Engineering Electromagnetics

Engineering Electromagnetics
S V Kulkarni (svk@ee.iitb.ac.in)
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

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IIT Bombay
Electromagnetics and its Relevance to the Present

Electromagnetics (EM) is a 200 year old branch of science It is a driver of a plethora of physical and engineering processes going on around us The field of EM phenomena covers all of the known frequency spectrum, right from zero Hertz (or DC) up to frequencies of the order of exa- (1018) Hertz EM principles form the core of electricity generation, transmission and distribution EM waves make mobile phones, televisions and radios work Life-saving medical equipment, from X-Ray machines to modern CT Scanners, are also based on the laws of EM
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IIT Bombay
Electromagnetics and its Relevance to the Present

Classical EM also has its counterparts in relativity (Relativistic Electrodynamics) and quantum physics (Quantum Electrodynamics) On the engineering front, EM, and its computational version, are used to design, test and validate devices across a wide range of sizes from the smallest micro-electro-mechanical (MEMS) devices to the very large power transformers and generators Exotic applications include particle accelerators, satellite communications, non-invasive/destructive testing, radioastronomy, and military applications
IIT Bombay
An Overview of EM Applications
Low Frequency Devices:
Transformers Electric motors Power generators EM forming and welding EM interference/coupling Induction heating devices
High Frequency Devices:

Antennas Waveguides Resonant cavities Wireless communications Magnetic imaging systems Optoelectronics and photonics Microwave circuits and devices
Others:
Plasma devices Nanotechnology Photonic Crystals Magnetic storage technology
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IIT Bombay
Need for EM Field Computation

Computation of magnetic fields is required in all low frequency and high frequency devices for:
Evaluation and improvement of performance parameters at the design stage Reliability enhancement Investigative analysis
Field computation provides a non-destructive technique for testing and evaluation In order to optimise material costs, in the present-day highly global market, an accurate picture of the flux distribution is necessary
IIT Bombay
Need for EM Field Computation

Circuit / lumped-parameter representation is not enough for product design, analysis, optimization and diagnostics
Windings
R1 X L1 I1 I0 V1 Xm Rc V = a V 2 2 I 2 X 2 L R 2
Core Design of transformers involves analysis of: Stray losses, temperature distribution, short-circuit forces, noise level, seismic withstand, insulation design, etc.
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IIT Bombay
Methods for Computation of Fields

Analytical Methods:
Separation of Variables Method of Images Conformal Mapping Schwartz-Christoffel Transformation
Analog Methods:
Conducting Paper and Electrolytic Tank Analysis
Disadvantages:
These methods cannot be applied for:

Complex Geometries Non-uniformities, anisotropy and non-linearity in material properties
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IIT Bombay
Numerical Methods
Tremendous advances in the computational domain and improvements in algorithmic techniques have contributed to the success of numerical techniques
Analytical

Numerical

Closed form solutions are possible If solutions are available, they are exact Dependence of the field on various factors can be easily determined Applicable to 1-D and some 2-D problems
Any complex geometry can be handled Can be applied to even 3-D problems Non-uniformities, material discontinuities and material anisotropies can be taken into account Applicable for a wide range of problems The solutions are reasonably accurate for engineering purposes
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IIT Bombay
Computational Methods
Difference methods: Finite difference method (FDM) Finite-difference time-domain method (FDTD) Finite element method (FEM) Integral methods: Transmission line matrix method (TLM) Method of moments (MoM) Boundary element method (BEM) Charge simulation method (CSM) Other methods: Reluctance network or magnetic equivalent circuit method (MEC) FEM has emerged as the most powerful and versatile method for field computations
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IIT Bombay
Research Work at EE Dept IIT Bombay

Simulation and design optimization of electrical machines, power apparatus and high frequency devices (antennas, optical and photonic devices) Development of 2-D/3-D codes for implementing finite element method and integral methods Study of coupled field formulations such as field-circuit, field-thermal, field-structural, etc. Development of efficient algorithms to solve large sparse linear systems arising in the finite element method Study of various formulations, inverse problems, and different shape functions Development of mesh-less methods
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IIT Bombay
Case Studies
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IIT Bombay
1. Magnetic-Thermal
3-D FEM Model Eddy currents in magnetic clamp plate
Eddy currents in non-magnetic clamp plate Temperature profile

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IIT Bombay
2. Deformation in Current Carrying Parallel Bars
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IIT Bombay
3. Sympathetic Inrush Phenomenon
(a) Normal Inrush Current
(b) Sympathetic Inrush Current
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IIT Bombay
4. Inter-Phase Transformer
(a)
(b)
Flux in the Transformer Core (a) Unbalanced Case (b) Balanced Case
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IIT Bombay
Current Waveforms in the IPT (a) Unbalanced Case (b) Balanced Case
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IIT Bombay
5. Split-Winding Transformer
Flux lines during the short-circuit (a) ANSYS (b) MATLAB code
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IIT Bombay
6 Electromagnetic Forming
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IIT Bombay
Deformation obtained by coupled analysis
Deformation of work-piece at 500 micro-seconds Simulation result (3.6 mm) matched closely with experimental result (4 mm)
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Engineering Electromagnetics: Basics

Prof. S. V. Kulkarni Electrical Engineering Department Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Coordinate Systems
Scalars and Vectors

Scalars: They are a single positive or negative real number, e.g., mass, density, pressure, voltage Vectors: They possess both magnitude and direction in space, e.g., force, velocity, acceleration Scalar Field: They have a different scalar value at different points in space, e.g., temperature distribution in a room Vector Field: They have a different vector value at different points in space, e.g., gravitational field of the earth
26 September 2008 Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Vector Components and Unit Vectors
Coordinate Systems
Right handed systems : x y z 3 simple coordinate systems : Cartesian, Cylindrical and Spherical However, there are more coordinate systems some of which are used for special cases
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Cartesian Coordinate System
All 3 components are distances Differential area = dxdy Differential volume = dxdydz
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Cylindrical Coordinate System
2 distance components and 1

angular component
x2 + y2
1
= tan
Differential area = d dz Differential volume = d d dz
z=z
y x
x = cos y = sin
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Spherical Coordinate System

1 distance component and 2 angular components Differential area = r2 sin d d Differential volume = r2 sin dr dd
x = r sincos y = r sinsin z = r cos
r = x2 + y2 + z2
= cos1
z x2 + y2 + z2 y x
= tan1
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Choice of Coordinate System in Problems: Examples
Cartesian System: Resonator cavity, closed box structure Cylindrical System: Coaxial Cable, line, waveguides Spherical System: Antenna with waves going outwards
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Vector Algebra & Vector Calculus
The Dot Product

Definition: AB=|A||B|cosAB AB = BA (Commutative Law) Physical Examples: Force (F) applied over displacement (L) does a work of FLcos, i.e., W=FL Similarly, magnetic flux =BdS axay=azax=ayaz=0 and axax=ayay=azaz=1 Hence AB=AxBx+AyBy+AzBz and AA= |A|2 Interpretation of Dot Product: Projection of vector B in As direction. Thus, Component Vectors: Bx=(Bax)ax By=(Bay)ay Bz=(Baz)az
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay 29
The Cross Product

Definition: A B = |A||B|sin ABa N , a N (A & B) A B = - ( B A ) does not obey commutative law ax ay = az ay az = ax az ax = ay ax ax = 0 ax A B = Ax Bx ay Ay By az Az Bz
A B AxB
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Vector Calculus
Gradient, Divergence and Curl (in Cartesian Coordinates):
f f f f = a x + a y + a z x y z f x f y f z f = + + x y z ax f = x fx ay y fy az z fz
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Vector Calculus Gradient of a Scalar Field

Gradient: Magnitude & direction of maximum space rate of increase of a scalar field
V = grad V = a n
V n
an
dl
V+d V
dn V
Directional derivative along dl:

dV dV dn dV dV = = cos = an a = ( V ) a l l dl dn dl dn dn dV = ( V ) dl
It can be proved that V is to equipotential surface and it points in the direction of maximum change in V
Vector Calculus
Illustration of Curl:
Illustration of Divergence:
+Q
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Vector Calculus
Laplacian Operator:
2 2 2 = = 2 + 2 + 2 x y z
2
2 f = f 2 F = ( 2 Fx )a x + ( 2 Fy )a y + ( 2 Fz )a z
Integral Operators: Defined over open and closed contours, open and closed surfaces, and volumes
A dl A dl A dS A dS fdV
Vector Calculus Divergence of a Vector Field

+Q
Divergence: Net outward flux of vector field D per unit volume as volume about the point tends to zero
D dS
D = lim
S v 0
Divergence: Flow Source
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Vector Calculus Divergence Theorem
A dS = ( A)dV
V
The volume integral of the divergence of vector field equals the total outward flux of the vector through the surface that bounds the volume A net outward flux of a vector through a surface bounding a volume indicates presence of a source meaning divergence
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Vector Calculus: Curl of a Vector

Curl of A is an axial vector whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as area tends to zero and direction is the normal direction of the area when area is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum
A dl L an Curl A = A = lim S 0 S max
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Vector Calculus Stokes Theorem

( A) dS = A dl
S C
The surface integral of the curl of a vector field over an open surface is equal to the closed line integral of the vector along the contour bounding the surface These theorems are useful for converting Maxwells equations from differential to integral form
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Vector Calculus Two Null Identities
(V) = 0
The curl of the gradient of any scalar field is identically zero Converse: If a vector field is curl free, then it can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field
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Vector Calculus Two Null Identities
A = 0
The divergence of curl of any vector is identically zero Converse: If a vector field is divergence-less, then it can be expressed as the curl of another vector field
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Fundamentals of Electrostatics
Basic Entity: Charge
The origin of the Electric and Magnetic fields is the Electric Charge Static charges: Leads to the Electric field Moving charges at constant velocity: Lead to Steady Magnetic field Accelerated charges: Lead to time-varying Electric and Magnetic fields
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The Static Electric Field

Coulomb's law: kQq 1 Qq F12 = 2 a12 = a12 2 R12 4 0 R12 Electric field intensity F 1 Q E= = a12 2 q 4 0 R12 Assumption: The charge q does not influence the field or charge distribution of source.
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The Static Electric Field
Fundamental postulates: 1. E =
2. E = 0 ( In free space)
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Gauss Law for Electrostatics

Net displacement vector is related to charge enclosed
D dS = vdV
S V
( D)dV = v dV
V
Applying divergence theorem to this equation:
D = v
Limitation of differential form Derivatives are not continuously differentiable.
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Static Electric Field
E dl = 0
Electrostatic field is a conservative one:
P2 P 1
C1
E dl + E dl = 0
C2 P 1 P2 1 2 2
E dl along C = E dl along C = E dl along C

P2 P 1
the scalar line integral of irrotational field is independent of the path Q S E ds = 0 ;
( ERaR ) aRds = 4 R2 ER =
Q 0
Q E = ERaR = aR (fieldduetoa point charge) 2 4 R 0

Anistropic Medium
Relative permittivity for anisotropic medium: Dx 11 12 13 Ex D = E 22 23 y y 21 Dz 31 32 33 Ez For crystals, the reference coordinates can be chosen to be along the principal axes of the crystal so that the off-diagonal terms are zero.
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Transfer of Charges through Induction or Contact

Charged Rod 1) + + + + Conducting Bar + + + + + + + + + +
Case 1: Electrons on the conductor are attracted to the positive charge
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Transfer of Charges
+ + + + + -
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + + + -
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
Case 2: When the rod touches the bar, transfer of electrons takes place
Conductors and Insulators
Convection Current
The motion of positively or negatively charged particles in a vacuum or rarified gas. Electron beams in a cathode ray tube Violent motions of charged particles in a thunderstorm Q x I = = v S t t on taking limit w.r.t time
I = v S vx J x = v vx J = v v
26 September 2008 Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Equation of Continuity
The principle of conservation of charge
Electric charges may neither be created or destroyed; all charges either at rest or in motion must be accounted for at all times.
dQ d I = J dS = = dV dt dt V s
On applying Divergence Theorem,
J dV =
V V
dV t
J = t
Dielectrics
Dielectrics in static field: * No free charges even under externally applied field. * Bound charges are present. * Polarization takes place in the presence of externally applied field: Electric dipoles are formed * Dipole moments are of the order of 10-30 C-m * Some dielectric materials exhibit permanent dipole moment even in the absence of externally applied field: termed as Electrets (like permanent magnets)
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Dielectrics
Externally applied field
No electric field Center of gravity of the negative charge will coincide with the positive charge of the nucleus In the presence of electric field Formation of dipoles
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Polarization
Uncharged conductor in electric field : * External Electric field E1 applied from left to right. * Electrons redistribute and move to left of the conductor surface. * Therefore postive charges pile up on the right side. These induced charges produce a field of their own E 2 which is in the opposite direction to E1 . *Field of induced charges tends to cancel off the original field inside the conductor.
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Polarization in a dielectric (insulator)
Non polar molecules: No permanent dipoles. eg. H 2 , O 2 , N 2 and rare gasses. Polar molecules: Permanent dipoles exist. eg. H 2 O.
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Polarization
slab + + + + P + + + + + + + + +
Polarization: Induces additional free charges on capacitor plates; D effectively increases.
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Static Electric Field

bound charges bound charge free surface charge induce free charges Polarization density appears on density on plates is dielectric surface of opposite sign on increased capacitor plates * For linear, isotropic dielectric material, P = e 0 E where, e = electric susceptibility, which is a dimensionless quantity. * For ferroelectric matserials nonlinear and hysteric relationship between P and E. * For crystalline materials anisotropic and periodic nature of crystalline materials cause dipole moments to be formed along the crystal axes and not necessarily along E.
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Permittivity
D =0 E + P =0r E where, r = 1 + e Use of r makes the consideration of polarization, dipole moments and bound charges unnecessary. D = v
D dS = Q
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Fundamentals of Magnetostatics
Biot-Savarts Law
dI
R P dH(inward)
Idl sin dH R2 Idl aR Idl R = dH = 2 4 R 4 R3 Idl aR H= 4 R2 L
Magnetic Field intensity dH produced at point P by a differential current element Idl is proportional to product Idl and the sine of the angle between the element and the line joining P to the element, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between P and the element.
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Magnetic Field Example

Field due to a straight current carrying filamentary conductor of finite length H= I ( cos 2 cos 1 ) a 4 I a 4 I a 2
when the conductor is semi infinite 1 = 90o , 2 = 0o . H=
when the conductor is infinite 1 = 180o , 2 = 0o H=
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Amperes Law
Amperes law or Ampere circuital law
H.dl = I
C
Applying Stoke's theorem to LHS:
( H ) .dS =
S
J.dS
In differential form
H = J
Magnetic Flux Density

B = 0 H (free space only) unit:Wb/m 2 or Tesla 1 tesla = 10000 G (gauss) 0 = 4 107 Henry / m H : A/ m =
D dS = Q
s
B dS = 0
s
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Gauss Law for Magnetostatics

Gauss law for magnetic case is given as :
B dS = 0
s
By applying the divergence theorem we get,
B = 0
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Maxwell Equations for Static Electric fields & Steady Magnetic Fields
D = v E = 0 H = J B = 0
D dS = Q = dv
v S vol
E dl = 0
C
H dl = I = J dS
S
B dS = 0
S
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Magnetic Vector Potential

B = 0 B = A
Since curl operation implies differentiation with respect to length, units of A:Wb/m 0 I dl 4R 0 Jdv A= 4R vol A= = B dS =
s
( Line Current ) ( Volume Current )
A dl
L
by Stoke ' s Theorem
2-D magnetic field problems are invariably formulated in terms of A because the number of unknowns at any point reduce from 2 (Bx, By) to one (Az), with current in z direction
Coulomb Gauge
To define the vector A, A must also be defined. ( A ) = 0 J ( A ) 2 A = 0 J Apply Coulomb Gauge: A = 0 2 A = 0 J Vector Poisson's equation 2 Ax = 0 J x , 2 Ay = 0 J y , 2 Az = 0 J z
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Forces and Magnetic Materials
Force on Differential Current Element

Force on moving particle in a magnetic field: F = Qv B Force on moving particle in a combined electric and magnetic field: F = Q ( E + v B) Force on Differential Current Element: dF = J Bdv dF = I dl B Force on a current carrying conductor: dF= JB dv F = I LB F = ILB sin For a closed loop, F = I l B dl for uniform B F = I B l dl = 0 as l dl = 0
( )
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Magnetization and Permeability

Magnetic dipoles act as a distributed source for the magnetic field A bar magnet or a small filamentary current loop is usually referred as a magnetic dipole The current is a result of bound charges
m m
S N
m = IdSan
The B lines due to magnetic dipoles ; small current loop Bar magnet
(Source: M.N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press, 2002)

Surface defined by closed path

m = IdS an
m
Ib dS
dL
Section dL of a closed path along which magnetic dipoles have been partially aligned by external magnetic field
(Source: William H. Hayt, Jr., Engineering Electromagnetics, McGraw Hill,1988)
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The bound current crossing the surface enclosed by path (to our left as we travel along dL) has increased by Ib for each n dipoles
dI b = nI b dS dL = M dL I b = M dL (within an entire closed contour)
B
0
dL = I T = I +I b (I is free current enclosed by the the closed path)
B B M dL H = I = IT I b = M B = 0 H + M 0 0
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Now I = H i dL, I b = J b i dS , IT = J T i dS , I = J i dS M = Jb , B
= J T , H = J (Using Stokes theorem)
M = m H (magnetic susceptibility) B = 0 ( H + m H ) = 0 r H r = (1 + m ) Since r >> 1, the bound currents produce much larger magnetic field as compared to the free charges (hence the usefulness of permanent magnets)
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Magnetic Circuits
Magnetomotive Force(mmf) F = NI =
H dl
unit: ampere-turns
Source of mmf in magnetic circuits is usually a coil carrying current. l Reluctance = unit:ampere-turns/weber S l:mean length of magnetic core S:cross-sectional area of magnetic core Permeance : reciprocal of reluctance Basic Relationship for circuits is Ohm's Law (V = IR ) F =
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B
om , Bm
C D
H Curve
111 000
E O
111 I F 000 111 000 G
Assume a ferromagnetic material which is initially unmagnetized As current increases, B increases. This is referred to as initial or virgin magnetization curve Area OABCDO Quadrant I of the loop represents the energy i 0 , H supplied Both induced voltage and current are positive for path AB For path BD, the energy represented by the area BCD, is returned back to the source since the voltage and current are having opposite signs giving a negative value of energy For the quadrant I the area OABDO represents the energy loss The area under hysteresis loop ABDEFIA represents the total energy loss termed as the hysteresis loss This loss has a constant value per cycle meaning thereby that it is directly proportional to frequency
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Magnetic Energy
Potential Energy ( electrostatic field ) 1 1 WE = D Edv = E 2 dv 2 2 1 2 1 1 Wm = LI Wm = B Hdv = H 2 dv 2 2 2
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Energy and Co e - nergy

Energy = vidt d idt dt = Nd i =N = NAdBi Ni Hl i= l N Hl Energy = NAdB N = dB H Al H= = dB H ( volume ) where dBH = energy density / volume Energy Variation of B for a fixed value of H Co Energy = BdH ( volume ) In a linear medium Energy = Co Energy
Comparison in electro-magnetic and electro-static stored energies
Consider the inductor and capacitor having identical air-gap as shown in the figure. The energy densities stored in the air-gap of the inductor and capacitor 2 can be given by, Bm mag 3
Ws Ws = 20 J/m
elect
1 = 0 E 2 J/m 3 2
The normal operating value of the magnetic flux density Bm in the actual silicon steel core can be taken, safely, as 1 Wb/m2 . The breakdown stress in the air is 30 kV/cm, thus, E=30 kV/cm Taking this values in the above expression, Wsmag is 104 times more than Wselect
2 Bm 1 mag Ws = = = 3.9788 105 2 0 2 4 10 7 10 4 2 1 elect 1 Ws = 0 E 2 = 8.85 10 12 3 10 6 = 39.825 2 2
26 September 2008
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
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Force on Magnetic Materials

Electromagnet with 2 air gaps 1 B2 F dl = dWm = 2 Sdl 2 0 S : Cross-sectional area of the gap factor 2 acounts for the 2 air gaps l : Length of the air-gap B2 S F = 2 2 0 B2 S The attractive force across a single gap :F = 2 0 Attractive pressure in a magnetized surface F B2 1 p= = = BH S 20 2
Maxwells Equations
Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Rate of change of B is equal to the total emf induced in a loop
emf = E .dl = t c
where is total flux enclosed by loop
B E .dl = t .dS B ( E ).dS = t .dS A B ( E ) = t

The Laws of Electromagnetics as Known before Maxwell
Point form:
Integral form:
D = v B = 0 B E = t H = J
D dS = dV
v V
B dS = 0
s
B E dl = t dS s
H dl = J dS
s
Boundary conditions: Remain the same as in static case
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An Inconsistency
Maxwell found that when these four equations were combined, they were inconsistent. The continuity equation:
J = t
As per Amperes law, for the static case,
H = J ( H ) = J = 0
This last expression violates continuity equation when time-varying charges exist. Thus, Amperes circuital law does not satisfy the continuity equation.
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Resolution of the Inconsistency
Maxwell resolved this ambiguity by introducing a new term, the Displacement Current Density. The modified Amperes law equation is now:
D H = J + t
This new term has the dimension of current density (Am-2):
D D = J = ( D) = t t
Integrating over the volume of the region,
D { J + ( t )}dV = 0 V D (J + t ) dS = 0 S
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An Alternate Check
Further, since,
D ( H) = J + t
and,
( H) = 0 (J +
D (J + ) dS = 0 t S
D )=0 t
Hence, Amperes law is now consistent with the continuity equation.
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Maxwells Equations
Point form:
Integral form:
D = v B = 0 B E = t D H = J + t
D dS = dV
v V
B dS = 0
s
E dl =
s
B dS t
D H dl = J + t dS s
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Displacement Current in a Capacitor
Conduction current in the following circuit can be given by:

Ic
Vc
ID Ic
V = Vm sin t dVc Ic = C = CVm cos t dt
As a closed circuit must have the same current everywhere, the displacement current in the capacitor must be equal to the conduction current. I d = CVm cos t
Alternatively, the displacement current can be explained as follows. From the figure, the electric field intensity (E), the charge density (D) and the displacement current density (Jd) are given by:
E = Vc d Vm sin t D = E = d D E = Vm cos t Jd = = t t d
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Thus, displacement current is calculated by integrating the current density Jd over the surface area of the plates:
I d = J d dS =
s
Vm cos t dS
s
Id =
d I d = CVm cos t
Vm cos t S
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References
William H. Hayt. Jr, Engineering Electromagnetics, Fifth Edition, McGraw Hill International Editions, Singapore, 1988. Mathew N. O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Third Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 2002. D. K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley, Singapore, 1999. A. Pramanik, Electromagnetism: Theory and Applications, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 2004. F. T. Ulaby, Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 2002. D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Third Edition, PrenticeHall of India, New Delhi, 2002.
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Engineering Electromagnetics

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Electromagnetics and its Relevance to the Present

Electromagnetics and its Relevance to the Present

High Frequency Devices:

Need for EM Field Computation

Need for EM Field Computation

Methods for Computation of Fields

These methods cannot be applied for:

Research Work at EE Dept IIT Bombay

3-D FEM Model Eddy currents in magnetic clamp plate

Eddy currents in non-magnetic clamp plate Temperature profile

2. Deformation in Current Carrying Parallel Bars

3. Sympathetic Inrush Phenomenon

(a) Normal Inrush Current

(b) Sympathetic Inrush Current

Deformation obtained by coupled analysis