A

TERM PAPER ON THE ROLE OF WEATHERING ON SEDIMENT PRODUCTION

WRITTEN BY
AKINWONMI JUMOKE 119078018
DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCE
MSC.SEDIMENTARY/PETROLEUM GEOLOGY COURSE: ADVANCED SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGY COURSE CODE: GLY 830

INTRODUCTION

Practically you may have noticed that things left outside tends to change; they rust, crack, peel, fade, and ultimately fall apart. These are simple analogies that we can see and use to explain the weathering in rocks. Weathering is the breakdown of rocks to form Rigoliths releasing dissolved ions into water. It occurs by a mechanical, chemical and biological means. Weathering occurs for the same reason hot soup gets cold, and organic matter rots- the law of thermodynamics. Things form at different temperature and pressure are out of equillibrum with their environment and will slowly come into equillibrum given sufficient time. The time required for rocks to achieve this is dependent on the temperature, availability of water and the presence of helpful biological organisms that make a living from the energy released by working the thermodynamic ladder. Weathering occur in the three types of sedimentary rocks the terrigenous clastic, biogenic and the chemical depending on the factors that influences the formation of sediments which would be discussed subsequently under the following subheadings. * * * Clastic fragments Materials that goes into solution and Precipitates

Some of the factors that determine the occurrence of weathering ; are the origin and nature of the parent rock; the topography of the environment; time ;transporting medium and biological activities. All of these would help in delineating the climate, environmental of source (environmental reconstruction) and to a large extent the history of the past life.

WEATHERING Weathering is defined as a destructive natural processes by which rocks are altered with little or no transport of the fragmented or altered material. It occur insitu with no form of movement. It should not be

mistaken for erosion. The main role of weathering on rocks is for the production of sediments using any of the types of weathering which are in turn associated with the classes of sedimentary rocks of which their actions and mode differs

TYPES OF WEATHERING A. MECHANICAL WEATHERING: This is also referred to as physical weathering. It involves the breakdown of rocks through a direct contact with atmospheric condition such as heat, water, ice and pressure. This is the class of weathering process that causes the deisintegration of rocks without any chemical changes. The primary process here is Abrasion-a process by which clasts and other particles are reduced in size. However, physical and chemical weathering often go in hand. Physical weathering can occur due to temperature ,pressure and frost etc. For instance the cracks exploited by physical weathering will increase the surface area which will be exposed to chemical action. These chemical action of minerals in the cracks can aid in the disintegration process. Mechanical weathering is subdivided and analyzed below:

i.

Thermal Stress Weathering:

This is a physical type, sometimes referred as in solution weathering. They result from the expansion or contraction of rocks, caused by temperature changes. These changes could be categorized into two as: Thermal stock and thermal fatigue. Thermal stress weathering is an important mechanism in desert regions where there are large diurnal temperature range ,hot in the day and cold at night. The repeated heating and cooling exerts stress on the outer layer of rock, which can cause their outer layer to peel off in thin sheets(inserberge).Although temperature changes are the principal driver ,moisture can enhance thermal expansion in rocks. Forest fire are also known to cause significant weathering of rocks and boulders exposed along the ground surface. Intense, localized heat can rapidly expand a boulder.

Fig. 1.0: Modern version of the fundamental rock cycle conceived by James Hutton nearly 200 years ago Frost Weathering: Frost weathering ,frost wedging ,ice wedging or cryofracturing is the collective name given several processes where ice is present. The processes include frost shattering ,frost wedging and freeze-thaw weathering .This type of weathering is common around mountainous regions, where temperature is around the freezing point of water. Certain frost susceptible rocks and soil expands or heaves upon freezing as a result of water migrating via capillary action to grow ice lenses near the freezing front. This occur within the pore spaces of rocks. Freeze induced weathering action occur mainly in environments where there is a lot of moisture, and the temperature frequently fluctuates above and below freezing point.(Alpine And Priglacial Area). An example of rocks that are susceptible to frost are the chalk having many pore spaces for the growth of ice crystal. Pressure Release: In pressure release, also known as the unloading overlying material(not necessarily rocks)are removed erosion ,or other processes which causes underlying rocks to expand and fracture parallel to the

surface. Pressure release can cause exfoliation or sheeting giving rise in batholiths and granite dome

Hydraulic Action Hydraulic action occurs when water generally from powerful waves rushes rapidly into cracks in a rock force, thus trapping a layer air at the bottom of the rock compressing it and weakening the rock when the wave retreats, the trapped air suddenly releases with explosive force Salt Crystallization: Salt crystallization otherwise known as haloclasty, causes disintegration of rocks when saline solution seep into cracks and joints of the rock, and evaporates ,leaving salt crystals behind. These salt crystals expand as they are heated up exerting pressure on the confining rock. Salt crystallization can also take place when solutions of sodium sulphates and carbonates of which the moisture evaporates to form their respective salt crystals. The salts which have proved most effective in disintegrating rocks are sodium and magnesium sulphite and calcium chloride. Its associated with the arid climate where strong heating causes strong evaporation and salts crystallization. It is common along coasts (honeycombed stones in sea wall, which likely develop in large part by chemical and physical salt weathering processes.

B. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING The most common form of biological weathering are the release of chelating compound (i.e organic acids; iderophores) and of acidifying molecules-proton and organic acid by plants ,so as to breakdown aluminum and iron containing compounds in soils beneath them. Decaying remains of dead organisms in soil can form organic acids which when dissolved in water, causes chemical weathering .Extreme release of chelating compound can easily

affect the surrounding rocks and soil and may lead to podsolization in soil. Organic matters such as trees, ferns angiosperms may collect in the swamps. The may turn into peat which ultimately transforms into coal, oil and gas if the conditions are right.

C. CHEMICAL WEATERING Water not only is an agent of mechanical weathering, but also aids in chemical weathering. Rain water is slightly acidic, sometimes a lot more that slightly-as in acid rain. Acid dissolves many minerals of particular importance in crystal rocks, acid attacks carbonate and feldspar, a principle ingredient of granite s one of the most important type of crustal rock. In addition to dissolving, some minerals alter from one form to another. For instance, silicate minerals form silt and clay. Based on theircrystal structures, different minerals are more or less resistant to weathering than others. Quartz minerals which is dominant mineral and cement in sand stone is very stable and highly resistant to weathering and can remain when all other minerals are gone. This is why its so abundant along the beach environment. While minerals made of individual silica tetrahedral such as olivine weather more readily than the framework silicates such as quartz. 2KALSI308 + 3H20+CO2 4S1O(OH)2 + K2Co3 Similarly produces kaolinite 2NaA1S3O8 + 2CO2 + 11H2O = Al2Si2O5 (OH)4 + 2Na + 2HCO2 + 4H2S1O4 The kaolinite is often the first mineral to form as a product of mineral weathering. Depending on the chemical composition of the sonic rock being weathered, clay minerals such as smectite, illite chlorite may be produced much of the soda generated by the process of chemical weathering transported to sea by running water, but potash remains in the soil to be absorbed inter either by plant roots or by clay minerals. ----ALSI205(OH)4 + 4SI02 +2K(OH)+

ROLE OF WEATHERING 1. Sediments Production (rugoliths): The word weathering which is a form of disintegration, alternating pre-existing rocks or by precipitation from solution give rise to sediment particles. Also particles ejected out of volcanoes and the dust particles of cosmic origin also add to the sediment mass of the earth in a limited way. Because the earths surface is constantly been eroded, this means that rocks are not exempted, being part of the earth crust. Therefore rock breakdown into smaller pieces by the weathering agents such as wind, water, ice and mans activities. These small pieces of rocks turn into pebbles, gravel, sands, silts and clay. The tumble down the river and streams from the land. As they are transported along by current, depending on the velocity of the carrier (water),heavy fragments will be dropped ,lighter ones will be carried along until where the flow regime gets slower that they cannot continue, there, they will settle as accumulation continues. So the pieces settles in a new place and begin to pile up and the sediments form flat layers over a long period of time, these pieces become compacted resulting to a sedimentary solid rock. These sediments can harden into sedimentary rocks in two major ways-As a layer after layers of sediments are deposited, the lower layers are pressed together tightly under the weight of the heavier ones above. Also, the hardening could by cementing-Some sediment are glued together by minerals which are dissolves in water such as the silica quartz minerals. The resulting effect of rock breakdown is the production of sediments which could be from the pre-exiting rocks of igneous, metamorphic and even sedimentary origin.

Sediments are solid materials, organic or inorganic in origin that has settled out from a state of suspension in a fluid and has been transported and deposited by wind, water or ice. It may also consist of fragmented rock material, products derived from chemical action or from the secretions of organisms. Loose sediments such as sands, mud and silts may become consolidated and / or cemented together to

form sedimentary rocks. Therefore sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of subsequent consolidation of sediments into various classes of sedimentary rocks, depending on the resistant nature of the parent rock. Ultimately, the origin of these sediments is through weathering ,erosion and or chemical breakdown .Hence weathering is a factor that prays a major role in the production of sediments. Due to weathering and transportation, sediments laid down in layers within depressions (basins) in the earth crust are preserved to constitute a stratigraphic record. The ultimate aim of the sedimentological study is to unravel the chain of events responsible for production of particular stratigraphic sequences. The sediments are transported by running water, wind, or moving ice to various depositional environment. The process of sediment transportation after weathering) is often accompanied by the production of rthymic bed forms or more complex structure, which when well preserved, provide clue to the paleoenvironment and paleocurrent studies. Sediment produced out of mechanical or chemical process are consolidated into sedimentary rocks by process of overburden, recrystallization and cementation; textures of such sedimentary rocks bear the imprint of the nature of the changes (diagenesis) undergone during consolidation of sediments into sedimentary rock below the zone of metamorphism sediment is essential in the petroleum industry. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE SEDIMENT FORMATION VIA WEATHERING 1. Parent Material

This explains the original rock type- igneous ,sedimentary and or metamorphic origin from which the mineral crystallizes; how resistant and stable the minerals become is entirely depends on the parent source rock and velocity of the transporting medium. This explains the shape morphology of the new sediment formed.

2.

Climatic Condition

The greater the amount of rainfall in a mountainous region, the more weathering process takes place. Especially rocks such as carbonates whose minerals compositions are less resistant when come in contact with acid rain. This can lead to increase in erosion and leaching of the mineral grains 3. Topography

This plays a major role in transportation process of sediments. Topography as a general configuration of the landmass including size relief, and elevation is very essential in the transport of the sediments. The steeper the surface slope, the more likely eroded materials be transported out of the system with a velocity of the transporting medium. 4. Biological Activities

Plants and animals activities produces humic acids that are powerful erosion agents .Plants can physically and chemically eroded hence, stabilizes sediments whereas mans activities destabilizes the soil profile thus increasing soil erosion 5. Time

The longer the rock body is exposed, the more likely its rock unit become weathered. This is because chemical reactions rates are very slow and takes time in their occurrences.

WEATHERING IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Sedimentary rocks are formed due to the accumulation of sediments of different origin (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) by continuous compaction and cementation. This is regarded as lithification process. During weathering, sediments formed are grouped into three based on their grain sizes and velocity of the transporting medium on a setting. These sediments are classified as: The Clastic fragments; Minerals that goes into solution and those that precipitate (colloidal) to form salts

WEATHERING IN CLASTIC TERRIGENOUS ROCKS These form the clastic fragments. They composed of fragments of the pre-existing rocks from the source. At the source, the clasts have not travelled, so they are more of angular with sharp edges (braccia). As they are transported by agents of erosion, mostly running water into the marine environment, they tend to become sub-rounded and rounded the farther the move. The velocity of the running water to a greater extent determines the shape of the forming sediment. At very high velocity, the materials are sorted having the coarser conglomerates; sands and silts /clay. At this point, there is a sequence of sorting which is an upward finning from the source. These coarse sediments at the base or near the source are referred to as clastic sediments as there are continuous deposition and accumulation.

CLASTIC SEDIMENTS Clastic sediments are formed from particulate materials carried by wind or water. They can form on land by action of river glaciers and lakes. When on land the are referred to as clastic, and detrital along deltaic marine environment. They can form in ocean/land interface otherwise known as the intertidal zone (beach). They grain size is majorly the mode of classification .They range from boulders greater 256mm to less than 0.039mm of clay. The ability of the agent to carry

particles depends on its speed. Fast moving water can carry larger clasts; while still water drops its loads entirely and the rate that a particle fall through water is a function of its primarily of its size(smaller sized particles stay afloat the longest).These particles allow the interpretation of the sedimentary structures such as graded bedding; ripple marks; and other kinds of stratifications which gives a clear interpretation of the environment of deposition. The structures formed give valuable indication of the flow direction of the currents which generate them.

CONGLOMERATES A coarse grained siliciclasts rocks with a muddy or sandy matrix. A conglomerate and braccia are the more widely used terms used. In a conglomerate the large clasts are rounded indicating the distant of transportation. Because of the clast size, they can range from pebble size, to boulders till sand. This can profer a detailed information on the provenance of the sediments. it implies that such coarse grain can only be deposited by rivers; glaciers; landslides, ocean and lake waves .hence can occur as pyroclastic rocks. This rock type make up less than 1% of the entire sedimentary records. They are important because they are usually porus and permeable.They can be an excellent reservoir for water and petroleum. Other roles of weathering is that some sediments form valuable placer ore deposits because they contain high concenteration of heavy minerals of economic valuable.

SANDSTONE When weathered, sandstone bring about to sand production. They fall in a range of 2mm-0.0625mm,Constitute about 30% of all the sedimentary rock. Because of the grain size, its very difficult to determine the source sandstone compared to those of conglomerate. The abundant mineral in sandstone is quartz. It is the hardest one of the rock forming minerals and therefore the most resistant to abrasion during transportation, followed by feldspars (magnesium type) and

micas. These minerals are also chemically most stable under conditions of the earth surface. The softer and less stable minerals hornblend, pyroxene, and olivine)are absent or atleast fairly rare. Even though the mineral composition of a sandstone does not give a direct clue of the source origin and composition. We can gain some insight into the climate and transport history from the mineral composition of sandstone. For the case of quartz(quartz arenite) a sandstone that consist entirely of quartz grains. We may assume that chemical weathering in the source area was very effective or, that transport path very long (multicyclicity). In the case of a sandstone that contain feldspars, we may assume that the source area was relatively close and that chemical weathering was less intense. The degree of rounding of sand grain may also be an indicator of transport history.

MUDSTONES This basically consist of consolidated mud, having clay and silt particles. They constitute about 60-70% of the entire sedimentary rock on earth, having fine grain texture. Shale is not as conspicuous as sandstone because it is softer and tends to form smooth hills and slopes during weathering .They require a relatively quiet environment of deposition that within deep sea, lagoon, lakes and tidal flats because otherwise the fine materials cannot settle out the water. Consequently, the colour of shale may indicate if deposition occurred in stagnant water (black, organic matter),or in an oxidizing environment will aerated usually higher energy. If the deposition of this shales continues with more accumulation and compaction forming beds. This could result in the formation of source rock which is best for hydrocarbon generation

WEATHERING IN CHEMICAL AND ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY

These are the other main group of sediments. These constitute together the mineral that goes into solution and also the precipitate which we find under the classes of sedimentary rock. They usually formed by inorganic ally mediated mineral precipitation, and as the result of biological activity. Usually it takes some special conditions for these rock to form, such as small or absent of clastic sedimentation (would dilute chemical and organic input) high temperatures and high evaporation (cause supersaturation) and high organic activity (reefs, tropical swamps.

LIMESTONE Limestones are the most common type of chemical sediments. They consists predominantly of calcite Cac03, and may form by inorganic precipitation as well as by organic activity. If looked at in detail, however, organic activity contributed practically all of the limestones in the geologic record .Limestone may consist of gravel to mud sized particles ,and thus the classification of limestone makes it similar to those of clastics rock. The animal hardpart (test) that contribute to limestone formation can be anywhere from metres (coral reef) to some thousands of millimitre to thousands of millimeter (certain algae) in size. Ooids are the main form of inorganically precipitated carbonates and form limestones that look like layer of fish egg. Ooids form in very shallow warm water with strong wave action (eg Bahamas). A smaller fragment of carbonate (e.g shell material) is sloshed around by waves ,calcites, or aragonites is precipitated on this seed when it rests on the sediments surface and then the precipitates is rounded and smooth by wave action. Repeatition of this process lead to multiple concentric layers. There is recent evidence from research which indicates that micro-organisms may actually be involved in ooids formation. It gives to an extent idea of areas of occurrences of hydrocarbon DOLOMITES Dolomite consist of the carbonate minerals dolomites [CaMgC02)2]. Here there is a replacement as explained in the electrochemical series

and Bowen reation series.It occurs more or less the same way as limestones. Even though dolomite can precipitate theoretically from sea water,it only does ,and probably most of the dolostones in the sedimentary record are due to post-depositional replacement of calcite by dolomite Mg for Ca exchange by Mg-rich pore waters.

EVAPORITES These are the true chemical sediments. They consist mostly of salts (Nacl) and various other s and/ or gypsum (CaSO4).They usually form from evaporation of seawater. They require high evaporation rates (temperatures) for their formation; and usually sedimentation basin should be closed or partially otherwise supersaturation reached because of influx of new water. They usually indicate arid (dry) climate at their site of deposition.

WEATHERING IN CARBONACEOUS

ROCKS

These are those sediments that contain abundant organic matters in various forms. Although they make only a small fraction of sedimentary rocks. They are very important energy resource. Coal is an example of carbonaceous rock that consist of the altered due to increased pressure and temperature of remains of trees and other plant materials. It has been in use since the last century for energy production and chemical industry. Oil shales are black mudstones that contain abundant organic matter that has been altered in solid (kerogen) or very viscous (bitumen) that can be extracted from the rock during rock heating. Tar-sands are found here. They are sandstones whose pore spaces are filled with heavy crude oil and bitumen .The hydrocarbons are usually extracted with stream. Oil shales and tar sands are attracting interest because of their economic attachment

SUMMARY The products of any type of weathering are resistant minerals such as quartz, new minerals(clays minerals from the weathering of feldspars, micas and soluble substances carried away in solution. The results of all these weathering is a pile of loose rock fragments s clastic materials and lots of dissolved ions: salts, bicarbonates ,potassium etc .The clastics wash (or blow away)are carried by glacial or running water from the source region to catchment area -sedimentary basin. While particulate matter gets transported ,it weathers further. The particles become smaller , rounded and less stable minerals continued to dissolve.The dissolved ions are carried in water ,until they precipitate either on land example the spectacular formation called the Speleotherm or in the ocean. Plants and animals may used them as the building material for their shell and tests (foraminifera and ostracods),or they may precipitate out as salts in evaporates sequences. The ocean is salty and because the salt is the last vestiges of the once high and mighty mountains of the world. So help in salt production naturally for decantations and preservation. Consequently, since the character of the rocks is largely controlled by the sedimentary environment, they have a story to tell about the climate of the area of formation, the environment and who lived as at the time they were laid down. Other important role of weathering is that it helps to delineate the sedimentary structures while sediments are transported examples of such structures are graded bedding; ripple marks and various kinds of stratification, which in turns interpret the environment of deposition REFERENCES Milner, H.B. (1922). An introduction to sedimentary petrogragraphy; pp125.London\ Pettijohn, F. J (1957). Sedimentary rocks,2nd edition 718,New York Harper

Pettijohn (1975). Principle of Sedimentology; pp4,76,77 Weller, J.M. (1960). Stratigraphy principle and practical; 725.New Harper Zenger D.H. (1986). Lyell and Episodicity Journal Geological Education, Vol. 34. Pp. 10-15 (5) Zingy, Jh. (1935). Bertrage zur schotteranalyses Min. Petrog. Milt. Schweiz, Vol 15, pp. 39-40