhabit the spaces. (Peterson, pg. 44) Whichever support group you may fall into--the proponent, opponents, or somewhere in between--, it is imperative that site design professionals are an integral part of the discussion. Unfortunately, as stated by Flohr, Currently IPD and BIM software are being developed by the software and construction industry with American Institute of Architects at the helm, and landscape architects have little to no voice in this process. To move towards integrated sustainable construction projects, faster project deliveries, and greater design accountability, site and building development must be incorporated. Clients realize the benefits of IPD and are demanding BIM. Landscape architects cannot afford to be left out of the process. (pg. 170) This sentiment is also echoed by Sipes as he addressed IM derivatives, If landscape architects are not involved with developing this definition of Site Information Models (SIM) and Land Information Models (LIM), then architects and engineers seeking to expand their role in a project will be the ones to do so. If that happens, the results will be an engineers version of Landscape Architecture or that of an architect. (Sipes, pg. 16)

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5.0 Conclusion
There are many theories and principles that drive landscape architecture. In addition to these theories and principles, computer-aided design has become integral to the practice of the profession. Our society is evolving technological faster today than it ever has. As our technological capabilities evolve so do the complexities of the systems that sustain them. In order to design our future spaces, computer-aided design will be critical. As important as the computeraided design, are the men and women who will be involved in its creation and application. As new innovations evolve it is important that they are examined and a discussed. It is important that site design teachers stay abreast of the latest technological innovations, do not rely solely on professional practice to lead them in software selection, and, most importantly, participate in the conversation. For landscape architecture to remain relevant, it must embrace and evolve its technological capabilities to meet that of its sister professions. To thrive, landscape architecture must lead the way in the application of innovations such as Integrated Project Delivery and Information Modeling. Max Planck, the founder of the quantum theory, wrote An important scientific innovation rarely makes its way by gradually winning over and converting its opponents: What does happen is that the opponents gradually die out. What will be the fate of landscape architecture? A more robust study to include a survey of corollary fields would provide a more quantifiable assessment of the landscape architecture innovation adoption level and, I have no doubt, provide further substantiate my strong belief that landscape architecture must embrace Integrated Project Delivery and Information Modeling. Landscape architecture must not remain an island onto itself!

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6.0 References

Deamer, Peggy. Autodesk Yale University BIM Symposium. September 16, 2010. Online video clip. YouTube. Accessed on 16 April 2012. ESRI. (n.d.) Geodesign. Retrieved April 18, 2012, from http://www.esri.com/technology-topics/geodesign/overview.html Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations. New York: Free Press.

National Network of Libraries of Medicine. (December 10, 1997). The Diffusion of Innovations Model and Outreach from the National Network of Libraries of Medicine to Native American Communities. Retrieved November 10, 2011, from http://nnlm.gov/archive/pnr/eval/rogers.html AIA. (n.d.). Integrated Project Delivery: A Guide. The American Institute of Architects. Retrieved November 10, 2011, from http://www.aia.org/contractdocs/AIAS077630. Autodesk.(n.d.) IPD in Education. Autodesk Education Community. Retrieved March 16, 2012, from http://bimcurriculum.autodesk.com/node/417 Building Smart Alliance. (n.d.). No title. Retrieved November 12, 2011, from http://www.buildingsmartalliance.org/. Business Dictionary. (n.d.) technology transfer. Business Dictionary.com. Retrieved November 10, 2011, from http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/technology-transfer.html

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Cheng, Renee. (2006) Suggestions for an Integrative Education.. AIA Report on Integrated Practice, Daniel Friedman, ed., 2006. Design Intelligence. (2011) Landscape Information Modeling. Design Intelligence. Retrieved March 21, 2002, from http://www.di.net/articles/archive/landscape_information_modeling/. Deutsch, R. (2011). BIM and integrated design: Strategies for architectural practice. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley. Flohr, T. (2011). A landscape Architects review of building information modeling technology. Landscape Journal: Design, Planning, and Management of the Land, 30(1), 169-170. George, J. W. (2009). Classical curriculum design. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 8(2), 160-179. doi:10.1177/1474022209102682 Hoffmann, Sabine H. "Diffusion of Innovations." Encyclopedia of Business In Today's World. Ed. Charles Wankel. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2009. 51213. SAGE Reference Online. Web. 3 Apr. 2012. Holness, G. R. (2006). Building Information Modeling. ASHRAE Journal, 48(8), 3846. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Lei Feng, Xiaodan Zhao, & Yan Liu. (2010). Discussion and consideration on teaching reform of Landscape Architecture. 138-141. doi:10.1109/ICEMT.2010.5657685

51 Leon, N. (2009). The future of computer-aided innovation.COMPUTERS IN INDUSTRY, 60(8), 539-550. doi:10.1016/j.compind.2009.05.010 Marschalek, D. G. (1989). A new approach to curriculum development in environmental design. Art Education, 42(4), 8-17. Nahm, Y. -., & Ishikawa, H. (2006). A new 3D-CAD system for set-based parametric design. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 29(1), 137-150. doi:10.1007/s00170-004-2213-5 wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn Piegl, L. A. (2004). Ten challenges in computer-aided design.COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN, 37(4), 461-470. doi:10.1016/j.cad.2004.08.012 Sipes, J. (2008). Integrating BIM Technology into Landscape Architecture. Landscape Architecture Technical Information Series (LATIS), 1-49. Smith, D. L. (1987). Integrating technology into the architectural curriculum. Journal of Architectural Education (1984-), 41(1), 4-9. Sutherland, I. E. (1964). Sketchpad a man-machine graphical communication system. Simulation, 2(5), R-3-R-20. doi:10.1177/003754976400200514 Wang, T. (2009). Toward a productive and creative curriculum in architecture. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 8(3), 277-293. doi:10.1177/1474022209339961 Paradiso, Joseph A. "Sensor Architectures for Interactive Environments." 18 Vol. Boston, MA: Springer US, 2009. 345-362. Print.

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Petersen, Marianne. INTERACTIVE SPACES: TOWARDS A BETTER EVERYDAY?. Interactions July-Aug 2005: 44-45.

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Appendix

A. Survey

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59 B. Abbreviations

AGC AIA AISC ASCE ASID ASPE ASQ BIM BOMA CABA CAED CAD CaGBC CERL CIFE CII CMAA COAA CSI CURT

Association of General Contractors of America American Institute of Architects American Institute of Steel Construction American Society of Civil Engineers American Society of Interior Designers American Society of Professional Estimators American Society for Quality Building Information Modeling Building Owners and Managers Association Contintental Automated Buildings Association College of Architecture and Environmental Design Computer-Aided Design Canadian Green Building Council Civil Engineering Research Laboratory Center for Facilities and Environment Construction Industry Institute Construction Managers Association of America Construction Owners Association of America Construction Specifications Institute Construction Users Round Table Design Build Institute of America

DBIA DPC-SIG

Project Management Institute Design Procurement Construction Group

Specific Interest
FFC GSA ICC ICF IFMA National Academy of Sciences Federal Facilities Council General Services Administration International Code Council International Center for Facilities International Facilities Managers Association

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IM IPD LCI MILCON MTS NAHB NASBP NIBS OGC OSCRE SBIC SCIP SIM SMACNA USCG USGBC Information Modeling Integrated Project Delivery Lean Construction Institute Military Construction Institute for Market Transformation to Sustainability National Association of Home Builders National Association of Surety Bond Producers National Institute of Building Sciences Open Geospatial Consortium Open Standards Consortium for Real Estate Sustainable Buildings Industry Council Specifications Consultants in Independent Practice Site Information Modeling Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association U.S. Coast Guard U.S. Green Building Council

LABOK Landscape Architecture Body of Knowledge

61 C. Definitions

Building Information Modeling (BIM) A process involving the creation and organization of the digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility Compatibility with existing and potential needs and experiences is a perception of adoption in the Diffusion of Innovations theory. Complexity in terms of the degree of understanding is a perception of adoption in the Diffusion of Innovations theory. Computer-Aided Design creates computer models defined by geometrical parameters that appear on a computer monitor as a three-dimensional representation of a part or a system of parts that can be readily altered by changing relevant parameters. Allows testing by simulating real-world conditions to modifiy. analyze, and optimize designs.Confirmation in the stages of adoption in the Diffusion of Innovations theory occurs when an individual (or other decision-making unit) seeks reinforcement of an innovation-decision that has already been made, but the individual may reverse this previous decision if exposed to conflicting messages about the innovation. Decision in the stages of adoption in the Diffusion of Innovations theory occurs when an individual (or other decision-making unit) engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation. Early Adopters, in the categories of adopters in the Diffusion of Innovations theory, are the second 13.5% of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation. Early adopters are a more integrated part of the local system than are innovators. Whereas innovators are cosmopolites, early adopters are

62 localites. This adopter category, more than any other, has the greatest degree of opinion leadership in most systems. Potential adopters look to early adopters for advice and information about the innovation. This adopter category is generally sought by change agents as a local missionary for speeding the diffusion process. Because early adopters are not too far ahead of the average individual in innovativeness, they serve as a role-model for many other members of a social system. The early adopter is respected by his or her peers and embodies successful, discrete use of new ideas. The early adopter knows that to continue to earn esteem of colleagues and to maintain a central position in the communication networks of the system; he or she must make judicious innovation-decisions. The early adopter decreases uncertainty about a new idea by adopting it and then conveying a subjective evaluation of the innovation to near-peers through interpersonal networks. Early Majority, in the categories of adopters in the Diffusion of Innovations theory, is the third 34% of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation. The early majority adopt new ideas just before the average member of a system. The early majority interact frequently with their peers, but seldom hold positions of opinion leadership in a system. The early majority's unique position between the very early and the relatively late to adopt makes them an important link in the diffusion process. They provide interconnectedness in the system's interpersonal networks. The early majority are one of the two most numerous adopter categories, making up one-third of the members of a system. The early majority may deliberate for some time before completely adopting a new idea. "Be not the first by which the new is tried, nor the last to lay the old aside," fits the thinking of the early majority. They follow with deliberate willingness in adopting innovations, but seldom lead.

63 Implementation in the stages of adoption in the Diffusion of Innovations theory occurs when an individual (or other decision-making unit) puts an innovation into use. Re-invention is especially likely to occur at the implementation stage. Information Modeling (IM) A representation of concepts, relationships, constraints, rules, and operations to specify data semantics for a chosen domain of discourse. It can provide sharable, stable, and organized structure of information requirements for the domain context Innovators, in the categories of adopters in the Diffusion of Innovations theory, are the first 2.5%t of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation. Venturesomeness is almost an obsession with innovators. This interest in new ideas leads them out of a local circle of peer networks and into more cosmopolite social relationships. Communication patterns and friendships among a clique of innovators are common, even though the geographical distance between the innovators may be considerable. Being an innovator has several prerequisites. Control of substantial financial resources is helpful to absorb the possible loss from an unprofitable innovation. The ability to understand and apply complex technical knowledge is also needed. The innovator must be able to cope with a high degree of uncertainty about an innovation at the time of adoption. While an innovator may not be respected by the other members of a social system, the innovator plays an important role in the diffusion process-- that of launching the new idea in the system by importing the innovation from outside the system's boundaries. Thus, the innovator plays a gatekeeping role in the flow of new ideas into a system. Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) A collaborative alliance of people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to optimize project results, increase value to the owner,

64 reduce waste, and maximize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication, and construction Knowledge in the stages of adoption in the Diffusion of Innovations theory occurs when an individual (or other decision making unit) learns of the innovation's existence and gains some understanding of how it functions Laggards, in the categories of adopters in the Diffusion of Innovations theory, are the last 16% of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation. They possess almost no opinion leadership. Laggards are the most localite in their outlook of all adopter categories; many are near isolates in the social networks of their system. The point of reference for the laggard is the past. Decisions are often made in terms of what has been done previously. Laggards tend to be suspicious of innovations and change agents. Resistance to innovations on the part of laggards may be entirely rational from the laggard's viewpoint as their resources are limited and they must be certain that a new idea will not fail before they can adopt. Late Majority, in the categories of adopters in the Diffusion of Innovations theory, is the fourth (next to last) 34% of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation. The late majority adopt new ideas just after the average member of a system. Like the early majority, the late majority make up one-third of the members of a system. Adoption may be the result of increasing network pressures from peers. Innovations are approached with a skeptical and cautious air, and the late majority do not adopt until most others in their system have done so. The weight of system norms must definitely favor an innovation before the late majority are convinced. The pressure of peers is necessary to motivate adoption. Their relatively scarce resources mean that most of the uncertainty about a new idea must be removed before the late majority feel that it is safe to adopt.

65 Observability or degree to which an innovation or its results are observable is a perception of adoption in the Diffusion of Innovations theory. The hypothesis is that if individuals see the success of an innovation they are more likely to adopt it. Persuasion in the stages of adoption in the Diffusion of Innovations theory occurs when an individual (or other decision-making unit) forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation. Relative advantage of the innovation in comparison to existing solutions and practices is a perception of adoption in the Diffusion of Innovations theory. Site Information Modeling (SIM) A process involving the creation and organization of a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of the land or site Trialability, that is, to experience the innovation to a certain degree and time periodais a perception of adoption in the Diffusion of Innovations theory.

66 D. Organization Overview

7group Integrative Design, green building, and Leadership in Energy and

Environmental Design consultants. American Institute of Architects (AIA) The International Clearinghouse for Interoperability Standards and Activities in the Architecture, Engineering, Construction and Real Estate industries.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Has taken an active role in

pioneering interoperability and BIM through developing the CIS/2 standard and promoting its use in the structural steel design, detailing, fabrication, and construction process. Actively engages its members and the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction community at large to ensure that structural steel is a leader in adoption of interoperability and BIM technology.
American Society for Quality (ASQ) ASQs Design and Construction Division actively

pursues a certification for Quality Managers in design and construction and would like to include BIM and interoperability to the knowledge required of Quality Managers in these disciplines.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) The Architectural Engineering Institute of

ASCE deals with building information models.

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

Develops and identifies initiatives and opportunities presented by interoperability, BIM, and related topics affecting the HVA&R industry and ASHRAE interests. Develops informational and educational programs on BIM and interoperability for ASHRAE members.

67
American Society of Interior Designers (ASID) A community of people driven by a

common love for design and committed to the belief that interior design, as a service to people, is a powerful, multi-faceted profession that can positively change people's lives. Through education, knowledge sharing, advocacy, community building and outreach, the Society strives to advance the interior design profession and, in the process, to demonstrate and celebrate the power of design to positively change people's lives. Its more than 30,000 members engage in a variety of professional programs and activities through a network of 48 chapters throughout the United States and Canada.
American Society of Professional Estimators (ASPE) All estimating professionals may

want to get in on the BIM discussion affecting their work. ASPE Chapters will be presenting speakers and programs to facilitate the move towards BIM.
Association of General Contractors of America (AGC) - BIMForum BIMForum is the

AGC's task force on Building Information Modeling. BIMForum's 200+ members collaborate virtually via the online forum.
Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) International) An international

federation of more than 100 local associations and affiliated organizations. Founded in 1907, its 16,500-plus members own or manage more than nine billion square feet of commercial properties. BOMA Internationals mission is to enhance the human, intellectual and physical assets of the commercial real estate industry through advocacy, education, research, standards and information.
Canadian Green Building Council (CaGBC) Leads and accelerates the

transformation to high-performing, healthy green buildings, homes and communities throughout Canada.

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Center for Facilities and Environment (CIFE) CIFE and Stanford have long been

pioneers in collaborative design, integrated practice, and BIM in general. College of Architecture and Environmental Design (CAED) Located at Kent State and offers BIM to students and promotes its use while obtaining a degree.
Construction Industry Institute (CII) Focuses its efforts on the business needs of its

members, which includes many of the largest construction-related organizations and major facility owners. BIM is beginning to show up on their radar screen and, therefore, into projects of CII. The emphasis of CII will be toward the strategic business approach to BIM rather than the technology.
Construction Managers Association of America (CMAA) North Americas only

organization dedicated exclusively to the interests of professional Construction and Program Management. The Association was formed in 1982. Current membership is more than 9,400, including individual CM/PM construction and program management practitioners, corporate members, and construction owners in both public and private sectors, along with academic and associate members. CMAA has 28 regional chapters and 42 student chapters at colleges and universities nationwide.
Construction Owners Association of America (COAA) Committed to accomplishing

interoperability and served as one of the sponsors of the McGraw-Hill Interoperability Study that was recently released. They educate members through conference education programs and articles in their magazine.
Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) Develops and promulgates the formats

and standards that organize project and product specifications and information. With the development of OmniClass and the IFDLibrary, CSI along

69 with CSC is focused on supporting interoperability by providing a complete and consistent open schema for all information used in the building process.
Construction Users Round Table (CURT) CURTs mission is to create competitive

advantage for construction users. CURT is providing aggressive leadership on business issues that promote excellence in the creation of capital assets and supports BIM/VDC implementation in accord with this direction. CURT is in the third year of an arrangement with CIFE and GSA in conducting a VDC Usage Survey in order to gain business metrics around VDC implementation. Further CURT has a committee focused on process transformation involving various sectors of the industry targeting improved productivity. CURT is working in partnership with AIA and AGC through the 3xPT initiative driving change in the industry toward process transformation.
Contintental Automated Buildings Association (CABA) A not-for-profit industry

association that promotes advanced technologies for the automation of homes and buildings in North America.
Design Build Institute of America (DBIA) Promotes the value of design-build project

delivery and teaches the effective integration of design and construction services to ensure success for owners and design and construction practitioners.
FIATECH Non-profit consortium working with technologies to support fully

integrated and automated project processes.

General Services Administration (GSA) First government organization to lead the US

Government into BIM and with a primary role in promoting BIM in the entire industry. They remain today a leader in the initiative, continually breaking new ground.

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Georgia Tech AEC Integration Lab The Digital Building Laboratory is an overlay

organization that draws faculty and students from various academic units at Georgia Tech. It is a consortium of faculty and graduate students from Architecture, Computing, Building Construction, Civil Engineering that work in building-related areas. It includes the staff and external relations of two current organizations in College of Architecture, the AEC Integration Lab and the IMAGINE Lab. The Digital Building Laboratory plans to become one of the leading building-related research organizations in the US. It expects to build a different set of partners that will collaborate in the development that not only benefits the members of the DBL, but also the general impacts of construction to all owners and clients. It draws on different types of expertise and can undertake initiatives not accessible to other centers.
Institute for Market Transformation to Sustainability (MTS) Dedicates its entire

operation to raising awareness of the positive impact that manufacturing, promoting, and purchasing sustainable product choices has on every aspect of our daily lives.
International Center for Facilities (ICF) Ottawa Improves the functionality, suitability

and quality of the places where people work and live, and of other constructed assets, by focusing in particular on the development of appropriate national and international standards.
International Code Council (ICC) - SMARTcodes Automate compliance checking

with building regulations, codes, standards, etc. which includes significant work on a dictionary that can serve as a basis for other dictionary work in the US and globally, coordination with model checking software entities and working with BIM software developers to understand what information is needed in a BIM to make it checkable for compliance.

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International Facilities Managers Association (IFMA) The worlds largest and most

widely recognized international association for professional facility managers, supporting more than 22,655 members in 78 countries.Lean Construction Institute
(LCI) Focused on reducing waste in the industry. Provides research to develop

knowledge regarding project based production management in the design, engineering, and construction of capital facilities.
National Academy of Sciences Federal Facilities Council (FFC) Coordinates the

Federal agencies and provides educational opportunities to all.

National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) Large builders of homes transforming

to BIM to optimize their processes and provide agility in delivering customized needs of their customers.
National Association of Surety Bond Producers (NASBP) Founded in 1942, NASBP is the

association of and resource for surety bond producers and allied professionals. NASBP producers specialize in providing surety bonds for construction contracts and other purposes to companies and individuals needing the assurance offered by surety bonds. NASBP producers engage in contract and commercial surety production throughout the United States, Puerto Rico, Guam, and a number of countries. The National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) A non-profit, non-governmental organization that successfully brings together representatives of government, the professions, industry, labor and consumer interests, and regulatory agencies to focus on the identification and resolution of problems and potential problems that hamper the construction of safe, affordable structures for housing, commerce and industry throughout the United States.

72
Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Helping the World to Communicate

Geographically. Provides industry standards to the International Organization for Standardization. Recognized test bed approach.
Open Standards Consortium for Real Estate (OSCRE) A not-for-profit, membership

funded, neutral consortium that exists to facilitate collaboration on standardized data exchange.
PRO IT: Finnish Consortium of Modelers The objective of the broad-based Pro IT

development project, initiated by the Confederation of Finnish Construction Industries, was to define a national data management approach and guidelines for the construction process based on product modeling. The project was in operation in 2002 2005.
Project Management Institute Design Procurement Construction Specific Interest Group (DPC-SIG) An international organization with mission to break down barriers that

fragment the profession, improve the understanding of capital project management, promote collaboration between capital project stakeholders, and contribute to the professional development of our membership.
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association (SMACNA)

Participates in the effort to achieve wide acceptance of open standard IFC's and technologically advanced tools to enable and promote growth of Integrated Practice, where efficient collaboration among disciplines can lead to goals of improved productivity and the reduction of errors and waste in the construction process. Assist in the dissemination of information on IFC's, BIM and the Integrated Practice to SMACNA contractors and the entire construction community.

73
Specifications Consultants in Independent Practice (SCIP) A nationwide technical

resource organization that aids design firms, agencies, facility managers, and manufacturers in acquiring specifications from qualified writers, and allows independent specifiers to enhance their professionalism by sharing techniques and industry developments. Widely regarded as the voice of the specifier community, SCIP membership includes specifications consultants and design firm specifiers.
Sustainable Buildings Industry Council (SBIC) An independent, non-profit 501 (c)(3)

organization and a pioneer advocate of the whole building approach to sustainable facilities. Founded in 1980 as the Passive Solar Industries Council by the major building trade groups, large corporations, small businesses, and individual practitioners who recognized that energy and resource efficient design and construction are imperative to a sustainable built environment. The Design-Build Institute of America (DBIA) Only organization that defines, teaches, and promotes best practices in design-build. Design-build is an integrated approach that delivers design and construction services under one contract with a single point of responsibility. Owners select design-build to achieve best value while meeting schedule, cost and quality goals.
U.S. Air Force Building Information Modeling for MILCON Transformation The Marine

Corps' Military Construction (MILCON) program covers the minor construction of facilities and structures over the minimum limit as authorized by Congress.
U.S. Army - Civil Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL) The Corps of Engineers with

the support of their laboratories are transforming to the use of BIM and is a primary player in the industry transformation with products such as Construction Operations Building Information Exchange.

74
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) A leader among government agencies and pioneered

the linking of mission to facilities and use of facility information during the operations and sustainment phases of the lifecycle.

75 E. Survey Results

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82 F. Phone Survey

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84 G. Question Matrix

85 H. Word Cloud

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Acknowledgements
I would be remiss, not to mention the many people who assisted me in the research and completion of this paper. I would like to extend thanks to, Perry Howard, Kofi Boone, Gary Clay, and Fernando Magallanes. I would also like to extend a special thanks to Barbara Harrison and Manuel Marrero for their support, patience, and unconditional love given me throughout my life. Thank you all.

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