Cement Industry Process Technology - Holderbank Course (3 of 3)

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000
Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 6/23/2001 - 5:13:33 PM Page 1

Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III
B06 - PT III
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control
C01 - Emission Control
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions
Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions
P. Kutschera
PT 96/14160/E
1. Introduction
2. Chemical And Physical Properties And Environmental Aspects Of Some Nitrogen
Compounds And Ozone
2.1 Nitrogen (N
2
)
2.1.1 Physical Properties [1]
2.1.2 Chemical Properties [1]
2.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NO, NO
2
N
2
O)
2.2.2 Toxicology [1]
2.2.3 Environmental Aspects [2]
2.3 Ammonia
2.3.1 Physical Properties
2.3.2 Chemical Properties
2.3.3 Toxicology
2.4 Ozone
2.4.2 Toxicity
2.4.3 Formation of Trophospheric Ozone
3. Present Situation
3.1 Present State of Cement Kiln Emission
3.2 Present Legal Situation [16]
4. Nitrogen Input into the Kiln System
5. Behavior of Nitrogen in the Process
5.1 NO Formation
5.1.1 Nitrogen Monoxide Formation Reaction Mechanism
5.1.2 NO-Decomposition Mechanism in the Combustion Process
5.2 Formation of Nitrogen Monoxide in a Cement Kiln
5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation
Query:
5.3.1 Temperatures
5.3.2 Temperature Peaks [6]
5.3.3 Excess Air
5.3.4 Retention Time
5.3.5 Burner Operating Parameters
5.3.6 Evaluation of Characteristical Burner Data (CETIC Working Group)
6. No Emission Reduction Possibilities
6.1 Reduction of Nitrogen Input
6.2 Primary Measures
6.2.1 Kiln / Clinker Cooler
6.2.2 Secondary Firing / Multi-Stage Combustion
6.2.3 Possible Negative Side Effects of Primary Measures
6.3 Secondary Measures
6.3.1 The Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction
6.4 Effectiveness of NOx Reduction Measures [9]
7. Examples Of Nox Emission Reduction
8. Literature
Summary:
Cement kiln NOx emissions are between 300 and 2500 mg NO
2
/ Nm
3
.
The degree of NOx emission is mainly determined by
Flame temperature
Oxygen content
Residence time of exhaust gas in the kiln
Fuel-N
Primary measures against NOx
Secondary measures against NOx
The NOx control technologies available for cement kilns include:
Combustion Operational Modifications (COM)
Low NOx Burners (LNB)
Staged Air Combustion (SAC)
Query:
Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR)
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions / 1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
NOx is produced to different degrees in all stationary and mobile combustion sources. Because of the
high flame temperatures the NO generation in cement kilns is relatively high.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions / 2. CHEMICAL AND
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AND OZONE
2. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AND OZONE
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AND OZONE / 2.1 Nitrogen (N2)
2.1 Nitrogen (N
2
)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AND OZONE / 2.1 Nitrogen (N2) /
At atmospheric pressure and room temperature, nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, non-combustible
gas. Nitrogen condenses to a colorless liquid at -195.80C and 101.3 kPa and forms a white solid at
-209.86C.
M
r
28.0134
Triple point
T 63.15 K
p 12.463 kPa
heat of fusion 25.8 kJ/kg
Boiling point (101.3 kPa) 77.35 K
heat of vaporization 199 kJ/kg
Critical point
T
crit
126.2 K
p
crit
3.39908 Mpa
Q
crit
314.03 g/L
Properties at 0C, 101.3 kPa:
Relative density (air = 1) 0.967
Query:
Relative density (air = 1) 0.967
Specific heat capacity
1.039 Jg
-1
K
-1
Dynamic viscosity
15.9 x 10
-6
Pa s
Thermal conductivity
23.86 mWm
-1
K
-1
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AND OZONE / 2.1 Nitrogen (N2) /
Nitrogen has an extremely high heat of dissociation:
N
2
2 N H
0
= 943.8 kJ/mol
No marked dissociation takes place even at 3000C and standard pressure. The strength of the N N
bond is responsible for the inertness of N
2
.
Important reactions of nitrogen with non-metals are those with hydrogen, yielding ammonia, and with
oxygen. The latter, an endothermic reaction, gives nitrogen monoxide:
N
2
+ O
2
2 NO H
0
= 180 kJ/mol
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AND OZONE / 2.2 Nitrogen Oxides
(NO, NO2 N2O)
2.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NO, NO
2
N
2
O)
(NO, NO2 N2O) / 2.2.1 Physical Properties [1]
Compounds of oxygen with nitrogen are considered as a class and called nitrogen oxides (often
denoted as NOx). The known oxides and their equilibrium reactions are as follows:
+I
N
2
O Dinitrogen monoxide
+II +II
Nitrogen monoxide NO N
2
O
2
Dinitrogen dioxide
+III
N
2
O
3
Dinitrogen trioxide
+IV +IV
Nitrogen dioxide NO
2
N
2
O
4
Dinitrogen tetroxide
Query:
NO
2
+V
N
2
O
5
Dinitrogen pentoxide
+VI +VI
Nitrogen trioxide NO
3
N
2
O
6
Dinitrogen hexoxide
Table 1: Physical properties of nitrogen oxides
Compound N
2
O NO NO
2
/
N
2
O
4
N
2
O
3
N
2
O
5
Oxidation state 1.000 2.000 +4 / +4 3.000 5.000
T
cr
, C 36.410 -93.000 157.850
p
cr
, MPa 7.245 6.485 10.132
Q
cr
, kg/m
3
452.000 520.000 550.000
mp, C -90.860 -163.650 -11.200 -100.700 32.4*
bp, C -88.480 -151.770 21.150 -40 to +3
Specific heat c
p
, kJ kg
-1
K
-1
0.879 0.996 1.326 0.862 0.778
Standard enthalpy of formation
H
F
, kJ/kg
1864.190 3007.684 721.199 1101.435 104.589
Heat of vaporization at bp,
kJ/kg
376.070 459.031 414.257 517.416
Density, kg/m3
Gas (0C, 101.3 kPa)
Liquid (20C, 101.3 kPa)
1.9775
793
1.3402 3.4 (20C)
1446.8
1.447
(2C)
2.05
(solid)
Dynamic viscosity, mPa -s
Gas (25C, 101.3 kPa) 14.874 19.184 12.838
Thermal conductivity, W m
-1
K
-1
Gas (25C, 101.3 kPa)
Liquid (20C, 101.3 kPa)
0.01718 0.02573 0.1124
0.1336
* Sublimation point
N
2
O
Under normal conditions (i.e. room temperature and atmospheric pressure), dinitrogen
monoxide, also called nitrous oxide, N
2
O, M
r
44.01, is a colorless gas with a weak,
pleasant odor and a sweetish taste. If inhaled, it can bring about a spasmodic inclination
to laugh and a condition resembling drunkenness hence, its historic name, laughing gas.
Query:
to laugh and a condition resembling drunkenness hence, its historic name, laughing gas.
NO
Nitrogen monoxide, also called nitric oxide, NO, M
r
30.01, is a colorless, toxic,
nonflammable gas at room temperature. As soon as it comes in contact with atmospheric
oxygen, it is oxidized to nitrogen dioxide, a brown vapor.
NO
2
Nitrogen dioxide, NO
2
, M
r
46.01, is a brownish red, toxic gas with a pungent odor; for
physical properties, see Table 1.
(NO, NO2 N2O) / 2.2.2 Toxicology [1]
2.2.2 Toxicology [1]
NO
Pure nitrogen monoxide does not have any irritating effects. It reacts, however, with
hemoglobin to form methemoglobin, resulting in cyanosis and possible death. The
TLV-TWA value is 25 ppm (31 mg/m
3
).
NO
2
Nitrogen dioxide is an irritant gas. Its MAK value is 5 ppm (9 mg/m
3
). TLV-TWA 3 ppm (5.6
mg/m
3
), TLV-STEL 5 ppm (9.4 mg/m
3
). Inhalation of nitrogen dioxide causes pulmonary
edema which may result in death (lethal dose 200 ppm). The substance is only slightly
water-soluble but highly lipid-soluble. It therefore penetrates the alveoli where it damages
the capillary walls resulting in exudative inflammation. The respiratory tract is obstructed
due to formation of foam.
Concentrations exceeding 60 - 150 ppm produce coughing and a burning sensation in the
chest. Pulmonary edema becomes apparent after 2 - 24 h. The patient suffers respiratory
distress and insomnia. Chronic exposure to low doses results in coughing, headache, loss
of appetite and gastrointestinal disorders. Patients should be kept under clinical
observation. Inhalation of ammonia from ammonium hydrogen carbonate is
recommended.
N
2
O
Dinitrogen monoxide (laughing gas) does not irritate the mucous membranes. It has a
powerful analgesic action but is only weakly narcotic. The gas displaces nitrogen from
air-filled body cavities (middle ear, sinuses, intestines, brain ventricles) resulting in an
increase in pressure. After chronic exposure, polyneuropathy and myelopathy have been
observed. TLV-TWA value is 50 ppm (90 mg/m
3
).
(NO, NO2 N2O) / 2.2.3 Environmental Aspects [2]
2.2.3 Environmental Aspects [2]
Conditions which produce nitrogen oxides do not occur solely in stationary combustion sources. The
Query:
exhaust gases from internal-combustion engines, particularly those of the gasoline-burning
spark-ignition variety, contain traces of nitrogen oxides, and because of the sheer number of them they
are estimated to contribute about 50% of the total anthropogenic NOx burden.
Vehicle exhaust also contains the other ingredients needed to produce the effect known as
photo-chemical smog; this has long plagued large conurbations in badly ventilated situations such as
Los Angeles, Tokyo and Mexico City, and it has more recently become a feature of many other urban
centers. The nitrogen oxides, activated by solar ultraviolet, react in the urban atmosphere with the
unburned hydrocarbons from vehicle exhausts to produce a noxious cocktail of corrosive, oxidizing and
irritating chemicals such as organic peroxides.
They also interact with atmospheric oxygen to produce ozone. It is ironic that, at a time when one form
of atmospheric pollution is destroying the ozone in the stratosphere, which provides vital protection
against excessive solar radiation at the surface, another is creating it near ground level, where it is an
economic and health hazard. Vehicle exhaust is, of course, discharged virtually at ground level, and its
effects are "local" rather than global: the smog pall from Los Angeles sometimes extends 100 miles or
more inland.
But nitrogen oxides are now known to be a key component of a much more widespread problem which
is even more serious in terms of its international implications than is photochemical smog. It is now
plain that a sizable proportion of the blame for the very topical environmental concern of acid rain
which was formerly perceived as an effect only of sulfur oxides, can in fact be attached to nitrogen
oxides. Acid rain which ought really to be termed "acid precipitation" since the most spectacular
manifestations tend to occur in snow rather than rain is no observer of national boundaries. Pollutants
released in one country may come to earth in precipitation not just in neighboring countries but even in
other continents.
As the extent of the problem and its causes have become better understood and documented, it has
become the subject of international dispute and negotiation. Ecological damage to the forests and
lakes of Eastern Canada has been ascribed to (amongst other things) acidity originating from industrial
sources in the US Mid-West. Similar damage which has ravaged the forests and lakes of Scandinavia
has been blamed on pollution exported from the nearer EEC countries, especially the United Kingdom
and Germany, and former communist central European countries such as Poland, Czechoslovakia and
Romania. And since the communist regimes in these countries collapsed the appalling extent of the
devastation of their own forests has become only too apparent.
By what mechanism acid rain causes forest damage is not known for certain. Two theories are
currently given greatest credence. One proposes that the acidity leaches cationic nutrients such as
calcium, magnesium and potassium away from the root zone and down into the subsoil, causing
starvation. The other postulates that the acidity solubilizes normally immobile aluminum in the soil; this
interferes with the normal uptake of other cationic nutrients and, if it reaches a threshold concentration
(which varies according to the species of tree), it is directly toxic. This could also explain the dire effect
on the aquatic life of lakes and rivers in the affected regions.
Other pollutants reckoned to damage forests include heavy metals which are given off in coal smoke
as well as in emissions from metal smelters and ozone which - as already mentioned - is generated in
interactions between waste nitrogen oxides and atmospheric oxygen.
Studies made in the United States for the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) -
a statutory body set up under the acid Precipitation Act of 1980 - have shown that the acidity is worse
in high-level rain clouds than in lower-level clouds, suggesting that the pollutants causing it are carried
up into the higher levels rather than diffusing up from ground level. So, while it is necessary to tackle
exhaust emissions from vehicles to alleviate the smog problem and any strategy for curbing the
contribution of nitrogen oxides to acid rain must center on the control of emissions from the
Query:
large stationary sources.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AND OZONE / 2.3 Ammonia
2.3 Ammonia
Ammonia, NH
3
, occurs in nature almost exclusively in the form of ammonium salts. Natural formation of
ammonia is primarily by decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic materials or through volcanic
activity. Ammonia and its oxidation products which combine to form ammonium nitrate and nitrite, are
produced from nitrogen and water vapor through electrical discharges in the atmosphere.
These ammonium salts, as well as those arising from industrial and automotive exhausts, supply
significant quantities of the nitrogen needed by growing plants when eventually deposited on the
earth's surface. Ammonia and its salts are also byproducts of commercial processing (gasification,
cooking) of fuels with vegetable origins such as coal, lignite and peat.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AND OZONE / 2.3 Ammonia / 2.3.1
Physical Properties
M
r
17.0312
Liquid density (at -33.43C, 101.3 kPa) 0.682 g/cm
3
Gas density (at -33.43C, 101.3 kPa) 0.888 g/L
Melting point (triple point) -77.71C
Vapor pressure (triple point) 6.077 kPa
Boiling point (at 101.3 kPa) -33.43C
Heat of vaporization (at 101.3 kPa) 1370 kJ/kg
Standard enthalpy of formation (gas at 25C) -45.72 kJ/mol
Net heating value, LHV 18.577 kJ/g
Gross heating value, HHV 22.543 kJ/g
Ignition temperature acc. to DIN 51 794 651C
Explosive limits
NH
3
- O
2
mixture (at 20C, 101.3 kPa) 15 - 79 vol % NH
3
NH
3
- air mixture
(at 0C, 101.3 kPa) 16 - 27 vol% NH
3
(at 100C, 101.3 kPa) 15.5 - 28 vol% NH
3
Chemical Properties
2.3.2 Chemical Properties
Gaseous ammonia reacts very violently to explosively with nitrogen oxides to form nitrogen, water,
Query:
ammonium nitrate or nitrite. The reaction with N
2
O does require ignition.
Toxicology
2.3.3 Toxicology
Ammonia is a strong local irritant. On mucous membranes alkaline ammonium hydroxide forms which
dissolves cellular proteins and causes severe necrosis (corrosive effect).
Ammonia or ammonium hydroxide can penetrate the cornea rapidly, leading to keratitis, damage of the
iris, cataract and glaucom.
Oral ingestion of aqueous ammonia can corrode the mucous membranes of the oral cavity, pharynx
and esophagus and cause the shock syndrome, toxic hepatitis and nephritis.
Ammonia is absorbed rapidly by the wet membranes of body surfaces as ammonium hydroxide,
converted to urea and excreted by the kidneys.
Human Exposure: Concentrations of 50 ppm are perceived easily; 50 - 72 ppm does not disturb
respiration significantly. Levels of 100 ppm irritate nose and throat and cause a burning sensation in
the eyes and tachypnoe. In addition to the symptoms described above, 200 ppm induce headache and
nausea; 250 - 500 ppm, tachypnoe and tachycardia; 700 ppm, immediate onset of burning sensations
in the eyes; 1000 ppm causes immediate coughing.
The nitrogen metabolism is not significantly changed after exposure to 500 ppm of ammonia.
The TLV value has been set at 25 ppm with a short-term limit exposure value at 35 ppm; the MAK is
established at 50 ppm.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AND OZONE / 2.4 Ozone
2.4 Ozone
Ozone is thermodynamically unstable and spontaneously reverts back into diatomic oxygen. This
process is promoted by the presence of transition metals or their oxides.
An irritating pale blue gas, ozone is explosive and toxic, even at very low concentrations. At -111.9C it
condenses to form a dark violet liquid which freezes at -192.7C. In the Earth's stratosphere, it occurs
naturally (5-10 ppm), protecting the planet and its inhabitants by absorbing ultraviolet radiation of
wavelength 290-320 nm.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME NITROGEN COMPOUNDS AND OZONE / 2.4 Ozone / 2.4.1
Physical Properties
M
r
48.0
bp (101 kPa) -111.9C
mp -192.7C
Critical temperature -12.1C
Critical pressure 5.53 MPa
Query:
Critical pressure 5.53 MPa
Critical density 437 kg/m
3
Critical volume 1.471 x 10-4 m
3
/mol
Heat capacity, gas
0C 794 Jkg
-1
K
-1
25C 818 Jkg
-1
K
-1
Heat of vaporization 15.2 kJ/mol
Heat of formation 144.8 kJ/mol
Toxicity
2.4.2 Toxicity
Ozone, being an extremely powerful oxidizing agent, readily oxidizes a variety of functional groups in
biochemicals. Studies indicate that free radical formation, lipid peroxidation, carbonyl and aldehyde
formation, and oxidation of SH groups, are some of the major sites of attack. Ozone readily reacts with
olefinic compounds, particularly polyunsaturated lipids, forming unstable ozonides. Their
decomposition results in the formation of toxic free radicals which can in turn amplify the primary
cytotoxic or tissue damage. While ozone is considered to be a toxic gas, there are factors which
mitigate the immediate danger to individuals working with it. Toxicity is dependent on concentration and
length of exposure. OSHA has set an 8-h TWA-PEL of 0.2 mg/m
3
(0.1 ppm) for ozone.
Fig. 1 illustrates the relationship between various exposure levels and exposure time for humans. The
odor threshold concentration for ozone is approx. 0.02-0.04 mg/m
3
(0.01 - 0.02 ppm).
Figure 1: Human toxicity limits for ozone exposure
Formation of Trophospheric Ozone
2.4.3 Formation of Trophospheric Ozone
CO + OH H + CO
2
Query:
H + CO
2
H + O
2
H M HO
2
+ M
HO
2
+ NO OH + NO
2
NO
2
+ Light ( < 420 nm) NO + O
O + O
2
+ M O
3
+ M
Net: CO + 2 O
2
+ Light ( < 420 nm) CO
2
+ O
3
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions / 3. PRESENT SITUATION
3. PRESENT SITUATION
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions / 3. PRESENT SITUATION /
There is no normal or average NO
x
emission from cement kilns. Many factors like kiln system and fuel
characteristics are influencing the NO
x
emission.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions / 3. PRESENT SITUATION /
All combustion processes primarily produce nitrogen monoxide NO with a much smaller proportion of
nitrogen dioxide NO2 (of the order of 5%). In the free atmosphere, i.e. at relatively low temperature,
however, nitrogen monoxide is oxidized further to form nitrogen dioxide NO2. Owing to this oxidation,
no difference is made between the two gases when emissions are concerned and they are referred to
generally under the formula NO
x
(= NO + NO2 expressed as NO2), or nitrogen oxides. However,
decisive for the NO
x
emission is the formation of nitrogen monoxide (NO) in the kiln system.
Emission Limits
Nm
3
dry
= m
3
at 273 K, 101300 Pa and 0% water
Europe 200 - 1800 mg / Nm
3
Germany
new plants / modification 500 mg / Nm
3
dry
existing plants 800 mg / Nm
3
dry
100% waste burning (17. BImSchV) 200mg / Nm
3
dry
USA 720 - 1100 mg/Nm
3
US plants burning hazardous waste are regulated under BIF (Burners and Industrial Furnaces). Other
Query:
plants do have a state permit defining certain parameters like NO
x
, SO
2
, CO and THC emission. The
limits for these emissions are called emission standards. This standards are individually defined for
each plant and usually represent the operating situation under certain conditions. Therefore, the US
standards are different from the emission limits in Europe where emission limits are valid for a whole
state or country.
For comparison reason all emission limits/standards are indicated in mg/Nm
3
. The emission standards
in the USA are usually not using mg/Nm
3
but ppm, lb/t
dry feed
, gr/dscf, lb/1000lb
gas,
lb/hr, etc. To convert
them into mg/Nm
3
certain assumptions were necessary.
All the above explained emission limits do include definitions how and when the compliance tests have
to be carried out. It is, e.g. a very important difference whether the emission has to be measured
continuously or not.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions / 4. NITROGEN INPUT INTO
THE KILN SYSTEM
4. NITROGEN INPUT INTO THE KILN SYSTEM
Nitrogen is introduced into the kiln system as molecular nitrogen (N
2
) in the combustion air (primary,
secondary, tertiary) and as nitrogen compounds in the fuel. The quantity of the relevant N
2
introduced
into the kiln system is defined by the stoichiometric air required for the combustion plus excess air.
The concentration of N
2
in the air is always 78%.
The quantity of fuel-N is defined by the fuel input and the nitrogen content in the fuel:
Heavy oil: 700 - 1000 ppm by mass of N
Coal: 1000 - 4000 ppm by mass of N
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions / 5. BEHAVIOR OF
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS
5. BEHAVIOR OF NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.1 NO Formation
5.1 NO Formation
NO formation only occurs at elevated temperatures (> 800C). It is always connected with the
combustion process.
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.1 NO Formation / 5.1.1 Nitrogen Monoxide Formation Reaction Mechanism
5.1.1 Nitrogen Monoxide Formation Reaction Mechanism
The formation of nitrogen monoxide is not a simple process that can be described by a few equations.
The complexity of the reactions involved has hitherto prevented the formulation of a conclusive theory
regarding the formation of nitrogen monoxide NO. However, it appears to consist essentially of two
phenomena, the products of which are referred to as "thermal NO" and "fuel NO".
Query:
"Thermal NO"
The "thermal NO" is produced by the oxidation of molecular nitrogen in the combustion air according to
the formula:
N
2
+ O
2
2 NO (0)
"Fuel NO"
The "fuel NO" is produced by the oxidation of organically bonded nitrogen in the fuel.
Formation of "Thermal NO"
In the zone of combustion products that is after the flame front (oxidation zone), "thermal NO" is
produced if the combustion gases remain for a sufficiently long time at temperatures above about
1600C. This is determined by what is known as the Zeldovich mechanism according to the reactions:
N
2
+ O
NO + N
(K1) ; N
2
+ O
NO + N
(K2)
(1, 2)
N
+ O
2
NO + N
(K3) ; N
+ O
2
NO + O
(K4)
(1, 2)
Here the speed is governed by that of the fastest reaction, i.e. the reaction between atomic oxygen
(radical) and the nitrogen molecule. The rate of formation is therefore proportional to the concentration
of atomic oxygen and molecular nitrogen. Assuming that combustion takes place in the presence of an
air surplus, the following equation is obtained:
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
O N
dt
NO d
2 1
K 2 ~
(4)
The pronounced dependence of K
1
on temperature can be seen in Fig. 3. Thus, at high temperatures
the equilibrium of the reaction is on the side of NO formation.
In the flames of rotary cement kilns the atomic oxygen primarily comes from the thermal dissociation of
O
2
:
O
2
2 O
(5)
Therefore, for the formation of NO the following equation is obtained:
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
2 1
2
K
O N
dt
NO d
(6)
Figure 3: Dependence of K
1
on temperature
Query:
The amount of nitrogen monoxide actually produced during technical combustion processes is a long
way below equilibrium concentration (cf Fig. 4) owing to the marked dependence on temperature of the
NO reaction and the relatively short time that it remains at this temperature. In air 50% of the
equilibrium value is attained at temperatures around 2000C but only after about 2.5 seconds. The
dwell time of the gas in the flames of rotary cement kilns are obviously a whole order of magnitude
below that. Thus, if the gases remain for a long time at high temperatures, the formation of NO is
favored.
Figure 4: Equilibrium N
2
+ O
2
2 NO
Hence, the formation of "thermal NO" is governed by the following parameters:
Temperature
Gas composition
Dwell time at high temperature
Formation of "Fuel NO"
Fossil fuels contain varying proportions of nitrogen compounds:
Heavy oil: 700 - 1'000 ppm by volume of N
Coal: 1000 - 4'000 ppm by volume of N
Already during the pyrolysis of these fuels, i.e. at relatively low temperatures, the nitrogen compounds
break off as secondary compounds, such as amines and cyanides, which are then oxidized by OH
Query:
radicals or O
2
to form nitrogen monoxide, or which react with nitrogen compounds (mainly NO) to form
molecular nitrogen. The formation of NO from fuel nitrogen occurs almost regardless of how it is
bonded, but is largely influenced by the amount of nitrogen contained in the fuel. It can be assumed
that all fuel-bonded nitrogen compounds finally adopt a composition "I", where "I" may be either NH
2
or
atomic N. These are then converted into either NO or N
2
:
I + OX ... NO + ... (7)
I + NO ... N
2
+ ... (8)
Hence, the formation of "fuel NO" is governed by the following parameters:
The formation of NO depends on the quantity but not of the nature of nitrogen compounds
contained by the fuel
With increasing air surplus the proportion of nitrogen compounds in the fuel converted into NO
increases
Under sub-stoichiometric conditions it is possible for NO to be converted into N
2
. This takes place
by combination of the NO with atomic nitrogen present in large proportions in the flame according
to the formula:
NO + N
N
2
+ O
(9)
The conversion of nitrogen compounds in the fuel to NO depends to a large extent on the design of
the burner of the precalciner. Here such operations as
heating and distribution of drops or particles in the combustion air
driving off the volatile part
heterogeneous combustion
etc.
play a very important role
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.1 NO Formation / 5.1.2 NO-Decomposition Mechanism in the Combustion Process
5.1.2 NO-Decomposition Mechanism in the Combustion Process
Homogeneous Reaction
NO reacts with hydrocarbon radicals according to equation 10. The product HCN reacts later like
fuel-N and can form NO as well as N
2
.
) 1 (
10
+ +
x
k
x
OH HCN NO CH
(10)
For a significant NO-decomposition according to (10) high hydrocarbon concentration and low air factor
(~0.6 - 0.9) are required.
Also reactions between NO and HCN as well as ammonia from the fuel do have an influence on
NO-decomposition.
Query:
Heterogeneous Reaction
NO can also be reduced on catalytic active surfaces of solids outside of the flame. As catalyst can act
coal and ash particles and metal oxides. Prerequisite for this reaction is the presence of CO or H
2
in
the exhaust gas. In case of coal particles also a gas-solid reaction between NO and the coal can
decompose NO.
The gas-gas reaction proceeds according to equations 11 and 12.
2 2
2 5 . 0
11
CO N CO NO
k
+ +
(11)
O H N H NO
k
2 2 2
5 . 0
12
+ +
(12)
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.2 Formation of Nitrogen Monoxide in a Cement Kiln
5.2 Formation of Nitrogen Monoxide in a Cement Kiln
If the formation of nitrogen monoxide (NO) in a kiln has to be considered, it has to be distinguished
between the formation of NO in the main firing system of the rotating part and its formation in a
secondary firing system, if present.
NO Formation in the Main Firing System (rotary part)
In the firing system of a rotary kiln turbulent diffusion flames are used in which the greater part of the
combustion air is only fed in after the fuel has been ignited (secondary air, proportion about 90%). As a
result a severely sub-stoichiometric pyrolysis zone and flame front are produced. The nitrogen
compounds in the fuel are therefore converted into NO to only a small extent. This means that only few
"fuel NO" is produced, the nitrogen in the fuel is converted into N
2
. In the zone of the combustion
products (flue gas) temperatures up to 1800C are attained and there "thermal NO" is produced. Thus,
in the flames of the main firing systems it is mainly "thermal NO" that is produced.
NO Formation in Secondary Firing Systems
In a secondary firing system the fuel fed in burns at much lower temperatures (800 to about 1200C)
than in the main firing system. This means that the NO produced in the secondary firing system cannot
have formed thermally, i.e. from N
2
and O
2
of the combustion air. In other words, it is primarily "fuel
NO" that is produced in a secondary firing system.
Figure 5: Regions where NO formation occurs in a rotary kiln plant with cyclone preheater,
calciner and tertiary air duct
Query:
Kilns without secondary firing
All kilns without secondary firing, i.e. wet process kilns, long dry process kilns and preheater kilns
without riser duct firing, have one thing in common, viz. NO emission is determined exclusively by the
conditions in the kiln burning zone. After leaving the burning zone, the kiln gases drop rapidly in
temperature to a level at which the NO in the gas decomposes very slowly.
Wet kilns are characterized by a specific heat consumption which is 1.5 to 2 times the specific heat
consumption of a preheater kiln. This means a high specific amount of exhaust gas. On the other
hand, the high specific combustion air consumption will also mean a somewhat lower secondary air
temperature. This combined with the long material retention time in the burning zone should reduce the
NOx concentration in the exhaust gas from the burning zone.
SP kiln systems with riser duct firing
In many SP kiln systems 10 - 20% of the fuel is fired into the riser duct. Measurements at several riser
duct fired kiln systems indicate that firing coarse fuel (e.g. old tires) into the kiln riser duct will reduce
NOx emission from the kiln system.
This is probably explained by the fact that a large part of the fuel directly falls down into the kiln charge,
creating a reducing atmosphere in the bottom part of the kiln back-end in which NOx from the burning
zone is reduced.
Conversely, when firing finely ground fuel into the kiln riser duct, the specific NOx content in the
exhaust gas will often increase on passing through the riser duct.
As the NOx emission from the kiln may also increase slightly due to an increased excess air rate the
total NOx emission from the kiln system will often increase when starting up riser duct firing with finely
ground fuel.
Precalcining kiln systems
In precalcining kiln systems with tertiary air duct, firing into the rotary kiln typically accounts for only 40
- 50% of the total heat consumption and the specific amount of combustion gases from the kiln burning
zone is reduced proportionally. On the other hand, the NOx concentration in the kiln gas may be
considerably higher than in preheater kilns.
This is probably due to the shorter material and longer gas retention times in the precalciner kiln
burning zone combined with a very high secondary air temperature.
When examining the contribution from the calciner firing to the emission of NOx, we must distinguish
between two basically different types of precalcining kiln systems, viz. the In-Line (ILC) type in which
the kiln gas passes the firing region of the precalciner and the Separate Line (SLC) type in which the
Query:
kiln exhaust gas bypasses the firing region of the precalciner.
ILC systems
In these systems the fuel combustion in the calciner takes place in a mixture of kiln exhaust gas and
hot air from the cooler (tertiary air). Some of the nitrogen in the fuel reacts with NO from the kiln
exhaust gas while another part reacts with oxygen (from the tertiary air) to form NO.
The result may be a net production as well as a net reduction of NO in the calciner. However, in most
cases the calciner contributes a little to the NO emission.
SLC systems
In these systems the combustion in the calciner takes place in pure hot air. In the case of oil firing, NO
production in the calciner is negligible, but when applying fuels containing nitrogen up to 50% of the
nitrogen compounds in the fuel may be converted into NO. The specific NO production in the SLC
calciner may be as high as 4 lb NO2/st (1400 mg NO
2
/Nm3). This was measured in a calciner fired with
pet coke which has a high content of nitrogen and a low content of volatiles.
The NO in the calciner exhaust gas is added to the NO in the gas from the rotary kiln which leaves this
type of kiln system without being reduced. When fired with solid fuels, SLC systems must therefore be
expected to generate somewhat higher NOx emissions than ILC systems.
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation
5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation
Table 2: NOx forming mechanisms in the kiln system
NO Formation Main influencing variables
temperature
flame shape
temperature peaks in flame
secondary air temperature
burning zone temperature
thermal NO
oxygen concentration
flame shape
ignition point
burner momentum
excess air
recirculation
reducing zone
primary air component
swirl intensity
residence time
flame shape
kiln diameter
fuel nitrogen content

Query:

fuel NO
oxygen concentration
volatiles concentration in
the fuel
flame shape
excess air
recirculation
reducing zone
primary air
swirl intensity
residence time
flame shape
gas speed
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation / 5.3.1 Temperatures
5.3.1 Temperatures
In Chapter 3.1 it is shown that the NO forming reaction is accelerated exponentially with the
temperature. The temperature of the combustion gas is defined by heat generated in the flame and the
heat radiation from the burning zone. Temperature has a major influence on NO formation.
Figure 8: Influence of the sintering zone temperature on the NO concentration in the waste
gas
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation / 5.3.2 Temperature Peaks [6]
5.3.2 Temperature Peaks [6]
Fig. 9 shows the increase in thermal NO formation due to temperature peaks in an ideal chemical
reactor for different amplitudes of a given temperature behavior. For calculating the curves, first the NO
concentrations for the temperatures T - T and T + T were calculated, averaged and then referred to
the NO concentration for T.
The subscript "L" in the diagram characterizes the combustion air temperature before the start of
combustion. It appears from the diagram that the increase in NO formation becomes greater with
increasing amplitude DT and decreasing average combustion air temperature. For practical purposes it
is important that NO formation can increase by as much as 20 - 40 % even for very small amplitudes of
the gas temperature, e.g. 100 K.
Query:
Temperature peaks arise more particularly if, in a given combustion chamber, the momentum and
angle of exit of the swirl air and axial air of the rotary kiln burner cannot be optimally adjusted to each
other or if short-term fluctuations in the fuel feed occur. Modern burners should therefore offer the
greatest possible scope for varying their settings.
Figure 9: Calculated increase in NO formation based on local or time-dependent
temperature differences with the average combustion air temperature as parameter
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation / 5.3.3 Excess Air
5.3.3 Excess Air
Fig. 10 shows the behavior of NO concentration in the waste gas. The graph can be subdivided into
two areas:
A) Air excess factor < 1.2. The NO concentration increases exponentially with the O
2
concentration. This is according to the explanation in chapter 5.1 NO formation.
B) Air excess factor > 1.2. The NO concentration is not anymore a function of O
2
. The
high amount of excess air is cooling the flame, reducing the residence time of the gas
in the kiln and diluting the exhaust gas. These 3 factors are reducing NO generation
and concentration in the exhaust gas.
For most kiln systems the excess air factor is below 1.2. Therefore, oxygen concentration has a major
influence on NO formation.
Figure 10: Influence of excess air on the NO concentration in the waste gas
Query:
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation / 5.3.4 Retention Time
5.3.4 Retention Time
The longer the combustion gas remains in the very hot part of the kiln (burning zone), the higher is the
NO formation yield.
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation / 5.3.5 Burner Operating Parameters
5.3.5 Burner Operating Parameters
The following burner operating parameters are influencing the flame characteristics (see [13]).
For specific information about formulas and definitions of burner aerodynamics see chapter 6 report PT
96/14078/E.
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation / 5.3.5 Burner Operating Parameters / 5.3.5.1
In-flame Air Level at Ignition
5.3.5.1 In-flame Air Level at Ignition
A minimum of air shall be entrained into the flame prior to ignition. This can be achieved by a low
primary air input and the optimum use of an internal recirculation zone generated by a bluff body
and/or swirl.
Figure 11:
Query:
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation / 5.3.5 Burner Operating Parameters / 5.3.5.2 Total
Axial Momentum
5.3.5.2 Total Axial Momentum
Total axial momentum affects the overall entrainment into the flame jet. In general higher axial
momentum result in enhanced mixing and higher NOx emission levels. For mono channel firing the
axial momentum can be observed as a single parameter but for multi channel types a change in axial
momentum also influences the tangential momentum.
Figure 12: Influence of Total Axial Momentum on NOx for Mono Channel Burners
From the Cemflame I research study it was finally concluded, that the total axial momentum should be
in the range of 3 up to max. 7 N/MW.
This matter of fact however can be confirmed by the old rule of thumb, which states that the kinetic
energy of the primary air jet should be kept constant within certain limits.
Applied for a typical kiln system, this formula illustrates as follows:
Figure 13: Basic Data: Production 3000t/d, Heat consumption 3140kJ/kgc, CV Coal
27.2MJ/kg
Figure 14: Influence of Total Axial Momentum on NOx for a Pillard Multi Channel Burner
Query:
Tangential Momentum and Swirl Level on the Swirling Channel
5.3.5.3 Tangential Momentum and Swirl Level on the Swirling Channel
The second parameter affecting the entrainment into the flame is the tangential momentum. In general
higher tangential momentum results in more rapid heat release in the near burner zone and higher
NOx emission levels.
Swirling and Axial Air Amount, Distribution and Velocity
5.3.5.4 Swirling and Axial Air Amount, Distribution and Velocity
One of the main parameters affecting the tangential momentum is the swirling air and axial air
distribution and injection velocities. In combination the product massflow (kg/s) times velocity (m/s)
forms the momenta (N) on the different channels. It can be noticed that both swirling air velocity and
amount may have a different influence on the flame characteristics.
NITROGEN IN THE PROCESS / 5.3 Main Influencing Variables for NO Formation / 5.3.6 Evaluation of Characteristical Burner Data
(CETIC Working Group)
5.3.6 Evaluation of Characteristical Burner Data (CETIC Working Group)
During the meetings 1995/96 of the CETIC working group focusing on kiln burners a database
containing a total of 42 kiln burners could be established. In particular it was one of the main topics to
investigate the NOx behavior of the individual kiln burner systems.
Due to the heterogeneity of the kiln and cooler systems as well as the different fuels used, direct
comparison and correlation of the existing data is limited. However certain operational guidelines and
tendencies can be given.
(CETIC Working Group) / 5.3.6.1 Burner Settings / Operational Figures / Correlations
5.3.6.1 Burner Settings / Operational Figures / Correlations
Mono Channel Burner
The evaluation of a total of 12 industrial mono channel burners is showing the following application
Query:
range:
Primary air ratio % Amin. 13 - 30 [%]
Injection velocity v 60 -100 [m/s]
Specific axial momentum G
ax
4.5 - 8.5 [N/MW]
Percentage of petcoke burned % Petcoke 0 - 100 [%]
Kiln inlet NOx at 0% O
2
NO
x
@ 0% O
2
1750 - 3400 [mg/Nm
3
]
Secondary air temperature T
sec
550 - 1000 [C]
Primary air ratio
High primary air ratios must be avoided. This has negative effects both on kiln heat consumption and
on NOx emissions. The CETIC data correlation for mono channel burners, primary air ratio vs NOx
emission, clearly showed a rise in NOx at higher primary air ratios.
Figure 15:
Multi Channel Burner
Primary air ratio % Amin. 6 - 19 [%]
Percentage axial air 1.9 - 7.2 [%]
Percentage radial air 1.25 - 9.8 [%]
Percentage transport air 2.3 - 5.3 [%]
Injection velocity axial air v
ax
90 - 300 [m/s]
Injection velocity radial air v
rad
60 - 130 [m/s]
Injection velocity transport air v
tr
14 - 38 [m/s]
Specific axial momentum G
ax
3.6 - 7.4 [N/MW]
Percentage of petcoke burned % Petcoke 0 - 100 [%]
Kiln inlet NOx at 0% O
2
NO
x
@ 0% O
2
1160 - 3350 [mg/Nm
3
]
Secondary air temperature T
sec
800 - 1010 [C]
Query:
Specific axial momentum
For multi channel burners the impact of the specific axial momentum on NO
x
emissions could be
confirmed (see following graph). The specific axial momentum G
ax
[N/MW] is in the range of 3.6N/MW
up to 7.4 N/MW - very good coincidence with the 3 - 7 N/MW indicated in the Cemflame 1 research
report.
Figure 16:
Radial air velocity
From the CETIC test results further can be observed, that with increased radial velocity NOx emissions
tend to be higher. This can be explained with a more rapid heat release in the near burner zone due to
a higher tangential momentum.
Figure 17:
Swirl number
The CETIC attempt to correlate the swirl number with respective NOx emissions was not very
successful. It is however noticeable, that the Pillard burners showed by far the highest swirl numbers.
Figure 18:
Query:
(CETIC Working Group) / 5.3.6.2 Influence of Cooler System on NOx Emissions
5.3.6.2 Influence of Cooler System on NOx Emissions
The following graph from reference [14] is showing the important effect of the cooler system on NOx
emissions.
The grate cooler generating a hot, comparatively clean secondary air has considerable higher NOx
output than the planetary cooler with its dusty secondary air, supposing identical kiln system for both
cooler systems.
Mean value and standard deviation of measured NOx emission from different types of kiln systems.
Figure 19:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions / 6. NO EMISSION
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES
6. NO EMISSION REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES
To reduce the NO emission from a pyroprocessing system to a certain controlled level, three basically
different methods are available:
Maintain the existing process while reducing the nitrogen input into the system
Modify the existing process (primary reduction measures)
Query:
Maintain the existing process while adding a separate gas cleaning unit for the exhaust gas
(secondary reduction measures)
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES / 6.1 Reduction of Nitrogen Input
6.1 Reduction of Nitrogen Input
It is not economical to reduce the nitrogen content in the combustion air. However, a reduction of
fuel-N for the secondary or precalciner firing may be feasible under certain conditions.
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES / 6.2 Primary Measures
6.2 Primary Measures
Primary measures are all actions which directly influence the burning process.
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES / 6.2 Primary Measures / 6.2.1 Kiln / Clinker Cooler
6.2.1 Kiln / Clinker Cooler
The criteria for a low NO generation are:
constant fuel and kiln charge flow (short and long term)
constant fuel and kiln charge composition
constant secondary air flow and temperature
lower burning zone temperature i.e. higher free lime
lower LSF i.e. lower combinability (sintering) temperature
lower flame temperature by
dust injection
water injection
alternative fuels with high H
2
O content
flame front closer to the burner by
bluff body
higher volatile coal
low excess air factor
lower primary air i.e. indirect firing, low primary air burner
optimum distribution of primary air i.e. customized multi channel burner
short retention time of the exhaust gas in the flame and the kiln
minimum temperature fluctuations in kiln and cooler
To satisfy the first point an accurate dosing system and fuel transport is required.
A constant fuel quality is difficult to achieve, especially if waste fuel is used. Therefore, additional effort
is needed for homogenization, preparation and analysis of the fuels.
The amount of heat from the secondary air depends mainly on operating characteristics of the clinker
Query:
cooler. The new grate plates (for the recuperating zone) developed during the last years, help to
stabilize the cooler operation and the heat input into the kiln.
A constant kiln and cooler operation is a prerequisite for optimizing of the excess air factor without
reducing conditions for the clinker burning. The excess air factor (l) for the main burner is always above
1.
NOx reduction measures at the burner should achieve a reduction of temperature peaks and low
oxygen content in the flame. Temperature peaks can occur if at a multi channel burner air volume and
exit angle of swirl and axial air are not adjusted properly and if the fuel flow is fluctuating. Therefore,
the burner should have a wide
adjusting range. The optimum operating point has to be determined with systematic long time tests.
The most important factor for NO generation is the ignition distance (= distance between burner exit
and ignition of the fuel). An extension of the distance is increasing the NO generation. The reason for
this behavior is the degree of total air (O
2
) mixed with the fuel which is higher for longer distances.
To reduce the total air mixed into the fuel, primary air flow and total burner momentum should be kept
as low as possible.
The operation of LINKman is at most effective when burners are operated near their optimum
momentum and can in fact lead to lower NO levels, due to lower burning temperatures via better
control.
To reduce the temperature of the secondary air the tertiary air should be extracted from the cooler at
the kiln hood.
To shorten the retention time of the exhaust gas in the hot kiln, the gas speed in the kiln should be as
high as possible. The limits for the gas speed are dust circulations and mechanical stress for the
refractory materials. The upper limit for the specific fuel heat input is 7 MW / m
2
which is about equal to
a specific exhaust gas flow of 2.5 kg/m
2
s.
The minimum NO concentration with an optimized low NOx burner which can be achieved today is
about 800 - 1000 mg NO
2
/ Nm
3
.
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES / 6.2 Primary Measures / 6.2.2 Secondary Firing / Multi-Stage Combustion
6.2.2 Secondary Firing / Multi-Stage Combustion
Mainly fuel-N is contributing to the NO formation (fuel-NO). It is possible to design the secondary firing
in such a way that only little NO is produced and that a portion of the NO from the kiln is reduced. This
can be achieved with a multi stage combustion [8].
Multi-stage combustion has turned out to be a suitable method for conventional and also for highly
sophisticated clinker burning processes. In the first combustion stage which extends over the sintering
zone and the transition zone in the rotary kiln, combustion takes place in an oxidizing atmosphere
(excess air coefficient > 1) to ensure good clinker quality. The nitrogen oxides which are inevitable
formed in this high temperature zone are partially decomposed in a second combustion stage which
has, at least locally, a reducing atmosphere (excess air coefficient < 1).
Figure 20: NOx reduction by Multi Stage Combustion
Query:
By introducing fuel through a burner in the kiln inlet zone a reducing environment is set up in this
second combustion stage. The resulting intermediate products from the consecutive reactions of
combustion act as reducing agents for NO created in the sintering zone and at the same time prevent
the formation of more NO. This reaction pattern is shown diagramatically in Fig. 12 for a precalciner
plant of the PREPOL-AS type. Multi-stage combustion is logical in precalciner plants in order to avoid
renewed formation of nitrogen oxides in the calciner from nitrogen in the fuel.
A part of the precalcining fuel is introduced in the kiln inlet to form a reducing zone by arranging an air
deficiency (< 1). The rest of the precalcining fuel is also supplied to the calciner, at least partially, in a
reducing zone. This fuel burns here under sub- stoichiometric conditions (excess air coefficient < 1)
and thus suppresses formation of NOx from the nitrogen in the fuel. In a fourth stage the unburned flue
gas constitutients from the reducing zone are fully oxidized by supplying hot combustion air, whereby a
turbulence generating gas flow in the calciner serves to enhance the burnout process.
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES / 6.2 Primary Measures / 6.2.3 Possible Negative Side Effects of Primary Measures
6.2.3 Possible Negative Side Effects of Primary Measures
Kiln burner
Temperature reduction:
reduction of production capacity
higher power and heat consumption
clinker quality
Oxygen (excess air, primary air) reduction:
clinker quality
additional CO formation
additional SO
2
volatilization
additional TOC emissions
Secondary combustion
Lower fuel-N concentration:
higher fuel cost
Staged combustion:
Query:
additional CO formation
additional TOC emissions
difficult to control
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES / 6.3 Secondary Measures
6.3 Secondary Measures
Secondary measures are exhaust gas treatments mainly SNCR (selective non-catalytic reduction) or
SCR (selective catalytic reduction).
In some cases combustion of coarse fuel (tires) in the kiln inlet is also considered as a secondary
measure. Because of the reducing condition of the waste fuel combustion, NO is reduced to N
2
. This
reaction is called NSNCR (non-selective non-catalytic reduction).
The most efficient secondary measure which is already in operation in several kilns is the SNCR with
NH
3
.
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES / 6.3 Secondary Measures / 6.3.1 The Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction
6.3.1 The Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction
From tests in cement works it is known that ammonia, when injected into certain temperature zones of
the cement kiln is able to reduce a large proportion of the nitrogen monoxide.
In this chapter the NH
3
-injection is described.
The Reaction Mechanism
The desired process of reducing nitrogen monoxide (NO) by ammonia (NH
3
) is initiated by dissociation
of the injected ammonia. At room temperature ammonia is stable, but at roughly 600 to 800C a
marked thermal decomposition is initiated by the reaction:
NH
2
+ O H
NH
2
+ H
2
O
(13)
As the reaction proceeds, the NH
2
radical is responsible for the reaction of nitrogen monoxide (NO).
N H
2
+ NO N
2
+ H
2
O
(14)
The Influencing Factors
Temperature Window
Reduction of nitrogen monoxide (NO), defined as the decrease in NO relative to the original NO, is a
function of the temperature where the ammonia is injected and the reaction is made. As Fig. 13 shows,
a high NO reduction is only achieved in a narrow temperature band. This is generally referred to as the
"temperature window". In a normal flue gas from a cement kiln the maximum reduction of nitrogen
monoxide (NO) is attained at about 950C.
In a cement kiln at the most the temperature zone between 900 and 1100C is technically "accessible".
Query:
This means that the temperature zone is located in the preheater and this is where the ammonia can
be injected. For this injection only the "lower" (left-hand) part of the NO reduction curve in Fig. 13 can
be used.
Figure 21: NO-Reduction (Reaction-kinetic Model Calculation)
Dwell Time
The formation of the NH
2
radical from the ammonia (equation [?]) is dependent on the time. When
ammonia is injected in to the cement process, this dwell time is fixed by the process. In any case the
injection points in a cement kiln must be chosen that this dwell time is as long as possible.
Ammonia Slip
The proportion of injected ammonia that does not decompose to NH
2
radicals is called the NH
3
slip.
This proportion leaves the reaction zone and travels with the flue gas to colder regions, during which a
small proportion can decompose to NH
2
radicals. The
greater part of the slip, though, will remain stable as ammonia and, following various adsorption
processes in the preheater, the cooling tower, the raw mill, or the electrostatic precipitator, will finally
be emitted through the chimney as gaseous ammonia or adsorbed by aerosols.
Because only the "lower" (left-hand) part of the NO reduction curve in Fig. 2 can be used, in any case a
noticeable NH
3
slip in this temperature zone occurs.
Injection Rate
The nitrogen monoxide reduction rate rises with increased NH
3
injection rate, but work tests have
shown that a greater injection rate will produce a greater ammonia slip. In cement kilns ammonia
should only be injected up to a mol ratio of 1.5 at the most, or in extreme cases 2.
[NH
3
]/[NO
0
]< 1.5 NO
0
N= without reduction
Form of Injected Ammonia
Pure Ammonia
Ammonia is already fluid at low pressures (15, 7.28 bar). This substance can therefore be stored in a
pressurized tank and pumped as a liquid. The entire ammonia system must be dimensioned for a
pressure of 20 to 30 bar, which is certainly not optimal and can cause problems with the permission of
such a tank in a cement plant.
Query:
Ammonia Water
For an ammonia injection in a cement kiln ammonia water (NH
4
OH solution) should be used. In this
solution the greater part of the ammonia is present in hydrated form as NH
3
H
2
O and only a very small
proportion has dissociated to ammonium (NH
4
+
) and hydroxide ions (OH
-
). When heated rapidly from
ambient temperature to the reaction temperature, the solution decomposes into water (H
2
O) and
ammonia (NH
3
). Thus ammonia water has the same effect as pure ammonia but the problems with
transport, storage, handling, etc. are much less.
Alternatives to Ammonia
It is postulated and proved by works tests that the reduction of the nitrogen monoxide (NO) is effected
via the NH
2
radical. This means that all substances capable of supplying an NH
2
radical may be used
for reduction of NO.
A component of this kind is, for instance, urea CO(NH
2
)
2
. This substance decomposes approximately in
the same temperature zone, thereby producing NH
2
radicals but unfortunately also a CONH
2
-radicals.
That means urea decomposes according to reaction [4] and not according to reaction.
CO (NH
2
)
2
CO + 2 (N H
2
)
(15)
CO (NH
2
)
2
CO + N H
2
+ NCON H
2
(16)
About the behavior of the CONH
2
-radical up to now nothing is know, but it is possible that cyanide
compounds are produced in the kiln system.
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES / 6.4 Effectiveness of NOx Reduction Measures [9]
6.4 Effectiveness of NOx Reduction Measures [9]
Figure 22: Comparison of NOx Control Technologies for Cement Kilns
Control
Technology
Technical
Feasibility
Potential NOx
Reduction
Relative
Cost
Effect on
Clinker Quality
Effect on Other
Emissions
CM Medium
(both kiln types)
15 - 30% Low May be adverse CO, THC, SO
2
may increase
LNB High
(both kiln types)
15 - 30% Low Improved
May vary
with
installation
CO, SO
2
may increase
may vary
with
installation
SAC High
(precalciner kilns)
20 - 50% Low None CO, THC may
increase
SNCR Medium
(precalciner kilns)
40 - 70% Medium None Potential for NH
3
,
PM
10
emissions
NSNCR Medium
(all kilns)
20 - 30% Low None CO, THC, SO
2
may increase
Query:
CM = Combustion Modifications
LNB = Low NOx Burner
SAC = Staged Air Combustion
SNCR = Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction
NSNCR = Non-Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions / 7. EXAMPLES OF NOX
EMISSION REDUCTION
7. EXAMPLES OF NOX EMISSION REDUCTION
A collection of short descriptions of plants and their measures against NOx emissions is enclosed.
Everybody is welcome to contribute to this collection.
NO
x
emission reduction
Plant: Siggenthal (SG)
Capacity: 2000 t/d (design), 1900 t/d (standard)
Fuel type Fuel oil, dried sewage sludge, complete tires [1]
Plant description: Kiln with 4-stage preheater
Supplier/equipment: Polysius kiln and preheater (Dopol), Fuller grate cooler
Initial NO
x
emission problem:
Very high NO
x
emissions of up to 2800 mg/Nm
3
dry
(in direct operation)
were reported in 1987. (LRV-limit = 1500 mg/Nm
3
dry
, since 1991
LRV-limit = 800 mg/Nm
3
dry
)
[LRV = Swiss clean air act]
Solutions investigated: In 1988 trials to reduce the NO
x
emissions by injection of
Ammonia-water in the raiser duct were carried out. Reductions of up to
46% were reached. The problem of this reduction method was the high
NH
3
emission due to the NH
3
in the raw meal, which was already higher
than the emission limit. So any small additional NH
3
amount would not
be acceptable. [3]
Using a Pyrojet low-NO
x
burner, the emissions in 1990 were around
1500 mg/Nm
3
dry
. [2]
SG had a project to burn sewage sludge containing Hg and at the same
time the NO
x
and SO
2
emissions where much too high. To solve these
problems, a 3-stage waste gas cleaning system was foreseen. In 1990
the system was successfully tested in a pilot plant with an
Ammonia-water injection into the riser duct as well as an active coke
filter. Using this SNCR, NO
x
could be reduced to N
2
and H
2
O with
ammonia injection. In these trials a reduction of the NO
x
emissions by
more than 60% and hence below 800 mg/Nm
3
dry
was reached.
Query:
more than 60% and hence below 800 mg/Nm
3
dry
was reached.
Solution realised: Based on the experiences of the pilot plant, a denitrification system,
based on SNCR was built. This system is followed by the kiln EP and a
POLVITEC (Polysius Environmental Technology) active coke scrubber,
which is mainly filtering out SO
2
and Mercury but also other pollutants
like heavy metals, eventually occurring NH
3
from the denitrification and
organics. The whole system was successfully commissioned in 1994.
Investment cost: 30'000'000 CHF
Operating cost: 3.3 CHF/t cli
Emissions reached:
< 800 mg/Nm
3
dry
[4]
Literature: [1] ATR, Annual Technical Report 1994,"Holderbank"
[2] Stenger, Dr. R., Informationsveranstaltung der PCW Siggenthal
zum Thema Klrschlamm-Verbrennung / Abgas -reinigung, HMB
Bericht MA 92/93/D, VA-Dok: SG, Reg. 2
[3] Waltisberg, J., Die Reduktion der NO
x
-Emission durch
Eindsung von Ammoniak in den Vorwrmer, HMB Bericht MA
88/10686/D, VA-Dok: SG, Reg. 2
[4] Effektive Emissionsminderung bei Einsatz von
Sekundrbrennstoffen im Zementdrehofen von "HCB Siggenthal,
Dr. D. Rose, Dr. L. Brentrup, Krupp Polysius
Figure 22: Integration of a POLVITEC-Filter in a cement plant
Figure. 23: Effect of SNCR of NOx at the Siggenthal plant. The NOx emission is controlled to
below 800 mg/Nm
3
dry
Query:
NO
x
emission reduction
Plant: Untervaz (UV)
Capacity: 1900 t/d (standard)
Fuel type: Coal, fuel oil; alternative fuels as dried sewage
sludge, waste oil, distillation residue, plastics [1]
Plant description: Kiln with 4-stage-suspension preheater and planetary cooler (kiln III)
Supplier/equipment: KHD kiln, preheater and cooler
Initial NO
x
emission problem:
In January 1985 NO
x
emissions of 770 mg/Nm
3
dry
were measured. After
changing the original Pillard burner to a new Pyrojet burner, and additional
changings on the lining (dam ring), in June 1985 a NO
x
emission 360
mg/Nm
3
dry
was reported. [2]. In this time, only coal was used as fuel. Later,
using a mixture of coal and oil, the flame was not any more as stable as
before, and the NO
x
emission became higher.
During measurements in 1989 for the office of environment the following NO
x
emissions were measured: [3]
880 mg/Nm
3
dry
in compound operation
950 mg/Nm
3
dry
in direct operation
(LRV-limit = 1500 mg/Nm
3
dry
, since 1991 LRV-limit = 800 mg/Nm
3
dry
) [LRV
= Swiss clean air act]
Solutions investigated: In 1990 the reduction of NO by injection of Ammonia-water or urea was tested
at different locations in the preheater tower. By injection of Ammonia-water in
the raiser duct on stage 4 of the heatexchanger, a NO reduction of up to 42 %
of the initial 840 mg/Nm
3
dry
could be achieved [4]. After these short trials, a
further test to add Ammonia-water to the preheater has been carried out in
1991. The achieved reduction was about 50 %, depending also on the ratio
NH
3
/NO, i.e. approx. to 400 - 500 mg/Nm
3
dry
. Compared to the addition of
urea, the achievable reduction with Ammonia-water was twice as high.[5]
The influence of water in the waste oil was investigated in 1992. Without
negatively influencing the temperature of the sintering zone, a maximum of 5.7
g H
2
O/kg clinker could be injected, which resulted in a NO-reduction of 20 -
25%. [6]
In 1993 a test to reduce NO selective and non-catalytic with pure hydrogen
was carried out at temperatures between 600 and 1600 C, without success.
[7]
Solution realised: Actually the NO
x
emissions are kept at a low level due to the low-NO
x
-burner
and the water contained in the waste oil and in distillation residues.
Additionally the Linkman control as well as a rather high CO concentration and
the dusty atmosphere in the burning zone due to the planetary cooler
contribute to a low NO-level.
Emissions reached: In spring 1993 the following NO emissions of the kiln
(calculated as NO
2
) have been measured: [8]
540 mg/Nm
3
dry
600 mg/Nm
3
dry
in direct operation
The averaged values of 1994, measured after the heatexchanger, were in the
same range.
Further Optimisation: Is actually not necessary. If ever it would be necessary, the possibility of
adding Ammonia-water to the preheater could be envisaged again.
Query:
Literature: [1]
ATR, Annual Technical Report 1994,"Holderbank"
[2] Waltisberg, J.: NO
x
-Messungen im Werk Untervaz,
HMB Bericht VA 85/5230/D
[3] Waltisberg, J.: Emissionsmessungen fr das Amt fr Umweltschutz des
Kantons Graubnden,
HMB Bericht VA 90/5617/D
[4] Waltisberg, J.: Nichtkatalytische Reduktion der Stickoxide ber
Salmiakgeist und Harnstoff - Kurzversuche im Werk,
HMB Bericht VA 90/5698/D, VA-Dok: UV, Reg. 2A
[5] Waltisberg, J.: Emissionsmessungen mit dem Massenspektrometer
V+F CI-MS500, HMB Bericht VA 91/59/D, VA-Dok: UV, Reg. 2A
[6]
VA Datenbank, Blatt Nr. 1397
[7] Waltisberg, J.: Selektive nichtkatalytische Reduktion von Stickoxiden
mit reinem Wasserstoff,
HMB Bericht VA 93/4096/D, VA-Dok: UV, Reg. 2A
[8]
VA Datenbank, Blatt Nr. 1428
Figure 24: NOx-Emissions BCU (kiln #1)
NO
x
emission reduction
Plant: Rekingen (RK)
Capacity: 2'200 mtpd (design), 2130 mtpd (standard)
Fuel type: Coal, fuel oil, waste timber
Plant description: 4-stage-suspension preheater kiln
Supplier/equipment: Polysius kiln and preheater
Initial NO
x
emission problem: NO
x
emissions used to be very high in the past, and have not frequently
been measured. In about 1984, the systematic observations and
measurements of these emissions was started. As an example, in 1985
NO
x
emissions of about 1800 mg/Nm
3
(based on 3 % O
2
) were
measured. [1] (LRV-limit = 1500 mg/Nm
3
dry
, since 1991 LRV-limit = 800
mg/Nm
3
dry
)
Query:
Solutions investigated: Initially the influences of different parameters on the existing plant have
been investigated, as for example the temperature of the burning zone,
the amount of primary- and secondary air, coal as well as raw meal [1].
In 1990 the actual NO
x
emissions were reported as 1'200 mg/Nm
3
dry
in
direct operation and 950 mg/Nm
3
dry
in compound operation. These
values have been below the actual valid LRV-limit of 1'500 mg/Nm
3
dry
.
Due to a regulation of the state of Aargau, a further reduction of the total
NO
x
-emissions from 1200 t/year to about 300 t/y was required. It was
expected to reach this reduction by installing a new Pyrojet burner
(awaited REDUCTION OF ABOUT 30 - 40 %) and a additional
denitrification based on SNCR (awaited reduction of about 60%) [2].
Through the installation of a new Pyrojet low-NO
x
-burner in 1990, the
NO
x
-emissions were reduced to around 800 mg/Nm
3
dry
. The
denitrification has then first been investigated in trials, by adding liquid
ammonia or urea to the preheater. The best results in the trials have been
achieved, adding liquid ammonia into the raiser duct between preheater
stage 3 and 4. Depending on the NH
3
/NO ratio NO
x
-reductions of up to
around 50% could be detected [3]
Due to unstable burning characteristics (design problem) which lead to
higher NO
x
emissions, the Pyrojet low-NO
x
burner was exchanged in
1993 again to a Pillard 3 -channel burner (same type as earlier).[4] With
this burner NO
x
emissions of 720 mg/Nm
3
dry
could be reached.
Solution realised: In 1994 a 4-channel Rotaflam burner was installed, mainly to be able to
use waste timber as alternative fuel.
Emissions reached: With the Rotaflam burner the NO
x
emissions were reduced by 10 20 % to
an average value of 650 mg/Nm
3
dry
.
Literature: [1] Waltisberg, J.: Untersuchung der NO
x
-Bildung im Ofen von
Rekingen, Bericht VA 85/5166/D, VA-Dok: RK, Reg.17
[2] Waltisberg, J.: Cementfabrik "Holderbank" AG, Rekingen, Reduktion
des Stickoxid-Ausstosses, Bericht VA 90/5683/D, VA-Dok
[3] Waltisberg, J.: Cementfabrik "Holderbank" AG, Rekingen,
Stickstoffminderung durch Einbringung bestimmter Stoffe in den
Vorwrmer, Bericht VA 90/5746/D, VA-Dok
[4] Hasler, R.: HCB Rekingen, Brennervergleich Pyrojet -
Pillard-Dreikanal, Grundstzliche Ergebnisse, Aktennotiz
VA 93/16/D, VA Dok: RK, Reg. 2A
NO
x
emission reduction
Plant: Hardegsen (HD)
Capacity: 1'086 mtpd (standard)
Fuel type: Coal (>98%), fuel oil, natural gas, landfill gas [1]
Plant description: 4-stage-suspension preheater kiln with grate cooler
Supplier/equipment: MIAG kiln and Fuller cooler
Query:
Supplier/equipment: MIAG kiln and Fuller cooler
Initial NO
x
emission problem: Until 1989 the NO
x
emissions using a Pillard VR-K3 three
chanel burner were in the range of 1300 mg/Nm
3
dry
(based
on 10 % O
2
) [2,3]. (TA Luft-limit = 1800 mg/Nm
3
dry
, since
1991 the limit is 800 mg/Nm
3
dry
for old plants and 500
mg/Nm
3
dry
for new plants.)
Solutions investigated: Different low-NO
x
burners were investigated. Finally the
decision for a Pillard Rotaflam burner was influenced by the
lower investment costs, the use of the existing pipe lines and
the entire burner suspension system and the fact, that one of
the existing fans could be reused.
Solution realised: In 1990 a Rotaflam low-NO
x
burner was installed and is
operated since then with good experience.
Emissions reached: The NOx emissions could be reduced by about 22% under
comparable conditions to 1004 mg/Nm
3
dry
in the acceptance
tests.
Literature: [1] ATR, Annual Technical Report 1994, "Holderbank"
[2] Waltisberg, J.: NO
x
Reduktion im Werk Hardegsen,
Aktennotiz VA 89/53/D, VA-Dok: HD, Reg.2
[3] Adam, G.: Reducing NO
x
at Nordcement with a
Rotaflam burner system, International Cement Review,
July 1992, p.60/61
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of NOx-Emissions / 8. LITERATURE
8. LITERATURE
[1] Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Vol. A25 1994 VCH, 3-527-20125-4
[2] Controlling Nitrogen Oxides, Nitrogen No. 197, May June, 1992
[3] NOx Reduction in the Cement Industry by Application of Multi-Stage Combustion
(MSC) and Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) Techniques, Dr. L. Bretrup,
Krupp-Polysius, Cemtech April, 1991
[4] An Overview of the Formation of SOx and NOx in various Pyroprocessing Systems,
F.L. Smidth, Peter Bechtoft Nielsen, Ove Lars Jepsen, IEEE, May 1990
[5] Stockstoffoxide NOx, Bildung im Zementofen und Reduktionsmglichkeiten, NOx
gerechte Konstruktion fr den Ofen LD 11, U. Fankhauser, VA 92/6086/D
[6] Reduction of NOx Emission in Cement Clinker Burning, A. Scheurer, VDZ, ZKG No.
3/1988
Query:
3/1988
[7] NOx Minderung durch Einsatz eines Stufenbrenners mit Rauchgasrckfhrung vom
Vorwrmer, H. Xeller, ZKG 40 (1987) H.2, S. 57 - 63
[8] Brennstoffstufung ein wirksames Mittel zur Nox-Emissionsminderung, ZKG 42
(1989)
[9] Cement Kiln NOx Control, A.T. MacQueen and others, Radian Corporation California,
0-7803-0960-X/93, IEEE 1993
[10] Flames "Semper Sursum", Tom "La Flamme" Lowes
[11] International Flame Research Foundation (IFRF), Ijmiden Cemflame Consortium, VA
92/50/D, F. Schneider, 1992
[12] Activities of VDZ Committee "NOx reduction", ZKG No. 1/88, J. Kirsch, A. Scheurer
[13] The effect of burner design and operation and fuel type of cement kiln falmes, IFRF
Research report CEMFlAME1, W.L. van de Kamp / J.P. Smart
[14] Die SO2 - und NOx - Emissionen bei modernen Zementdrehofenanlagen mit Blick auf
zuknftige Verordnungen, P.B. Nielsen
[15] Die Bedeutung der 17. Verordnung zur Durchsetzung des Bundes-
Immissions-schutzgesetzes (17. BImSchV) fr die Zementindustrie (Verordnung ber
Verbrennungsanlagen fr Abflle und hnliche brennbare Stoffe in der
Bundesrepublik Deutschland)
J. Waltisberg, HMB, Verfahrenstechnische Abteilung; "Holderbank" NEWS 2/91; 1991
[16] Die Bedeutung der 17. Verordnung zur Durchsetzung des Bundes -
Immissions-schutzgesetzes (17. BImSchV) fr die Zementindustrie (Verordnung ber
Verbrennungsanlagen fr Abflle und hnliche brennbare Stoffe in der
Bundesrepublik Deutschland)
J. Waltisberg, HMB, Verfahrenstechnische Abteilung; "Holderbank" NEWS 2/91; 1991
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of SO2-Emissions
Sources and Reduction of SO
2
-Emissions
P. Kutschera
1. Introduction
2. Chemical and physical Properties and environmental aspects of some Sulfur compounds
3. SO
2
Emission Limits / Normal Emission
4. Sulfur Input into kiln system [4] [6]
5. Behavior of S-Compounds in the Process
6. SO
2
-Emission Reduction Possibilities
6.1 Reduction of Sulfur Input into the System
6.2 Modification of the Existing Process
6.3 Secondary Reduction Measures
7. Examples of SO
2
Emission Reduction
8. Literature
Summary:
The SO
2
emission of a cement plant depends on the
type of the kiln
quality of the raw material and fuel
operating conditions of the kiln and the raw mill system
secondary SO
2
reduction measures
To reduce the SO
2
emission from a pyroprocessing system, three basically different methods are
available:
Maintain the existing process while reducing the sulfur input into the system
With today's technology it is possible to reduce the SO
2
emission to an acceptable level. The main
methods are SO
2
absorption with Ca(OH)
2
in the preheater or in a separate scrubber and adjustments
of the raw material.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of SO2-Emissions / 1. INTRODUCTION
Query:
1. INTRODUCTION
SO
2
was one of the first air pollutant with which the public made very negative experiences. Mainly SO
2
but also other pollutants from coal fires in the city of London were responsible for the death of 4000
people between December 5 and 9, 1952.
Today, the SO
2
emission is known to be responsible for a part of the acid rain which is attacking plants
and animals, for increased pH of lakes and for corrosion and decomposition of buildings.
Today, the total worldwide SO
2
emission is declining because of reduced sulfur content in the fuels and
scrubbers for large SO
2
sources like coal or fuel fired power stations.
The SO
2
emission of some cement plants is still on the high side and should be reduced in the future.
The formation of SO
2
in kiln systems and methods to reduce them are presented hereafter.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of SO2-Emissions / 2. CHEMICAL AND
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME SULFUR COMPOUNDS
2. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOME
SULFUR COMPOUNDS
Sulfur (S)
Sulfur is the 15th most common terrestrial element and the 9th most abundant element in the universe.
It is widely distributed in nature in different compounds as well as in pure form. The main sulfur content
of the lithosphere is estimated to be approx. 0.05%.
Physical Properties [1]
The melting / solidification point of normal sulfur is 119.3 - 114.5C, depending on the mode of heating.
Density of solid at 20C, kg/m
3
Rhombic 2070
Melting point, C, Natural
Rhombic 110.2
Density of liquid, kg/m
3
115C 1808
445C 1614
Boiling point, C 444.6
Density of vapor /
density of air, 470C 1.837
Chemical Properties
Molecular weight: 32,1 g/mol
Sulfur is one of the most reactive elements; it reacts directly with most elements except iodine, gold,
platinum and the noble gases. In humid air it is weakly oxidized, forming traces of sulfur dioxide and
sulfurous acid. At approx. 250C, sulfur ignites in air and burns with a blue flame but the presence of
sulfur dioxide significantly raises the ignition point.
Pyrite / Marcasite (FeS
2
)
Query:
Common and important iron and sulfur mineral
Physical Properties [13], [2]
Pyrite Marcasite
Cristalline form cub. rhomb.
Density t/m
3
5 4.87
Melting point C 1'171 450
Solvent HNO
3
HNO
3
Chemical Properties [2]
Pyrite Marcasite
Molecular weight g/mol 119.98 119.98
Ignition temperature C 350 - 550
Complete combustion C 850 - 940
Four main reaction steps (Eqs. 3 - 6) make up the overall pyrite roasting reaction (represented by Eq.
7). The specified enthalpy values [7] refer to 298 K:
2 FeS
2
2 FeS + S
2
(g) H = + 293 kJ/mol (1)
S
2
(g) + 2 O
2
2 SO
2
H = - 723 kJ/mol (2)
2 FeS + 3 O
2
2 FeO + 2 SO
2
H = - 948 kJ/mol (3)
2 FeO + 0.5 O
2
Fe
2
O
3
H = - 282 kJ/mol (4)
2 FeS
2
+ 5.5 O
2
Fe
2
O
3
+ 4 SO
2
H = - 1660 kJ/mol (5)
Sulfur Dioxide (SO
2
)
Sulfur dioxide is produced industrially in greater quantities than any other single sulfur compound. It is
generated as the first stage in the manufacture of virtually all the sulfuric acid used by industry,
irrespective of the basic raw material.
Physical Properties [1]
Sulfur dioxide, SO
2
, is a colorless, non-flammable, toxic gas with a characteristic pungent smell and
acid taste.
Query:
Melting point (101.3 kPa) - 75.5C
Dynamic viscosity at 0C 368 Pas
Critical temperature 157.5C
Boiling point (101.3 kPa) - 10.0C
Latent heat of vaporization (at bp) 402 J/g
Standard density at 0C (101.3 kPa)
2.93 kg/m
3
Standard enthalpy of formation - 4636 J/g
Specific heat capacity c
p
(101.3 kPa):
0C 586 J kg
-1
K
-1
500C 816 J kg
-1
K
-1
Chemical Properties [1]
Molecular weight: 64.06 g/mol
Sulfur dioxide is very stable; thermal dissociation becomes significant only above 2'000C. It can be
decomposed by shock waves, irradiation with ultraviolet or X rays or by electric discharge.
The reaction of sulfur dioxide with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide is industrially the most significant of all
its reactions because of its importance in sulfuric acid production. In the gas phase, it only takes place
at elevated temperatures and, for a satisfactory yield of sulfur trioxide, it requires the presence of a
catalyst. In aqueous solution, sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfuric acid at low temperature by air in the
presence of activated coke or nitrous gases, or by oxidizing agents such a hydrogen peroxide.
Environmental Aspects and Toxicology [1]
A substantially larger amount of sulfur dioxide than utilized industrially is produced by the combustion
of sulfurous fossil fuels and is discharged into the atmosphere with the flue gases. The calculated total
emission of sulfur dioxide from power stations, traffic, households, industry and trade in the Federal
Republic of Germany in 1975 amounted to approx. 3.6 x 10
6
t. In contrast, only about 2.7 x 10
6
were
used for that year's sulfuric acid production of approx. 4.2 x 10
6
t H
2
SO
4
.
In the last years the SO
2
emissions from power plants in Germany were reduced continuously with the
installation of flue gas desulfurization plant and with the utilization of low-sulfur fuels, but emissions
from traffic, households, industry, etc. in 1990 still account for 620 x 10
3
t/a. Emissions from power
stations amounted to 320 x 10
3
t/a.
For worldwide atmospheric emissions, only rough estimates are available. For 1970, while global
emissions were estimated at 157 x 10
6
t SO
2
, only about 61 x 10
6
t were consumed in the production of
approx. 94 x 10
6
t of sulfuric acid. The worldwide cement production (1985) is estimated to about 700 x
10
6
t/a. Based on an average SO
2
concentration of about 1000 mg/Nm
3
, the portion of SO
2
emitted by
cement plants compared to the total anthropogenetic SO
2
emission (200 x 10
6
t/a) is about 0.7% [5].
Query:
Large-scale emission of sulfur dioxide close to ground level has indisputably been the cause of some
spectacular environmental problems in the past. A large area around Sudbury, Ontario, was completely
sterilized by sulfur dioxide from primitive ore roasting operations around the turn of the century and
much of it is still barren as a result of the ensuing soil erosion. Calamitous sulfuric acid fogs occurred in
Donora, Pennsylvania, and London, England, in 1948 and 1952, when adverse climatic conditions
prevented sulfur dioxide from industrial sources and domestic coal fires from dispersing.
The causes of these episodes were correctly identified and the action taken to control ground level
smoke and sulfur dioxide concentrations has effectively prevented them from recurring. In the case of
industrial sources, however, this has often been achieved by merely building taller chimneys to
disperse the sulfur dioxide over a wider area and as the consumption of fuels has increased over the
years it has been argued that the problem has merely been shifted from the location where the sulfur
dioxide is produced to other locations downwind.
Considerable publicity has been given to the apparently increasing problem of acid rain and there
does, indeed, seem to be a correlation between the incidence of acid rainfall and the atmospheric
transport of pollutants from major industrial locations.
Establishing in any degree of certainty to what extent sulfur emissions are responsible for acid rain is,
however, complicated by incomplete knowledge of the magnitude of sulfur emissions from natural
sources, the atmospheric chemistry of sulfur and the importance of other potential acidulates such a
nitrogen oxides.
Nevertheless, the evidence linking sulfur dioxide pollution to acid precipitation has been mounting
gradually. A recent report by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, for example, has stated that
there appears to be a direct proportionate relationship between sulfur dioxide pollution and the amount
of acidic sulfates in precipitation.
Ill-effects of sulfur dioxide on humans and animals are mainly related to irritation and damage of the
moist mucous membranes by the formation of sulfurous acid. The odor threshold of sulfur dioxide in air
is between 0.3 and 2.5 ppm. In most human beings, concentrations of 5 - 10 ppm will lead to irritation
of the respiratory tract; in sensitive people they may produce spasms of the bronchi. Higher
concentrations will cause heavy irritative coughing, while breathing sulfur dioxide at concentrations
above 400 - 500 ppm, even for only a few minutes, is dangerous to life. The maximum workplace
concentration is defined as 5 ppm (14 mg/m
3
).
Long-term exposure may possible lead to bronchopneumonia and, in extreme cases, to toxic
pulmonary edema with dyspnoea, cyanosis and cardiac-circulatory failure.
Sulfurous acid absorbed by the body is converted to sulfate and discharged in the urine, as evidenced
by an increase in urine acidity.
Plants are impaired by sulfur dioxide at even lower concentrations than human beings. Sulfur dioxide
levels of 1 - 2 ppm are enough to cause acute damage to the leaves of plants in only a few hours,
followed by necrosis, probably resulting from impaired photosynthesis.
Atmospheric Chemistry of SO
2
[3]
Query:
Sulfuric Acid
Physical Properties
Pure sulfuric acid H
2
SO
4
is a colorless, water-white, slightly viscous liquid, mp 10.4 C, bp 279.6C. It
can be mixed with water in any ratio.
Chemical Properties
Molecular weight: 98.08 g/mol
Sulfuric acid is a strong acid with characteristic hygroscopic and oxidizing properties. Sulfuric acid, like
the sulfate ion, is chemically and thermally very stable.
SO
2
+ 1/2 O
2
SO
3
H = - 99.0 kJ (6)
SO
3
(g) + H
2
O(l) H
2
SO
4
(l) H = -132.5 kJ (7)
Environmental Aspects and Toxicology [1]
Sulfuric acid has a highly corrosive effect on the eyes, the mucous membranes and the skin, even in
low concentrations. Because it completely destroys living tissue, concentrated sulfuric acid causes
burns that penetrate deeply and heal only slowly. Swallowing sulfuric acid produces extreme pain in the
digestive tract, vomiting and shock and there is a danger of perforation.
Sulfuric acid vapors or mists irritate the eyes and the mucous membranes of the nose, pharynx and
respiratory tract, causing heavy coughing and breathlessness.
Sulfuric acid releases are highly deleterious with respect to ground and surface waters. The substance
is toxic to both fish and algae, both directly and as a result of reaction with other materials in the water.
Any concentration 1.2 mg/L is considered lethal to fish: 6.3 mg/L or more causes death within 24 h.
Sulfur Trioxide (SO
2
)
Physical Properties
Gaseous SO
3
Nominal density, g/L (0C, 1013 mbar) 3.57
Query:
Specific heat Cp, kJ m
-3
K
-1
100C 2.543
500C 3.191
Liquid SO
3
Density, g/cm
3
(25C) 1.9
bp, C (1013 mbar) 44.8
Heat of evaporation (boiling point), J/g 538
Vapor pressure, bar
20C 0.26
100C 8
Critical temperature, C 217.7
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of SO2-Emissions / 3. SO2 EMISSION LIMITS /
NORMAL EMISSION
3. SO
2
EMISSION LIMITS / NORMAL EMISSION
Emission Limits
Germany
400 mg/Nm
3
dry (no waste fuels)
Switzerland
500 mg/Nm
3
dry
Europe
100 - 2400 mg/Nm
3
Normal Emission
There is no normal SO
2
emission level for cement kilns. The SO
2
emission depends mainly on quantity
and quality of "S" input, kiln system and SO
2
reduction systems. It is known that SO
2
emission of
cement kilns can be between very low values of less than 50 mg/Nm
3
and very high values up to 3500
mg/Nm
3
.
Figure 1 Average SO
2
Emission according to a "Holderbank" Survey
Query:
Figure 2 Result of PCA SO
2
emission survey 1982 [4]
Assumption: wet: 2.1 Nm
3
dry / kg cli (18 kilns)
long dry: 1.5 Nm
3
SP: 1.4 Nm
3

dry / kg cli ( 5 kilns)
Precalciner: 1.4 Nm
3
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of SO2-Emissions / 4. SULFUR INPUT INTO
KILN SYSTEM [4] [6]
4. SULFUR INPUT INTO KILN SYSTEM [4] [6]
Contained in the raw materials (mainly as FeS
2
) and the fuel, sulfur enters the process mainly in the
form of sulfates (gypsum CaSO
4
, 2 H
2
O), sulfides (Pyrit: FeS
2
) and organic sulfur compounds. In the
process, the sulfur compounds may either be reduced or oxidized to form gaseous SO
2.
Table 1: Sulfur content of kiln feed and fuels of the "Holderbank" Plants in 1994
% SO
3
Average Minimum Maximum
Kiln Feed 0.46 0 1.93
Query:
Kiln Feed 0.46 0 1.93
% S
Fuels Average Minimum Maximum
Coal 0.86 0.02 3.51
Pet Coke 4.22 1.01 8.3
Diesel Oil 2.61 0.02 3.5
Heavy Fuel Oil 2.86 0.12 11.6
Alternative Fuels Average Minimum Maximum
Liquid 0.56 0.11 2.01
Solid 0.92 0 3.9
Natural Gas 0.52 0 3.17
Tires 1.63 0.8 3.9
Waste Oil 1.16 0.5 2
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of SO2-Emissions / 5. BEHAVIOR OF
S-COMPOUNDS IN THE PROCESS
5. BEHAVIOR OF S-COMPOUNDS IN THE PROCESS
Wet Kilns
A schematic representation of the sulfur circulation in a wet kiln is shown in fig. 3. Depending on the
raw materials, the conditions in the kiln burning zone and the internal circulation, 30 - 80% of the
sulfate compounds entering the kiln burning zone may decompose and form SO
2
which leaves the kiln
burning zone with the exhaust gas together with the SO
2
formed by oxidation of the organic sulfur in
the fuel fired into the kiln.
On passing through the calcining zone, the preheating and the drying sections of the kiln, some of the
SO
2
will be reabsorbed in the raw materials but due to the poor contact between the kiln gases and the
raw materials, especially in the calcining zone, 40 - 60% of the SO
2
from the kiln burning zone will be
emitted from the kiln.
In the preheating section of the kiln, the SO
2
concentration in the gas may even be increased if the raw
materials contain sulfides which will burn here in accordance with equation:
( ) 8 SO 8 O Fe 2
550
11O FeS 4
II - IV II - III I II
2 3 2 2 2
+
>
+
+
C
Having left the kiln, the exhaust gas usually only passes through a precipitator before being emitted to
the atmosphere through the stack.
Depending on the type of precipitator between 10 and 30% of the SO
2
in the exhaust gas may be
absorbed in the raw materials at this stage. Taking into account internal circulation and the evaporation
and absorption rates mentioned, about 30% of the sulfur entering the kiln system will be emitted as
Query:
SO
2
. The emission will increase roughly in proportion to the total input of sulfur compounds in raw
materials and fuel.
Since the specific heat consumption of wet kilns is high, SO
2
emission depends very much on the
sulfur content in the fuel. If the excess air is reduced below a certain level, a sharp rise in SO
2
emission
from the kiln may occur, as local reducing conditions will increase SO
2
formation in the burning zone
and make SO
2
reabsorption in the kiln back-end more difficult.
Long dry kilns
Except for a possible slurry preheating section, the design of the long dry kiln is virtually the same as
that of a wet kiln.
Consequently, the SO
2
absorption factors are comparable to those of wet kilns as mentioned above.
However, with the same type of raw material and fuel the SO
2
emission from the long dry kiln system
will be lower than that from the wet kiln. This is due to the lower specific heat consumption and the fact
that the exhaust gases from the long dry kiln are often used for drying in the raw mill in which 20% -
50% of the SO
2
might be absorbed by intimate contact with freshly ground raw meal particles.
Figure 3 Behavior of sulfur in a wet or long dry kiln system without raw mill
Preheater kilns
A schematic representation of the sulfur circulation in a dry-process preheater or precalciner kiln with
bypass is shown in fig. 4.
In 4 and 5-stage cyclone preheater kilns complete preheating of the raw meal takes place in intimate
contact with the exhaust gas from the kiln and in the lower stages the temperature reaches 850C at
which point part of the raw meal starts to calcine.
The SO
2
coming from the kiln is thus brought into contact with free CaO and CaCO
3
at a temperature
at which the following reactions proceed relatively fast:
( ) 9 CaSO O
2
1
SO CaO
II - IV II II - IV II - II
4 2 2
+ +
( ) 10 CO CaSO SO CaCO
II - IV II - IV II II - IV II - IV II
2 3 2 3
+ +
In this way, nearly all SO
2
formed in the kiln is absorbed by the hot meal and reintroduced into the kiln
Query:
and bound into the clinker. Only if the sulfur circulation between the kiln and the lower preheater stage
reaches extreme levels or in the case of local reducing condition in the kiln back-end and the riser duct
SO
2
may escape via the lower stage. This will often be the case if coarse waste fuel (e.g. rubber tires
or pieces) is fired into the riser duct or kiln inlet.
Except for this situation, considerable SO
2
emission from preheater kilns (without by-pass) will only
occur in case the raw materials contain non-sulfates such as pyrites which form SO
2
already in the
upper stage cyclones where the temperature and the concentration of free lime and alkaline materials
are too low to ensure complete reabsorption of the SO
2
formed, according to above two reactions (9,
10).
Normally, 30 - 50% of the sulfur present in the raw meal in the form of pyrites will leave the preheater
as SO
2
. Part of this is absorbed in the raw mill and the precipitator. Still, SO
2
emission from the stack
will amount to 15 - 30% of the sulfur entering with the raw materials in the form of non-sulfates.
This means an SO
2
emission of 500 - 1000 mg / kg cli for each per mil sulfur present as non-sulfate in
the raw materials.
Figure 4 Behavior of sulfur in a preheater kiln system
Precalciner kilns
The precalciner kiln system in which the kiln gases pass the precalciner offers ideal conditions for
absorption of SO
2
from the kiln due to the high amount of free CaO and a temperature of approx.
900C in the calciner.
But also other precalcining systems where kiln gases enter into contact with sufficient free CaO in the
kiln riser duct and the lower cyclones absorb SO
2
from the kiln.
The only source of SO
2
emission from the preheater of a precalcining kiln system is therefore any
content of non-sulfates in the raw meal which will generate SO
2
in the upper preheater stages as
explained above. Many precalciner kilns in the USA have a kiln gas bypass. On leaving the kiln riser
duct the kiln gas is cooled by air dilution and/or water injection to 400 to 230C (depending on the filter
system). The bypass outlet is placed to ensure the lowest possible dust concentration in the bypass
gas.
This means limited possibility of absorption of the SO
2
extracted with the kiln gases in the bypass duct.
Very often, more than 50% of the SO
2
contained in the by-passed kiln gases will thus enter the
atmosphere via the stack. This might explain why the average SO
2
emission from the precalciner kiln
systems is higher than that from the SP kiln systems.
Query:
It should be borne in mind that the evaporation factor for sulfur components in the kiln and
consequently the SO
2
emission from the bypass may increase drastically if coal combustion in the
precalciner is incomplete. In this case, residual carbon from the calciner will enter the kiln inlet where it
will create reducing conditions, resulting in greatly increased sulfur "evaporation". Accordingly,
improving the combustion in the precalciner is a mean of reducing the SO
2
emission from a system
with bypass.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of SO2-Emissions / 6. SO2-EMISSION
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES
6. SO
2
-EMISSION REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES
To reduce the SO
2
emission from a pyroprocessing system to a certain controlled level, three basically
Maintain the existing process while reducing the sulfur input into the system
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES / 6.1 Reduction of Sulfur Input into the System
6.1 Reduction of Sulfur Input into the System
Raw Material
A reduction of the total sulfur input or very important for preheater kilns the total input of sulfides is
often possible. A sulfur-selective quarrying may not only reduce the total input of sulfur but also reduce
its fluctuations. The maximum SO
2
retention capacity of a kiln system as described above is reached at
the lowest SO
2
fluctuation. Because at very low sulfur input the absorption capacity of CaCO
3
or
Ca(OH)
2
is not used completely whereas during very high sulfur input the SO
2
generation is over the
absorption capacity of the raw meal. In some cases the SO
2
emission stays below limit if the sulfur
content in the raw material is not fluctuating too much.
In the case of the Hver plant in Germany, the desulfurization with Ca(OH)
2
injection into the
preheater is working at its limit because of its very high sulfide input. As explained below, this method
is only working up to an SO
2
emission of about 1000 mg/Nm
3
dry. If Hver would not have a very
homogenous sulfur content in their raw meal it would not be possible to stay below the emission limit.
Not even with Ca(OH)
2
injection.
The costs of selective quarrying or opening a new quarry should be compared with the costs of the
installation and operation of a system for secondary reduction measures.
A selective elimination of sulfur in the raw material is not yet developed.
Fuel
Reduction of the sulfur input via the fuel can usually only be attained by accepting a considerable
increase in fuel cost. Except for the case where the fuel can be replaced by alternative fuels.
A reduction of the fuel-sulfur will under normal conditions not reduce SO
2
-emission from preheater
kilns without bypass.
Query:
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES / 6.2 Modification of the Existing Process
6.2 Modification of the Existing Process
Non-Preheater System Preheater System
As documented and explained above, preheater systems do have the lowest SO
2
- emission of all
clinker production systems.
This modification is reducing the SO
2
emission significantly if:
the SO
2
emission is not mainly caused by non-sulfates input via the raw material
the total input of circulating elements (S, alkali, Cl) is low enough to avoid a kiln bypass
This modification is reducing the SO
2
-emission because of:
retainment of sulfates and fuel-sulfur by embedding sulfur in the clinker
SO
2
-adsorbtion during compound operation in the raw mill
lower heat consumption
Modification of fuel preparation and feed [8]
A reducing atmosphere in the kiln is increasing the formation of CO and the volatility of "SO
2
".
Therefore, the SO
2
emission of preheater kilns with bypass, wet and long dry kilns and to a lesser
degree also of normal preheater kilns is increased if a reducing atmosphere is present in the kiln:
( ) 11 SO 2 CO CaO 2
C 1000
C CaSO 2
2 2 4
+ +
>
+
This can be avoided by better fuel preparation and feed as well as with an increased O
2
concentration
in the kiln.
Coal, Coke:
no oversized particles (residues on 90 m sieve 0,5 x % volatiles)
continuous feed (feeder, transport)
Oil:
good atomization: burner nozzle e.g. Pillard, Unitherm, temperature, pressure
Alternative fuels:
solid: no oversized lumps: e.g. chipped instead of whole tires, small bundles
liquid: see "oil" above
Besides fuel preparation and feed also the O
2
concentration in the kiln should be optimized to reduce
the sulfur volatility. To control the O
2
in the kiln, a kiln inlet probe is recommended. O
2
control with gas
extraction after the preheater is also possible but because of fluctuation of the false air intake into the
preheater it is less accurate.
In most cases, a compromise in the O
2
concentration (reducing atmosphere) has to be found, because
the NO
x
-emission, fuel and power consumption can be increased by increasing the O
2
-concentration in
the kiln.
Query:
SO
2
adsorption in the raw mill
The exhaust gas from preheaters and long dry kilns are usually used in the raw mills to dry the raw
meal. The freshly ground raw meal in the raw mill has a large and very active surface where SO
2
can
be adsorbed. The highest degree of adsorption (100%) can be found at very low SO
2
concentration
whereas at very high concentrations (2500 - 3000 mg/Nm
3
dry) like at the Untervaz plant only an
adsorption of about 30% is possible. In systems with an emission of about 1000 to 1500 mg/Nm
3
dry
an adsorbtion of 50% is normal.
The degree of adsorption in the raw mill is also influenced by the temperature and the humidity. A
lower temperature or a higher humidity is increasing the adsorption capacity.
Raising the proportion of compound to direct operation, time is reducing the time of high SO
2
emission
and therefore also the effort of secondary measures (e.g. amount of Ca(OH)
2
added to the kiln feed).
REDUCTION POSSIBILITIES / 6.3 Secondary Reduction Measures
Catalytic or non-catalytic elimination of SO
2
(as it is known for NO
x
) is not reasonable because
oxidation would lead to SO
3
and reduction to SH
2
, both would be more harmful than SO
2
.
Therefore, only absorption or adsorption of SO
2
can be used as secondary reduction measures.
SO
2
absorption with Ca (OH)
2
(slaked lime) [9]
The most common measure against SO
2
emission is SO
2
absorption with Ca (OH)
2
.
( ) ( ) 12 O H CaSO SO OH Ca
2 3 2 2
+ +
It can be added to the exhaust gas:
at the upper cyclone stage of the preheater together with the kiln feed
in a scrubber after the kiln system
The addition of Ca(OH)
2
to the kiln feed is very successfully used in three "Holderbank" plants with
preheaters (RK, HV, UV) (see chapter 7). However, this technology has its limits. For instance only
concentrations not exceeding about 1000 mg SO
2
/Nm
3
can be reduced. At the same time, the
emission limit value should be less than 400 mg SO
2
/Nm
3
.
If the normal SO
2
emission is very high (> 1000 mg/Nm
3
) as it used to be in the Untervaz (UV) plant in
Switzerland, a separate SO
2
scrubber after the preheater has to be considered. The only slaked lime
scrubber for a cement plant was built in the UV plant. There, the kiln exhaust gas flows through a
Venturi reactor with an expanded fluidized bed formed by the absorbent which consists of a blend of
hydrated lime (slaked lime) and raw meal [9]. A more detailed description of the UV reactor is attached
(see chapter 7).
Experience showed that the temperature for SO
2
absorption with slaked lime is very important. Efficient
absorption was only observed at temperatures above 350C and below 70C. Therefore, systems with
Ca(OH)
2
injection into the conditioning tower or Ca(OH)
2
in bagfilters do not have a sufficient SO
2
absorption efficiency [10].
Replacement of Ca(OH)
2
power by other Ca-compounds
Query:
To save on the high cost of the fine slaked lime, other desulfurization agents were tested at the Hver
plant of Nordcement for their suitability. These were coarser slaked lime, powdered chalk and partly
calcined kiln meal. However, the results of these experiments were mostly unsatisfactory. The
effectiveness of the slaked lime currently in use was in no case anywhere near achieved. Powdered
chalk has the lowest effectiveness. The reactivity of the coarse slaked lime was also barely detectable
due to the small surface area. In the case of the partly calcined raw meal which had been
pneumatically withdrawn from the lowest cyclone stage of a preheater, a slight desulfurization effect
could be discerned. However, the technical problems in handling were so great that its further use was
abandoned.
Tests with unslaked lime (CaO) were not carried out since on account of its lower reactivity compared
with slaked lime, the difference in cost does not justify the increased quantities required. Optimization,
e.g. also for absorption of larger quantities of SO
2
, is only likely to be achieved by selecting a finer
slaked lime. Thus a material with a BET specific surface of 18 or 36 m
2
/g could certainly lead to fixation
of larger quantities of SO
2
.
Untervaz started to use a Ca(OH)
2
-mud from a former dump of a carbide manufacturer. The mud has
a negative price and can be added to the raw material. This is reducing the Ca(OH)
2
-feed to the
scrubber.
At the Fort Collins plant precalcined material (CaO) from the precalciner is added to the bypass
exhaust gas to reduce SO
2
-emission. In addition to that, bypass dust is recirculated in the bypass to
increase the concentration of SO
2
absorbed in the dust. These measures are sufficient to stay below
the SO
2
-limit.
Activated Coke Absorber
Activated coke is under presence of water a very efficient SO
2
absorber. The only filter of this kind is
installed in the Siggenthal (SG) plant of "HCB. The SO
2
emission is reduced by the filter from above
500 to below 50 mg/Nm
3
.
However, this type of absorber is very pricy. The Polvitec in SG is only economical because of the
contribution from the village of Zurich for burning their sewage sludge.
Sodiumbicarbonate Absorber
Obourg.
Passamaquoddy Absorber
SO
2
scrubbing is only a side effect of the Passamaquoddy scrubber. As described in chapter 7 the
main purpose is to recover CKD to avoid dust dumping. The SO
2
is first absorbed by the CaO in the
CKD and reacts afterwards with the alkali oxides in the CKD to form an alkali salt. The alkali salt is
extracted and if possible sold as a fertiliser.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of SO2-Emissions / 7. EXAMPLES OF SO2
EMISSION REDUCTION
7. EXAMPLES OF SO
2
EMISSION REDUCTION
Below a collection of short descriptions of plants and their measures against SO
2
emission. Everybody
is welcome to contribute to this collection.
SO
2
-emission reduction
Query:
Plant: Fort Collins (FC)
Capacity: 1500 t/d (design) / 1345 t/d (standard)
Raw material: Containing kerogen and sulfur (~10% as Pyrite)
Fuel type: Nat. gas, coal (0.44 % S), pet coke (4 to 5% S)
Plant description: 1-stage-preheater with precalciner
Supplier/equipment: Polysius preheater, Allis-Chalmers kiln
Initial SO
2
-emission problem:
The SO
2
-limit of 150 ppm (i.e.~ 320 mg/Nm
3
) can not
[1],
[2]
always be maintained, (sometimes up to 300 ppm)
and limits the kiln output. The SO
2
emissions
originate from the bypass and not from the
precalciner. Kerogen in the raw material is burned in
the calciner, combusted into CO2 and SO
2
. At the
same time CaO reacts with SO
2
if sufficient Oxygen
is available to form CaSO
4
(SO
2
scrubbing). The
bypass is the control valve for the sulfur level in the
clinker. The bypass rate is 100 %!
Solutions investigated: [2] The reason for the emission from the bypass is
believed to be due to a limited quantity of CaO being
available in the bypass dust to combine with SO
2
from the kiln. So adding some dust to the
bypass-duct would help. Since a lot of sulfur input
into the system is from coal, the specific fuel input
has to be reduced.
The sulfur content of the kiln feed is rather high with
3.6%.
In order to control the SO
2
-emission, a splitter gate
should be installed, in order to deviate a portion of
return dust to the bypass scrubber.
Solution realized: [4] Dust return (mainly precalciner dust) from the bypass
/ precalciner bagfilter into the bypass duct has been
installed before 1994, however the return dust
system needs further modifications.
Emissions reached: [3] The necessary SO
2
-limit has been reached. Most of
the time, no additional scrubber dust is used for
stack sulfur control. Consequently the low stack SO
2
(average 40 - 50 ppm) would allow a lower waste
dust quantity.
Further Optimization: [3],[4] The plant capacity should be increased up to 1600
t/d with several modifications (and reduction of
losses), without increasing the emissions. A
modification of the kiln feed inlet is planned for 1995.
Query:
Literature:
[1] POLYSIUS: Telefax (1989), VA-Dok: FC, Reg. 2D
[2] Kupper, A.K.: HMC Report VA 91/5866/E, VA-Dok: FC, Reg.2A
[3] Bachmann, R.: HMC Report VA 94/4263/E, VA-Dok: FC, Reg.2A
[4] Kupper, A.K. and Brki, Dr. P.: HMC Report VA 95/4288/E, VA-Dok: FC, Reg.2A
SO
2
-emission reduction
Plant: Hver (HV)
Capacity: 3'000 t/d (design), 2'900 t/d (standard)
Raw material: Sulfur components: Pyrite 0.05 - 0.45 %w/w
Fuel type: Coal (0.4%S), fuel oil, nat. gas; alternative fuels: whole tires
(max. 10% of total heat input)
Plant description: Kiln with 4-stage twin line suspension preheater and planetary
cooler
Supplier/equipment: KHD kiln and preheater
Initial SO
2
-emission problem:
SO
2
3

[1],[2]
(TA Luft = 400 mg/Nm
3
) In direct operation, up to
900 mg/Nm
3
Solutions investigated: The following investigations were proposed:
[3],[4],[5] Reduction of SO
2
emissions by lowering the
exhaust gas temperature.
Lowering the temperature in the raw mill in
compound operation.
Desulfurization with Ca(OH)
2
: different trials have
been carried out. To reach an emission < 400
mg/Nm
3
, the SO
2
concentration in the stack should
be held at about 350 mg/Nm
3
. The calculated
amount (based on trial results) of Ca(OH)
2
needed
to stay below the limit would have been 2.4 kg/t
clinker in 1990 and 6.4 kg/t clinker in 1991.
Query:
clinker in 1990 and 6.4 kg/t clinker in 1991.
Solution realized: Desulfurization with Ca(OH)
2
addition to the kiln feed (bucket
elevator). The Ca(OH)
2
is proportioned by speed control rotary
valves with three independent pneumatic injection pipes, which
can be used simultaneously when required. The Ca(OH)
2
addition was started up in November 1991.
Emissions reached: [1] The addition of Ca(OH)
2
is controlled by the
measured SO
2
-concentration at the stack, in order
to stay below the TA-Luft limit of 400 mg/Nm
3
.
Further Optimization: [1] Since the costs for slaked lime are quite high,
different other desulfurization agents have been
tested:
powdered chalk: low absorption efficiency
coarse slaked lime: barely detectable effect
due to small surface area
partly calcined raw
meal:
slight desulfurization effect,
but additional technical
problems.
Tests with unslaked lime (CaO) have not been
carried out, due to its low reactivity compared with
Ca(OH)
2
. A further optimisation could be reached,
using a finer slaked lime (higher surface area).
Literature:
[1] Boes, K.-H.: Measures to reduce the SO2 emission during clinker burning at
Nordcement AG's Hver works.
Zement, Kalk, Gips (1993), P.514-518
[2] Waltisberg, J.: HMB Aktennotiz VA 86/66/D,
VA-Dok: HV, Reg. 17
[3] Hasler, R.: HMB letter to Nordcement AG,
VA-Dok: HV, Reg. 17
[4] Waltisberg, J.: HMB Bericht VA 87/5437/D,
VA-Dok: HV, Reg.18
[5] Waltisberg, J.: HMB Bericht VA 91/5904/D,
VA-Dok: HV, Reg. 1
Figure A Slaked lime chemical and physical data [1]
Query:
"Bltenweiss slaked white lime from Fels-Werke GmbH
Chemical and physical data
CaO 71.99%
MgO 0.65%
SiO
2
2.00%
Fe
2
O
3
0.45%
Al
2
O
3
0.47%
SO
3
0.27%
CO
2
1.23%
Combined H
2
O 21.60%
Moisture 0.90%
BET
approx. 10 m
2
/g
Ca(OH)
2
90.0%
Fineness:
R > 0.063 mm 4.0%
Figure B SO
2
reduction efficiency with slaked lime addition
Query:
Keine KH-Zugabe = no slaked lime feed
KH-Zugabe = slaked lime feed
Zeit = time
SO
2
-Reduktion = SO
2
reduction
Kalkhydratzugabe = slaked lime feed rate
Figure C Slaked lime silo and dosing
SO
2
-emission reduction
Plant: Rekingen (RK)
Capacity: 2'200 mtpd (design), 2130 mtpd (standard)
Raw material: Sulfur component: 0.55 % Pyrite
Fuel type: Coal 0.4%S, fuel oil 0.8%S, waste timber
Query:
Supplier/equipment: Polysius kiln and preheater
Initial SO
2
-emission problem:
SO
2
3
(LRV-limit =
500 mg/Nm
3
) in direct operation [LRV = Swiss clean
air act]
Solutions investigated: Reduction of SO
2
emissions by lowering the exhaust
gas
[1],[2] temperature. Reduction from 180C to 150C results
in a reduction of 50 mg/Nm
3
, the same reduction is
obtained by further lowering the temperature to
140C.
Desulphurization with Ca(OH)
2
, added to the kiln
feed only during direct operation leads to a reduction
of 400 - 450 mg/Nm
3
at an initial emission of 750 -
1200 mg/Nm
3
Solution realized: [3] Desulphurization with Ca(OH)
2
addition to the kiln
feed
3 kg/tcli (max. 17kg/tcli) during direct operation (20%
of the operating time)
Costs are about 60'000 CHF/year
Emissions reached: The addition of Ca(OH)
2
is controlled by measuring
the SO
2
concentration in the stack, in order to reach
the limiting values of LRV, i.e. below 500 mg/m
3
.
Literature:
[1] Utzinger, K.: Reduktion der SO
2
-Emissionen durch Senkung der Abgastemperatur,
Versuchsbericht (1986), VA Dok: RK, Reg.17
[2] Scheuch, J.: Entschwefelungsversuche mit Ca(OH)2 im Ofendirektbetrieb,
Versuchsbericht (1986), VA Dok: RK, Reg.17
[3] "Holderbank" Cement Course: Source and reduction of emissions gaseous, VA
91/5882/E, P.7
Figure A Dosing of slaked lime to the kiln feed
Query:
SO
2
-emission reduction
Plant: Siggenthal (SG)
Capacity: 2000 t/d (design), 1900 t/d (standard)
Raw material: [2] Sulfur: 0.7% S
Fuel type: [2] Fuel oil (2.3%S), dried sewage sludge, complete tires
(1.3%S)
Plant description: Kiln with 4-stage preheater
Supplier/equipment: Polysius kiln and preheater (Dopol), Fuller grate cooler
Initial SO
2
emission problem:
SO
2
3
in direct
operation,
[1]
up to 900 mg/Nm
3
in compound operation (LRV-limit =
500 mg/Nm
3
) [LRV = Swiss clean air act]
Solutions investigated: SG had a project to burn sewage sludge containing
Hg and at the same time the SO
2
and NOx emissions
where too high. A pilot plant with an active coke filter
as well as an ammonia injection into the riser duct was
tested successfully. Mercury, SO
2
and other pollutants
were absorbed on the active coke. NOx was reduced
to N2 and H
2
O with ammonia injection.
Solution realized: A POLVITEC (Polysius Environmental Technology)
active coke scrubber behind the kiln EP was
successfully commissioned in 1994. Beside SO2 and
Mercury it is also filtering out other pollutants like
heavy metals, NH3, organic compounds and dust. The
loaded coke is injected into the kiln as a fuel
substitution.
Investment cost: 30'000'000 CHF
Operating cost: 3.3 CHF/t cli
Emissions reached: [3]
< 12 mg/Nm
3
dry
Query:
< 12 mg/Nm
3
dry
Literature:
[1] Dr. R. Stenger, : HMB Bericht MA 92/93/D, VA Dok: SG, Reg. 2
[2] ATR, Annual Technical Report 1994,"Holderbank"
[3] Effektive Emissionsminderung bei Einsatz von Sekundrbrennstoffen im
Zementdrehofen von "HCB Siggenthal, Dr. 1D. Rose, Dr. L. Brentrup, Krupp
Polysius
SO
2
-emission reduction
Plant: Untervaz (UV)
Capacity: 1900 t/d (standard)
Raw material: Sulfur components: Pyrite and Markasit, usually 10 - 16
g SO
3
/kg clinker
Fuel type: [7] Coal (0.07%S), fuel oil; alternative fuels as dried
sewage sludge, waste oil (0.6%S), destillation residue
(0.35%S), plastic (0.02%)
Plant description: Kiln with 4-stage-suspension preheater and planetary
cooler (kiln III)
Supplier/equipment: KHD kiln, preheater and cooler; Lurgi SO
2
-scrubber
Initial SO
2
-emission problem: SO2 emissions of up to 3600 mg/m3 (LRV-limit = 500
mg/Nm
3
) in direct operation [LRV = Swiss clean air act]
Solutions investigated: In 1984/85 trials to lower the SO
2
emissions by
changing
[1],[2],[3],[4] the operating parameters have been carried out.
Addition of Ca(OH)2 to the raw meal: Reduction of up to
50% of SO
2
, still insufficient.
Query:
50% of SO
2
, still insufficient.
Because no possibility of lowering the SO
2
emission of
the Plant to the required 500 mg/Nm
3
by simple means
as the one explained above could be found, the use of a
scrubber had to be considered. Because a wet SO
2
absorber (washer) was too expensive (investment and
operating costs) a dry absorber was chosen.
Solution realized: A system consisting of a circulating fluidized bed
supplied
[1],[2] by Lurgi, Germany, was started up in 1988. It works as
follows:
The kiln exhaust gas flow through a venturi reactor with
an expanded fluidized bed formed by the absorbent that
consists of a blend of hydrated lime (93% Ca(OH)
2
) and
raw meal (0.8-1.0t/h Ca(OH)
2
and 2.5t/h raw meal). The
latter is mainly added to prevent caking of the very fine
hydrated lime. Water is injected to operate the reactor
as close as possible to the water dew point and to
promote the reaction with the SO
2
. Due to the intensive
contact of the exhaust gas with the absorbent in the
fluidized bed at a temperature (approx. 65C) close to
the water due point (approx. 58 to 61C), the SO
2
becomes very effectively combined with the absorbent,
whereby predominately calcium sulfite (CaSO
3
) is
generated. The absorbent then passes with the exhaust
gas into an electrostatic precipitator. The bulk of the
precipitated absorbent is returned to the venturi reactor
(approx. 175t/h), while the remainder is discharged and
either returned to the kiln feed or added to the cement.
The stoichiometric factor of Ca(OH)
2
to SO
2
is about
2.3 to 2.6.
The pressure loss in the system is 2200 Pa. This results
in a power demand for the fan of 315 kW. With the
addition of 155 kW for the electrostatic precipitator and
the transport systems, the total power consumption of
the system amounts to 470 kW.
Adding all the material to the kiln feed results in an
increase of the SO3 content in the clinker from 1.0 to
1.3%. This is not desirable, but so far not of much
concern, because it has turned out that the additional
sulfates in the clinker act as a gypsum substitute, so
that the SO3 content of the cement can be kept at 2.7%
SO3 as before.
The investment for the whole desulfurization plant,
including auxiliary installations, amount to 15 million
CHF. The operating costs are about 2.2 CHF/t cli
(Slaked lime 1.6, electrical power 0.4, maintenance 0.5,
gypsum substitution 0.3 CHF/t cli).
Query:
gypsum substitution 0.3 CHF/t cli).
Emissions
reached:
[5] During the acceptance measurements in May 1989, the
following values have been reached:
Direct operation:
431 mg/m
3
Compound operation:
418 mg/m
3
Further
Optimization:
[6] In 1990 the circulating fluidized bed was operated with 1
t/h hydr. lime and 2.5 t/h raw meal. It has been
investigated to use hot meal instead of hydr. lime. Due
to analyses of hot meal, it seemed not to be possible to
replace hydr. lime completely, but it should be tested
whether a part of the hydr. lime could be replaced
Literature:
[1] Bonn, W., Hasler, R.: Verfahren und Erfahrung einer roh- stoffbedingten
SO2-Emission im Werk Untervaz der Bndner Cementwerke. Zement, Kalk, Gips
(1990), P.139-143
[2] "Holderbank" Cement Course: Source and reduction of emissions gaseous, VA
91/5882/E, P. 5 - 6
[3] Hasler, R., Wickert, Dr.H.: HMB Bericht VA 86/5281/D, VA-Dok: UV, Reg. 17A
[4] Berclaz, Ch.:HMB Bericht VA 85/73/D, VA-Dok: UV, Reg. 17A
[5] Strahm, E., Waltisberg, J.: HMB Bericht VA 89/5665/D, VA-Dok: UV, Reg. 2
[6] Waltisberg, J.: HMB Aktennotiz VA 90/6/D, VA-Dok: UV, Reg. 2
[7] ATR, Annual Technical Report 1994,"Holderbank"
Figure A Burning of dried sewage sludge in a cement kiln
Figure B Circulating Fluidized Bed Absorber
Query:
SO
2
-emission reduction
Plant: Aalborg Portland (not in Holderbank Group)
Capacity: 0.5 Mio. t/year of white clinker with 4 kilns
Raw material:
Fuel type: Fuel oil and pet coke
Plant description: Wet process plant
Supplier/equipment: FLS
Initial SO2 emission problem: Due to the white color of white clinker, and since in
the
[1] white kilns very little sulfur is retained, only special
fuel quality could be used. Most of the sulfur was
emitted as SO
2
in concentrations of 500 - 800
ppm.
Solutions investigated: Since the fuel consumption is generally higher for
white clinker and for a wet process, in 1980 a
conversion to a semi-wet process was considered.
Due to high capital costs and technical risks this
investigation was not followed further.
The recovery of some of the waste heat seemed to
be a more attractive solution. In combination with
the SO
2
-problem, a combined heat recovery and
desulfurization process seemed to be very
attractive, and it was decided to build a pilot plant.
From March 1989 to February 1990 a test program
was carried out. The degree of desulfurization was
found to be 75 %.
Solution realized: The heat recovery and SO
2
absorption unit for the
four wet kilns consisting of 4 gas/water heat
exchangers and 2 scrubber systems was
commissioned in 1991.
Query:
commissioned in 1991.
The exhaust gas from the kiln passes first the
gas/water heat exchanger before it enters the SO2
scrubber at a temperature of about 115C. In the
scrubber SO
2
is absorbed in a slurry loaded with 6
10% solids consisting of 98% CaSO
4
.2H
2
O and
2% CaCO
3
. The slurry is sprayed in counter
current to the exhaust gas and collected in the
recycle tank at the bottom of the scrubber where it
is oxidized with air (CaSO3 + 0.5O
2
CaSO
4
). A
part of the slurry is pumped to a centrifuge where
water and gypsum are separated. The rest is
reinjected through a circulation line into the
scrubber. A chalk slurry of 30% moisture is
injected into the circulation line before the spray
nozzles to replace the used and extracted
absorbens (CaCO
3
+SO
2
CaSO
3
+ CO
2
). The
optimum pH for the circulated slurry has been
found to be between 5.4 and 5.6 and is controlled
by the amount of chalk slurry added to it.
The circulated slurry passes on its way from the
recycle tank to the nozzles a heat exchanger to
preheat the water for the gas/water heat
exchanger.
The exhaust gas leaves the scrubber with 75%
less SO
2
and a temperature of about 70C.
Emissions reached: The scrubber reaches an SO
2
reduction of
75-80%, i.e. the remaining SO
2
-concentration is
below 160 200 ppm.
Further Optimization: Further optimization concerning the desulfurization
is not foreseen.
Literature:
[1] H.E.Borgholm: A new heat recovery and desulfurization plant for 4 wet kilns in
Aalborg Portland. 35th IEEE cement industry technical conference in Toronto, IEEE
catalogue (1993), 395 - 409.
Figure A Heat recovery and desulfurization plant of Aalborg Portland / Denmark
Query:
SO2-emission reduction
Plant: Dragon Products, Thomaston (Maine, USA), (not in
"Holderbank" group)
Capacity: [1] 4000'000 t/year
Raw material:
Fuel type:
Plant description: Wet kiln
Supplier/equipment:
Initial SO
2
emission problem:
SO
2
emissions never were a problem (500 mg/Nm
3
).
[1] During the time when Martin Marietta owned the
plant (i.e., before 1980), the US EPA designed
Thomaston, an upper class coastal residential area,
a non attainment area (i.e. an area which had not
attained the required level of emissions). This was
due to dust emissions from both kiln and quarry
(CKD). The Dragon plant discarded dust to produce
a lower, but not a low alkali cement.
Solutions investigated:
Solution realized: [1],[2] The Passamaquoddy scrubber was commissioned
in 1990. Conversion is accomplished in the
Recovery Scrubber by reintroducing into CKD the
CO2 that was released during calcining. Exhaust
gas from the kiln is cooled in a heat exchanger (A)
and bubbled through a reaction tank (B) containing a
slurry of CKD and water. CO
2
in the gas reacts with
CKD in the slurry to reclaim CKD for kiln feed, while
SO
2
reacts with potassium sulfate in the CKD to
form potassium sulfate in solution.
Query:
CaO + SO
2
0.5O
2
CaSO4
CaSO
4
+ 2KOH + CO
2
CaCO
3
+ K
2
SO
4
+H
2
O
Reclaimed CKD is separated in a settling tank (C),
rinsed in a secondary settling tank (D) to remove
potassium sulfate remnants, and returned to the
cement plant as raw feed. Potassium solution is
pumped to the crystallizer (E) for recovery as dry
potassium sulfate. Heat for the crystallizer is
obtained from the exhaust gas heat exchanger (F).
Emissions reached: [3] The exhaust gas SO
2
elimination is claimed to be
over 90%. Beside SO
2
also HCl as well as ammonia
and some less volatile organic compounds are
absorbed.
Literature:
[1] Dust and Other Secondary Materials Management Using the Passamaquoddy
Recovery Scrubber
[2] The Recovery Scrubber , Passamaquoddy Technology
[3] Clean emissions valuable by-products, International Cement Review March
91
Figure A Recovery scrubber from Passamaquoddy
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C01 - Emission Control / Sources and Reduction of SO2-Emissions / 8. LITERATURE
8. LITERATURE
[1] Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Vol. A 25, 1994 VCH,
3-527-20125-4
Query:
3-527-20125-4
[2] Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 60th Edition, CRC-Press,
0-8493-0460-8
[3] Surehaltige Niederschlge - Entstehung und Wirkung auf terrestrische kosysteme,
1984, VDI, Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft
[4] F.L. Smidth, An overview of the formation of SO
x
and NO
x
in various pyroprocessing
systems; P.B. Nielsen, O.L. Jepsen, No. 96
[5] Der Anteil der Zementindustrie an den anthropogenen SO
2
- und NO
x
-Emissionen,
H. Wickert, "Holderbank" News 6, 1985, p. 15-16
[6] ATR-Databank 1994
[7] Kiln Optimization Seminar, Circulation Phenomena VA 90/5714/E, U. Gasser
[8] Kiln Optimization Seminar, Fuel Preparation / Firing Systems,
VA 89/5653/E, F. Schneider
[9] Environmental Protection Seminar, Sources Reduction of Emisisons (gaseous),
VA 91/5882/E, J. Waltisberg
[10] Parameter study on desulfurization in baghouse filter,
VA 90/5687/E, A. Edlinger, R. Hasler
[11] Massnahmen zur Minderung der SO
2
-Emission beim Klinkerbrennen im Werk Hver
der Nordcement AG, K.H. Boes
[12] Emissions of NO
x
and SO
2
from cement clinker burning, V. Johansen, A.H. Egelov,
Denmark
Figure 14 SO
2
-Reduction =f(Mol-ratio Ca/S)
Figure 15 SO
2
REDUCTION WITH CA (OH)
2
Query:
Figure 16 Influence of oxygen content in the kiln gas
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting
C02 - Dedusting
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / General
General
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PRESENT STATE OF CEMENT KILN EMISSION
3. PRESENT LEGAL SITUATION
4. STANDARD TECHNOLOGY (ST) FOR DUST EMISSION REDUCTION
4.1 Reduction of Precursor Substances Input into Kiln System
4.2 Process Optimization (Primary Reduction Measures)
5. DUST CHARATERISTICS
6. DEDUSTING EFFICIENCY
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / General / 1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Dust filters were the first secondary emission reduction measure in the cement industry. The motivation
for dedusting of exhaust gas and vent air are:
Compliance with environmental regulations
Reduction of product loss
Protection of employees and equipment from harmful dust impacts (irritation plugging, erosion)
This paper is focused on the dedusting of kiln/raw mill exhaust gas and clinker cooler vent air. They are
the largest dust filters of the entire clinker production line. Because they have to provide both very high
reliability and efficiency under extremely severe conditions those filters have to fulfill the most difficult
task among all cement plant dedusting equipment. The basic working principles of the presented filters
are also valid for other applications.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / General / 2. PRESENT STATE OF CEMENT KILN EMISSION
2. PRESENT STATE OF CEMENT KILN EMISSION
According to the very much varying dust emission limits in countries where cement plants are operated
and the development in the dedusting technology, the average dust emission from cement kilns varies
between 10 and 500 mg/Nm
3
dry. Only a few exceptions are above 1000 mg/Nm
3
.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / General / 3. PRESENT LEGAL SITUATION
Query:
3. PRESENT LEGAL SITUATION
Dust was one of the first stack emissions that were regulated and is today still the only emission limit
for some plants. The reduction efficiency required is much higher compared to other emissions like
SO
2
or NO
x
. The dedusting efficiency of modern dust filters is about 99.999% compared to only 95% of
very good SO
2
filters.
In Europe, emission limits are expressed as mass of particulates per gas volume: mg/Nm
3
(N: 273 K
and 101325 Pa). Usually the gas volume is calculated on dry base. In some countries the gas volume
is referred to a certain oxygen concentration, mostly 10% O
2
.
Emission Limits
Nm
3
dry
= m
3
at 273 K, 101300 Pa and 0% water
Europe:
20 - 50 - 500 mg/Nm
3
Germany:
50 mg/Nm
3

dry at 10% O2
In the United States of America not all plants do have a dust emission standard. But all of them do
have an opacity limit which is to some degree correlated to the dust emission.
USA (e.g.): 0.3 lb/t
feed, dry ca. 80 mg/Nm
3
2%O2, wet
0.05 - 0.08 gr/dscf
ca. 115 - 180 mg/Nm
3dry
0.015 gr/acf
ca. 60 mg/Nm
3
2% O2, wet
5.5 lb/hr
ca. 15 mg/Nm
3
2% O2, wet
Some US plants also have to comply with PM10 limits. PM10 stands for particulates smaller than 10
m. Particulates smaller 10 m are small enough to enter and mechanically damage the lungs. To
express the limits the same units as discussed above are used.
USA PM10 (e.g.): 0.016 gr/dscf
ca. 37 mg/Nm
3
2% O2, wet
4.7 lb/h
ca. 13 mg/Nm
3
2% O2, wet
0.015 gr/acf
ca. 60 mg/Nm
3
2% O2, wet t
US plants burning hazardous waste are regulated under BIF (Burners and Industrial Furnaces). Other
Query:
plants do have a state permit defining certain parameters like NO
x
, SO
2
CO, particulates (dust) and
THC emission. The limits for these emissions are called emission standards. This standards are
individually defined for each plant and usually represent the operating situation under certain
conditions. Therefore, the US standards are different from the emission limits in Europe where
emission limits are valid for a whole state or country.
For comparison reasons all emission limits/standards are indicated in mg/Nm
3
. The emission
standards in the USA are usually not using mg/Nm
3
but ppm, lb/t
dry feed
gr/dscf, lb/1000 lb
gas
,

b/hr, etc.
To convert them into mg/Nm
3
certain assumptions were necessary.
All the above explained emission limits do include definitions how and when the compliance tests have
to be carried out. It is, e.g., very important whether the emission has to be measured continuously or
not. Some dust filters like electrostatic precipitators (EP) are very sensitive on process changes and
can have an increased dust emission during transition periods and may not be in compliance during
that time.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / General / 4. STANDARD TECHNOLOGY (ST) FOR DUST EMISSION REDUCTION
4. STANDARD TECHNOLOGY (ST) FOR DUST EMISSION REDUCTION
(Technology frequently used in the cement industry)
ST for cement kiln dedusting is the application of bagfilters or electrostatic precipitators. Both are very
frequently used and can usually comply with today's dust emission regulations.
Some of the older dedusting technologies like gravel beds or multiclones are still in operation but are
not build any more, mainly because they do have difficulties to comply with today's more stringent dust
emission regulations.
To reduce the emissions from a pyroprocessing system to a certain controlled level, three basically
Maintain the existing process while reducing the input of precursor substances into the system
/ 4.1 Reduction of Precursor Substances Input into Kiln System
4.1 Reduction of Precursor Substances Input into Kiln System
Dust input can obviously not be reduced because it is the raw material for our product.
/ 4.2 Process Optimization (Primary Reduction Measures)
4.2 Process Optimization (Primary Reduction Measures)
Modifications of the process can reduce dust emissions from existing dust filters (see below). However,
the dust reduction achieved in the process is far below the efficiency of a dust filter. This means that
process conditions can support the dedusting equipment to work properly but the final dust emission is
always determined by the filter type and its efficiency (secondary measure).
Query:
However, there are two exceptions where process changes can even be more efficient than a dust
filter. If a grate clinker cooler with conventional vent air dedusting is converted into a ventless system
or a satellite clinker cooler is used instead of a grate cooler, the dust emission of the clinker cooler
becomes virtually zero.
/ 4.3 Secondary Reduction Measures
Almost all cement kilns are equipped with dust filters because of economical and ecological reasons.
Nowadays, there are basically two different types of dust filters used: bagfilters and electrostatic
precipitators. Some time ago also multiclones and gravel bed filters were installed. They are less
efficient than modern systems and very often too sensitive on process changes.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / General / 5. DUST CHARATERISTICS
5. DUST CHARATERISTICS
The characteristics of dust have a strong influence on the behavior and design of dust filters and on
the impact of the dust on its environment. Dust is characterized by
Size
Shape
Hardness
Chemical composition
Mineral structure
Electrical resistivity
Specific weight
Angle of repose
etc.
Fig 1. Comparison of sizes and physical characteristics of various dusts
The character of the dust is defined by its origin and the different treatments like grinding, blending,
classifying or burning. Dust from a preheater kiln is much finer than dust from a clinker cooler and
Query:
because of this more difficult to separate.
Fig. 2: Particle size distribution of some dusts from cement kilns
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / General / 6. DEDUSTING EFFICIENCY
6. DEDUSTING EFFICIENCY
To describe the performance of a filter or to compare different filter systems the non- dimensional
dedusting efficiency is used. It describes the filter performance independently from the filter load.
R
r
1
1)
where:
? = dedusting efficiency
r = clean gas dust content
R = raw gas dust content
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Electrostatic Precipitator (EP)
Electrostatic Precipitator (EP)
1. TECHNOLOGY BASICS OF EP
1.1 How does an EP work?
1.2 How EP Efficiency is determined
1.3 How EP Clean Gas Dust Content is determined
1.4 HT-Rectifier
1.5 Voltage-Current Curves
Query:
Our companies, and thousands more throughout the world, will be faced with a substantial
environmental challenge over the next few years. Increased governmental regulation and enforcement
of clean air laws will require your air pollution control equipment to consistently meet rigid performance
standards. And with an electrostatic precipitator that is always a challenge.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Electrostatic Precipitator (EP) / 1. TECHNOLOGY BASICS OF EP
1. TECHNOLOGY BASICS OF EP
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Electrostatic Precipitator (EP) / 1. TECHNOLOGY BASICS OF EP / 1.1 How does
an EP work?
1.1 How does an EP work?
Fig. 3 shows a schematic drawing of an electrostatic precipitator. An industrial precipitator has a
number of passages through which the gases pass at a velocity of about 1 m/s. The passages are
formed by two parallel rows of vertically mounted collecting plates and a number of discharge
electrodes vertically suspended between the collecting plates.
Normally the spacing of the discharge and collecting electrodes varies between 125 and 200 mm and
the voltage applied between them is 35 to 110 kV negative DC according to spacing, gas and dust
conditions.
The high negative voltage applied to the electrically insulated discharge electrodes creates a strong
electrical field between the discharge electrodes and the earthed collecting plates. The highest
strength occurs near the discharge electrodes. As the voltage is raised, electrical breakdown of the gas
close to the electrode surface takes place. This breakdown, called "corona", appears as a bluish glow
extending into the gas a short distance beyond the surface of the discharge electrode.
The corona produces large numbers of gas ions, the positive ions being immediately attracted to the
discharge electrodes while the negative ions migrate towards the collecting plates.
Some of the moving ions attach themselves to dust particles suspended in the gas between the
electrodes. Dust particles are charged either by bombardment by the ions moving under the influence
of the electrical field, or by ion diffusion, both types of charging taking place simultaneously. The
particle size determines which type of charging is predominant, ion diffusion being the prevailing
mechanism for particle sizes below 1 micron.
Through the influence of the electrical field, the negatively charged particles migrate towards the
collecting plate to which they adhere while being electrically discharged.
These particles build up a layer of dust on the plate surface which is dislodged by rapping.
The dislodged particles fall by gravity towards the bottom of the precipitator, ending up in the bottom
hopper from where the dust is extracted by either mechanical conveyor (drag chain or screw conveyor)
or pneumatic type system.
Figure 3 How electrostatic precipitators work
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Electrostatic Precipitator (EP) / 1. TECHNOLOGY BASICS OF EP / 1.2 How EP
Efficiency is determined
1.2 How EP Efficiency is determined
There have been many attempts over the years to develop satisfactory equations based on
fundamental theories in order to enable the efficiency of a precipitator to be forecast. They are
contained in a large number of technical papers, which are conveniently summarized in H.E. White's
book entitled "Industrial Electrostatic Precipitation". Generally the performance of EPs can be
expressed by the following Deutsch formula:

)
s v
L ?
(
1
e EP
2)
or

)
Q
A
? (
1
e EP
3)
where
= Efficiency of the electrical precipitator

= Particle migration velocity (m/s)
A = Total projected collecting area (m
2
)
Q = Gas flow (m
3
/s)
L = Field length (m)
v = Gas velocity (m/s)
s = Distance between collecting and discharge electrodes (m)
From equation 3 it follows that the dedusting efficiency of a precipitator depends on:
I the migration velocity w (m/s)
II the total projected collecting area A (m
2
)
III the gas flow Q (m
3
/s)
Clean Gas Dust Content is determined
1.3 How EP Clean Gas Dust Content is determined
Query:
If equations 1 and 3 are combined then one can describe the clean gas dust content r in function of
R the raw gas dust content (g/m
3
)
the migration velocity (cm/s)
A the total projected collecting area (m
2
)
Q the gas flow (m
3
/h)

)
Q
A
(

e R r
[mg/m3] 4)
Clean Gas Dust Content is determined / 1.3.1 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Raw Gas Dust Content (R)
1.3.1 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Raw Gas Dust Content (R)
With respect to equation 4, one would expect that the raw gas dust content (R) is directly proportional
to the clean gas dust content (r). However, because the migration velocity is increasing with R, the
effect of R on r is much weaker than expected.
Figure 4 Example of correlation between raw gas dust content R and clean gas dust
content r
Clean Gas Dust Content is determined / 1.3.2 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Gas Flow (Q)
1.3.2 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Gas Flow (Q)
The equation 4 shows that r is an exponential function of the inverse gas flow (Q). However, the
migration velocity ( ) is also influenced by the gas flow. Therefore, the correlation of r and Q is not
exactly according to the equation 4 with = constant.
Figure 5 Example of a correlation between gas flow Q and clean gas dust content r for a
modern kiln EP during compound operation
Query:
At relative gas flows above 100%, r is increasing exponentially because of the exponential correlation
of r and Q (equation 4) and the amplifiying effect of turbulence and dust re-entrainment from the
collecting plates.
The latter is overlaid by other effects mainly based on physical and chemical changes of the
particulates caused by the lower clean gas dust content (r).
At this point we already realize that the calculation of r is very complex because, unfortunately,
migration velocity is not constant but a function of R, Q and other variables.
Clean Gas Dust Content is determined / 1.3.3 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Total Projected Collecting Area (A)
1.3.3 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Total Projected Collecting Area (A)
The total projected collecting area (A) is

2 F G h l A
[m2] 5)
where
l = Length of field (m)
h = Height of field (m)
G = Number of gaps of one field (-)
F = Number of fields (-)
The factor of 2 is required because both sides of the collecting electrodes are active during the dust
extraction process.
The correlation between A and r is about inverse to the correlation between Q and r (see equation 4). It
is important to notice that the required collecting area is increasing exponentially with the reduction of
the clean gas dust content.
Figure 6 Correlation between the projected collecting area A and the clean gas dust
content r
Query:
Clean Gas Dust Content is determined / 1.3.4 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Migration Velocity (w)
1.3.4 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Migration Velocity ()
Among the variables in equation 4 the migration velocity is the one with by far the most practical
significance. Not because it has a stronger impact on r than the others (see equation 4) but because it
represents the effect of all other variables besides Q, R and A on the EP efficiency.
Figure 7 Clean gas dust content r in function of the migration velocity
Query:
The migration velocity can, somewhat simplified, be understood as the average velocity of the dust
particles in their migration from the discharge to the collecting electrode in the electrostatic field.
The migration velocity () itself is a function of many other variables like
Nature of dust
Electrical resistivity
Size
Gas condition
Temperature
Volume
Humidity
Chemical composition
Dust load
False Air
Energization of electrical fields
Voltage
Current
EP design
Gas distribution
Electrode design
Electrode cleaning
and these are only the most important ones.
With this information we can rewrite equation 4 as follows:

...)) s, U, l, R, r, c, t , Q, T, f , , (O ?
Q
A
(

e R r
6)
For most of the mentioned variables there exist empirical graphs describing the correlation between the
variables and . Some of these graphs were published but others are the secrets of the suppliers.
Various attempts to calculate theoretically were not successful.
Query:
Clean Gas Dust Content is determined / 1.3.4 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Migration Velocity (w) / 1.3.4.1 Electrical
Resistivity of Dust
1.3.4.1 Electrical Resistivity of Dust
The electrical resistivity of the dust particles plays a very important part in the precipitation process and
depends mainly on the type of the dust, the gas temperature and the gas humidity.
Figure 8 Dust resistivity in function of temperature and dust source
Three ranges of electrical resistivity can be distinguished:
less than 10
4
cm
10
4
to 10
11
cm
more than 10
11
cm
For particles having a resistivity of less than 10
4
cm the electrical conductivity is so high that
although they are charged in the normal manner and move normally under the influence of the
electrical field, the attainable dedusting efficiency is poor. The reason thereof is that as soon as they
reach the collecting electrodes, the electric charge leaks away so rapidly that the particles are repelled
into the gas stream and most likely escape with the outlet gases.
Dust types belonging to the range comprised between 10
4
and 10
11
cm show a favorable
discharge behavior. This means that neither particle repulsion nor back-ionisation occurs, i.e. the
particles are nicely deposited on - and sufficiently attached to the collecting electrode.
Cement industry dusts usually belong to these "easily" separating dusts. Dusts stemming from long dry
process kilns, suspension preheater kilns and grate clinker coolers, however, may occasionally develop
dedusting problems.
Particles having resistivities of more than 10
11
- 10
12
cm can form within a very short period of time
an electrically insulating layer on the collecting electrodes leading to the so-called back-ionisation (back
corona) effect. With "back-ionisation" already captured dust is forced back into the gas flow and a
reasonable dedusting efficiency of the precipitator becomes impossible to obtain.
Figure 9 Back ionization of dust particles at high electrical resistivities
Query:
Dust resistivity at temperatures below 200C is primarily determined by the amount of moisture present
in the gas. Therefore, a wet kiln will have a much lower resistivity than a standard long, dry or a
preheater kiln. In fact that was the reason why a water spray / conditioning tower was added to these
kiln systems to tread the exhaust gas.
The variation of the resistivity as a function of the moisture content of the raw gas is due to an
extremely thin conditioning layer on the particle surface which modifies the resistivity of the dust.
At higher temperatures (above 350C) the particles become increasingly conductive and the gas
composition ceases to have much effect as a such.
Figure 10 Dust resistivity in function of the temperature and the dew point
At middle-range temperatures of about 200 to 250C the resistivity curve of some dust reaches a
maximum.
Figure 11 Dust removal efficiency as a function of the EP operating temperature
Query:
Clean Gas Dust Content is determined / 1.3.4 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Migration Velocity (w) / 1.3.4.2 Size of
Dust Particulates
1.3.4.2 Size of Dust Particulates
According to Stoke's law for particles larger than 1 m, the migration velocity is directly proportional to
the particulates diameter.
Figure 12: Dedusting efficiency in function of the particle size
A dust with a mass mean diameter of 10 microns would require a precipitator only one-third the size of
a system collecting dust with a mass mean diameter of two microns. As you can see, goes down
when it is dealing with particulate in the 0.5 micron range and then starts to improve in efficiency when
the particulate gets smaller (say 0.05 microns). That has to do with the two principals of particle
charging which predominate in a precipitator. Field charging predominance for particulate greater than
1 micron in size and diffusion charging predominates for particulate less than 1 micron in size. That
range around 1 micron is kind of a no-man's land where neither field charging nor diffusion charging
has much effect. That is why the efficiency drops dramatically and then improves once the particles get
even smaller.
What are other consequences for the EP operation based on the correlation between and particle
size:
EPs are classifying the incoming dust. The coarse particles are found in the first fields and the fine
fraction in the last fields.
This classifying of the dust can be used to extract selectively a dust portion enriched with
Query:
condensibles like K
2
O, SO
3
and heavy metals, thus avoiding generation of larger quantities of
"contaminated" dust or enrichment of certain compounds in the process.
Fine dust particulates and condensibles can be accumulated in the system and reduce the EP
efficiency if they are not extracted from the last field.
The particle diameter of the clean gas dust is generally below 10 m.
Clean Gas Dust Content is determined / 1.3.4 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Migration Velocity (w) / 1.3.4.3 Gas
Temperature T
1.3.4.3 Gas Temperature T
Gas and particulate temperature are usually the same because the particulates are suspended in the
gas and the retention time of particulates in the gas is sufficient to reach a temperature equilibration.
The influence of the gas temperature T is mainly:
Increased dust resistivity at higher temperatures below 250C (see para 1.3.4.2)
Decreased dust resistivity at higher temperatures above 250C (see para 1.3.4.2)
Increased actual gas flow Q at higher temperatures (see para 1.3.2)
Humidity (dew point t)
1.3.4.4 Gas Humidity (dew point )
The water of the raw gas is originating from:
Combustion (4 CmHn + (4 m+n) O
2
-> 4 m CO
2
+ 2n H
2
O)
Water in ambient air
Water in raw materials
Water injection for gas conditioning
The dew point can be calculated as follows:

179
) ( ln 045 . 17 3362 . 5
48 . 336
tot f P V
[C] 7)
where:
V
f
= Volume fraction of water vapour in the wet gas (m
3
H
2
O

/ m
3
wet gas
)
P
tot
= Total pressure (bar)
As described in para 1.3.4.1 the dew point is influencing the electrical resistivity of the dust particulates
at temperatures below 250C. This is responsible for the increased efficiency of the EP at higher dew
points
Figure 13 Example for clean gas dust content in function of the dew point at temperatures
Query:
below 250C
The figure above shows the strong effect of gas dew point on EP efficiency if no back ionization
occurs. With back ionization the clean gas dust content r would increase even faster at lower dew
points.
A typical example for the influence of the dew point are preheater kilns switching from compound
operation (mill on) to direct operation (mill off). When the raw mill is in service, the moisture
conditioning (11 % to 12 % at 110C) of the gas is optimum. When the raw mill goes off line, the spray
tower preceding both the raw mill and the EP cannot catch up quickly enough to increase the volume
of water to make up for the moisture content lost when the raw mill goes down.
Composition (not including water vapour)
1.3.4.5 Gas Composition (not including water vapour)
The gas composition of clinker cooler vent air is fairly simple, however, the composition of kiln exhaust
gas is a complicated cocktail of many different compounds.
Some compounds like SO
2
can enhance the EP operation by reducing the resistivity of the particulate
surface.
Others like organic compounds or condensible alkalis reduce the EP efficiency. It is assumed that
organic compounds attached to the particulate surface can increase their resistivity. Condensible
alkalis can occur as very fine particulates < 10 m significantly reducing the average migration velocity.
Condensibles like chlorides can increase the stickiness of the deposited dust on the electrodes which
leads to thicker dust layers on the electrodes. This would increase the total electrical resistivity of the
dust layer and therefore reduce the EP efficiency.
Clean Gas Dust Content is determined / 1.3.4 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Migration Velocity (w) / 1.3.4.6 Gas Dust
Load S, r and R
1.3.4.6 Gas Dust Load S, r and R
An increased raw gas dust load R has a positive effect on the migration velocity but cannot fully
compensate the raise in the clean gas dust content according to equation 4.
An increase of the clean gas dust content r is also increasing the migration velocity. According to the
explanation under para 1.3.4.2 the lower the clean gas dust emission is the lower is the diameter of the
Query:
dust particulates and smaller dust particulates have a slower migration velocity than larger ones.
Therefore, the required collecting area A is increasing exponentially with the reduced clean gas dust
content r (see Fig. 6).
Clean Gas Dust Content is determined / 1.3.4 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Migration Velocity (w) / 1.3.4.7
Energization of the EP
1.3.4.7 Energization of the EP
The collection efficiency of a precipitator is directly related to the total power for all fields on the
precipitator. In general, the higher operating power levels that each field can achieve, the higher
collection efficiency for that field.
Figure 14 Example for clean gas dust content r in function of the relative power input
Many people believe that a precipitator cannot work (achieve power levels) unless the gas is loaded
with dust. This question can be easily examined by energizing any field of an EP in air. By that, it is
meant that the kiln is not in operation, and that the temperatures have settled to ambient conditions.
Furthermore, the precipitator is not bottled up and dampers are open, allowing for a natural stack draft
through the precipitator. It is important to have some air movement in order to obtain a good "air load".
When a precipitator is energized in air, the following results could be obtained:
Table 1: Example of energization of an electrical field of an EP under pure air (without
dust)
Precipitator Secondary Voltage (kV) Precipitator Secondary Current (mA)
Query:
Precipitator Secondary Voltage (kV) Precipitator Secondary Current (mA)
0
1
5
10
15
16.5
24
28
30.6
33.5
34
35.2
36.3
36.8
0
0
0
0
0
1
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
750
Actual results are dependent on T/R set size, type of high voltage electrode, and the electrical
clearance between the electrodes.
The mA readings are synonymous with the actual current flowing in the precipitator. Current flowing in
a circuit is equivalent to the number of electrons that are moving past the point in that circuit.
For current to flow in a precipitator, that means that electrons need to flow from the discharge
electrode to the collecting electrodes in the precipitator. That means that the air in the precipitator must
become a conductor. It is easy to think of the various conductors and realize that an insulator is a very
poor conductor, a piece of copper wire is an excellent conductor, and an energized precipitator is
somewhere in between. The air load demonstrates that current does not start to flow in a precipitator
until (in this case) a voltage of 16.5 kV is achieved. That voltage is referred to as the corona onset
voltage.
With moderate increases in voltage, a correspondingly increasing current results. If the alignment is
correct between the electrodes in the precipitator, then the air load test should achieve either the
primary or secondary current rating of the T/R set being energized. In the above example, we ran out
of secondary current (705 mA) first.
Therefore, in order to get corona discharge in a precipitator, dust particles are not required. However,
the concentration of particulate has a dramatic effect on the power levels in the precipitator. The term
"space charge" is used to indicate a precipitator field that is collecting a significant number of fine
particles or a heavy concentration of large particles. For our example, we will examine the latter, which
is a common occurrence in cement plant precipitator applications.
Space charge - high dust concentrations
As we saw in the section on air load, since there are no particles (dust) in the inter electrode space,
there can be no space charge. However, with the influence of a large concentration of large particles,
see what affect it has on these two wet process cement kilns. Kiln No. 1 has a cyclone mechanical
collector in series with the precipitator, whereas kiln No. 2 does not. The automatic voltage controls for
those two precipitators were found to be operating as follows:
Query:
Table 2: Energization of two EPs with different dust loads Kiln No. 1: low dust load, kiln
No. 2: high dust load
Unit Amps Volts mA kV kW Sparks/Minute
Kiln No. 1-1 123 337 664 50.1 27 0
Kiln No. 1-2 142 247 758 36.2 23 0
Kiln No. 2-1 9 232 39 57.5 1a 20
Kiln No. 2-2 16 324 71 52.0 2 14
Kiln No. 2-3 115 465 940 48.0 38 3
Kiln No. 2-4 120 346 924 35.1 28 0
Because kiln No. 2 does not have the mechanical collector preceding it, the dust loading
(concentration) is significantly higher than kiln No. 1. The voltage control readings show the affect of
space charge. Space charge is indicated by high voltages, but more importantly, by extremely low
current. It is the absence of current flow that can be of significance.
When asked what is the more important parameter, precipitator voltage (kV) or precipitator current
(mA), often times people will say kV. They are partially correct in most cases, but not in this case.
Precipitator voltage is responsible for pushing the dust particles toward the plates. Current is
responsible for keeping them there. So although kiln No. 2, field 1 has a lot of pushing forced, (57.5), it
has no holding force. Most of the dust re-entrains onto the next field.
The other important point to note is that sparking in a precipitator (an electrical breakdown of the gas)
is directly related to the precipitator voltage levels. That is why inlet fields have sparking (because of
the high kV) whereas outlet fields sometimes do not.
If one looks at the flow of current from the transformer / rectifier to set to the high voltage electrodes
through the dust laden gas, to the collecting plate and back to the T/R set (through earth ground) as
shown in Fig. 15 the effect of the ion mobility may become apparent.
The air load demonstrated that in air without dust, the main current carriers are the free electrons and
the negative ions. These two characters can be compared to running backs on a football team. They
are very swift moving and seek the holes, and the mA meter counts a lot of them during an air load.
With the introduction of dust into the precipitator, the ion mobility changes dramatically. The charged
particles, which move very slowly, establish a "particulate space charge" in the inter electrode space.
Fig. 15 gives an idea of their relative velocity.
The affects of high space charge can be both influential and detrimental. On the positive side, high
voltages created by space charge in turn create higher "electric fields". The electric field is the pushing
force against the dust particles, accelerating them towards the collecting plates. Higher accelerations
toward the collecting plates can result in increased efficiencies.
However, as in our example in table 2, kiln No. 2 was operating with very low current levels. Therefore,
the space charge enhanced the particulate collecting field (high voltages), but also contributed towards
a suppression of the corona current. Corona current directly affects particle charging. The higher the
particle charging ensure that the dust loss due to particle re-entrainment is diminished. If the corona is
suppressed, this can promote re-entrainment. That is the case on kiln No. 2.
Query:
Figure 15 Relative velocity (mobility) of current carriers
The peak value of the precipitator voltage is limited by the dielectric constant of the gas. The arc-over
voltage is the only value which determines the maximum possible precipitator voltage. The total power
input and therefore the EP efficiency are strongly influenced by the applied voltage.
2
U U
l P
v p
m c
+

8)
where
I
m
= Mean secondary current
U
p
= Secondary peak voltage
U
v
= Average secondary voltage
The factors determining the maximum possible precipitator voltage can change quickly. Therefore, the
efficiency of the automatic voltage control, that is adjusting the voltage to operate at the maximum
value, is directly correlated with the EP efficiency.
The functioning of HT-rectifiers and automatic voltage control is explained in para 1.4.
The electrical operating behaviour is also changing over the length of the field. Gas turbulence and
distribution, dust content and particulate size at the EP inlet are very different from the ones at the EP
exit. Therefore, to optimize the energization of the EP the electrodes should be subdivided
mechanically and electrically in the length direction.
Figure 16 Clean gas dust content r in function of the number of independent electrical fields
at constant collecting area A
Query:
Clean Gas Dust Content is determined / 1.3.4 Clean Gas Dust Content (r) in Function of the Migration Velocity (w) / 1.3.4.8 EP
Design
1.3.4.8 EP Design
The equipment parts with the main influence on the migration velocity are:
Gas distribution screens
Electrode
Electrode cleaning systems
Gas distribution
In general terms the ducting leading to the precipitator and the inlet and outlet funnels should be
designed to ensure a proper gas velocity distribution in view of utilizing the whole collecting area and
avoiding negative velocity effects. From a practical viewpoint this implies different requirements to the
gas distribution in the different parts of the precipitator, and too strictly formulated numerical rules for
deviation from uniformity may not be justified.
The inlet gas distribution must be sufficiently uniform to secure a reasonable uniform current
distribution. This is especially important for precipitators for processes with high resistivity dust and fine
particles. A rule of thumb says that the standard deviation of the gas velocities in the EP should be
below 30%.
The velocity profile at the outlet should be specifically selected to reduce the risk of re-entrainment in
the bottom region.
Sneakage of dust laden gases around the electrically energized electrode system must be kept at an
absolute minimum, in particular at the bottom part of the precipitator. And large eddies in the bottom
hoppers caused by the velocity "slip" at the bottom of the electrode system may aggravate the
influence from sneakage because particles already picked up by the hopper are swept into the main
flow again.
High local velocities may scour away already precipitated dust from the collecting plates. In this case a
good gas distribution combined with high average velocity may not be superior to a bad gas distribution
combined with low average velocity.
The gas distribution may influence the dust space charge distribution and thereby the current
distribution in a separately energized precipitator field. In areas with low velocities or, in extreme
situations, areas with recirculating flow, the particle concentration will be much lower than in
Query:
corresponding areas with higher velocities. Consequently the power input will be limited in the high
velocity areas causing a reduction in overall efficiency. In particular with high resistivity dust such
uneven current distribution will cause back ionization and frequent sparking, resulting in lower average
voltage and current and increased dust re-entrainment. Due to the turbulence the gas distribution in
each separate duct will tend to improve through the precipitator, thus smoothing the dust space
charge. However, a skew cross distribution at the field inlet will not be smoothed to the same extent,
and so the horizontal gas distribution should be fairly uniform in order to maintain a proper current
distribution.
Finally, high local gas velocity, combined with high dust content, can result in erosion of the edges of
the collecting plates and other internal parts of the EP. Low gas velocity can cause dust build ups.
The cross section of an ideal EP should be designed to achieve an average gas velocity of
Kilns 0.8 - 1.0 m/s
Clinker coolers 0.7 - 0.9 m/s
The gas velocity should not drop below 0.5 m/s to maintain a suitable gas distribution.
Electrode design
The electrodes have two duties. First emission of electrons (discharge electrode) and second the
collection of the dust (collecting plate).
The energization of the fields or in other words the supply with voltage and current is influenced by the
discharge electrode design. Various electrode designs to achieve optimum voltage or / and current are
employed by the suppliers. An important factor is the corona onset voltage which depends mainly on
the radius of the electrode (plan strips) or the radius of spike peaks. The corona onset voltage is
increasing with the above mentioned radius.
Figure 17 Corona discharge voltage in function of the discharge electrode radius
In applications, where a high current is required (high dust load, low resistivity), the electrode radius
should be small. In situations, where current must be reduced and voltage increased (high resistivity
dust -> back corona) electrodes with larger radius (without peaks) can improve the efficiency.
Since corona discharge is also greatly affected by dust settling, the discharge electrodes need rapping,
which means that their oscillation behaviour is of utmost importance. Best results have been obtained
with rigid frame-mounted electrodes or rigid electrodes.
For maximum collection efficiency, the collecting plates must be rigid to maintain the critical spacing
between the different electrodes and withstand bowing during operation. At the same time, they must
facilitate the efficient transfer of rapping energy for effective cleaning. Not optimum cleaning can
Query:
amplitude back corona effects and generally reduce the EP efficiency.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Electrostatic Precipitator (EP) / 1. TECHNOLOGY BASICS OF EP / 1.4
HT-Rectifier
1.4 HT-Rectifier
The High Voltage Rectifiers are responsible for optimum energization of the EP under different
operating conditions. Optimum energization means:
Clean gas dust content r below the target
Minimum energy consumption
The precipitator energization has a very strong influence on precipitator collection efficiency. As a
result of this recognition, the microprocessor-based controller for precipitator high voltage power
supplies have in recent years become the general standard. These programmable, fast reacting, digital
controllers can implement sophisticated control strategies through their monitoring of secondary
current and voltages, including differentiation of reactions according to type of arc or spark in the
precipitator, arc quenching, fast voltage recovery after arcing without reignition of the arc, automatic
current limitation to the nominal current at overload or short circuit conditions and operation at a
precipitator current level just below the onset of "back corona". They continuously control flash-over
rate and power input to the precipitator for optimum performance.
Figure 18 Automatic voltage adjustment. Behavior of EP voltage at constant arc-over limit
Most microprocessor-based transformer / rectifier controllers have or can easily be supplemented with
an option for semi-pulse energization, as described in the following:
HT-Rectifier / 1.4.1 Semi-Pulse Energization
1.4.1 Semi-Pulse Energization
An inexpensive method for reduction of precipitator power consumption, and in some instances also
improvement of precipitator performance, is also known under various trade names such as semi-pulse
intermittent energization and energy-control.
Semi-pulse energization is implemented at a conventional thyristor controlled full wave transformer /
rectifier simply by suppressing for instance two out of three, or four out of five half waves. The ripple of
Query:
the precipitator voltage hereby becomes more pronounced than with conventional energization,
resulting in a voltage wave form that resembles a DC base voltage superimposed with long duration
pulses.
The intermittent nature of the corona discharges gives this form of energization certain properties
resembling those of the later discussed pulse energization. Semi-pulse has, in some cases, been able
to improve the performance of precipitators operating with medium to high resistivity dust, but as a rule
not to the same degree as pulse energization. Its main advantage is the resulting power savings.
Power saving up to 90% and emission reduction of up to 50% were reported.
Figure 19 Voltage wave form for semi-pulse energization
HT-Rectifier / 1.4.2 Pulse Energization
1.4.2 Pulse Energization
Advances in high-power switching technology in recent years have made it possible to develop pulse
energization systems with sufficient reliability and capacity to energize large precipitators.
With pulse energization short duration, high voltage pulses are repetitively superimposed on a DC base
voltage. Some energy conserving pulse energization systems utilize pulses with a duration in the order
of 100 microseconds and pulse repetition frequencies up to 200 pulses per second.
Pulse energization makes it possible to attain more favorable electrical conditions for high resistivity
dust than is obtainable with conventional DC energization. Pulse energization, therefore, can
successfully be used to improve the performance of an existing precipitator operating with high
resistivity dust or to reduce the size of a new precipitator installation for a high resistivity application, as
for instance with the so-called "hot" precipitators for kilns. Power saving of up to 90% and emission
reduction of up to 60% were reported.
Figure 20 Voltage wave form for pulse energization
Query:
HT-Rectifier / 1.4.3 Improvement of Voltage and Current Wave Form Shape
1.4.3 Improvement of Voltage and Current Wave Form Shape
Modern precipitator power supplies include silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR's) and current limiting
reactors (CLR's). SCR's and CLR's are designed to produce an optimum energization of the EP at one
specified process condition. Since it is known that this condition can change very frequently, the
current and voltage input have to be adjusted continuously. Operation of CLR's at conditions which are
not according to the design specifications can produce a poor current wave form shape (poor form
factor) which leads to a reduced power input. This can be corrected with a variable inductance current
limiting reactor (VI-CLR).
Figure 21 Improving wave form shape with variable inductance current limiting reactor
Another more expensive way to increase the power input is the utilization of a 3-phase energization.
The transformer is operated with a square wave voltage with a frequency of 500 Hz. This produces a
very flat direct voltage that can under certain circumstances result in a higher power input.
Unfortunately, very little experience is available for this system.
Figure 22 Improving current wafe form shape with 3-phase energization
Query:
Intelligent EP control systems do limit the power input if additional power input does not result in
significantly reduced dust emission (see Fig. 14).
Voltage-Current Curves
1.5 Voltage-Current Curves
A voltage-current curve to a precipitator troubleshooter is like a stethoscope to a cardiologist. When a
precipitator is running, we cannot see what is happening inside that might affect its performance.
However, by a close examination of the relationship between the voltage and current levels in the
operating precipitator, one can predict what is affecting performance.
A V-I curve is run by taking the voltage controls to zero then slowly increasing the power levels,
recording both the kilovolts and milliamps at convenient intervals (usually 50 mA or 100 mA) until the
voltage control sparks over. A curve can then be drawn from the points collected utilizing the "X" axis
for the kilovolts and the "Y" axis for the milliamps. Some typical V-I curves for a dry process cement
kiln are shown on Fig. 23. Note that the voltage and current corresponding to each field reflects the
voltage and current relationships as first shown in Table 2 of our precipitator example.
When there are problems with the operation of the precipitator, Fig. 24, would be more helpful for
troubleshooting. For example, the high resistivity dust as indicated by low current levels in the outlet
fields may show up as the "moderately high" dust resistivity curve shown on Fig. 24. This short, stubby
curve shows corona onset voltage as normal (say around 18 kV), but current level only increases to a
very low level as opposed to the way an outlet field should, as shown on Fig. 23.
This contrasts with a misalignment of the electrodes (wire-to-plate spacing) in the precipitator.
Misalignment exhibits itself by a very low corona onset voltage (the electrical clearance is decreased),
and the spark over.
These curves can also be utilized to show if there is excessive dust buildup on the high voltage
electrodes. Excessive dust buildup exhibits itself almost as if the wire diameter of the high voltage
electrode has been increased. Dust buildup on the wire has the same effect of increasing the corona
onset voltage from the normal range of 15 - 20 kV on up to 25 to 35 kV. The problem with wire buildup
is that you are not able to achieve as high a current as if the wires were clean. Remember, a
precipitator needs both high voltage and high current levels.
Figure 23 Normal precipitator voltage - current (V-I) curves
Query:
Figure 24 Abnormal precipitator current-voltage curves
Table 3: Influence of some variables on EP's dedusting efficiency
Variables Variation Efficiency Dust
Emission
Raw gas dust content R

Gas flow Q
Collecting area A
Electrical resistivity of the dust
/ /
Temperature T1 (<200C)
Temperature T2 (>300C
Particle size (> 1 m)

Humidity ()

Organic emission c
Power input P
Standard deviation of gas distribution
Misalignment of electrodes
Query:
Speed of the controller for EP
energization

Figure 25 Longitudinal Section of a 2-Field EP (Lurgi)
Figure 26 3D view on a 2-Field EP (ELEX)
Figure 27 Insulator Chamber FLS (Type C)
Figure 28 Electrode System (Lurgi)
Query:
Figure 29 Collecting Electrode Rapping System (Lurgi)
Figure 30 Suspension and Rapping of Discharge System (Lurgi)
Figure 31 Gas Distribution Screen (FLS)
Query:
Figure 32 Dust Removal System (FLS)
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF)
Bag Filter (BF)
1. TECHNOLOGY BASICS OF BF
1.1 Categorizing Bag Filters
2. FILTER MEDIA
2.1 Selection Criteria
2.2 Properties of Various Media
2.3 Hydrolytic Influences
2.4 Woven Fabrics and Needle Felts
3. CLEANING SYSTEMS
3.1 Overall View
3.2 Reverse Gas Cleaning
3.3 Pulse Jet Cleaning
Query:
The history of bag filters begins in 1886, when engineer Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig Beth, of Lbeck,
was granted the Patent 38396 for a "suction tube filter with automatic cleaning device". Since then, the
bag filter technology was continuously improved and is today at a level that makes it superior to any
other dedusting system.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 1. TECHNOLOGY BASICS OF BF
1. TECHNOLOGY BASICS OF BF
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 1. TECHNOLOGY BASICS OF BF / 1.1 Categorizing Bag Filters
1.1 Categorizing Bag Filters
To better understand one's bag filter, it is helpful to determine where it fits among the various types of
BF. When one tries to group bag filters into a number of categories, it soon becomes obvious that the
task is not simple. There appears to be an exception to each of the rules. The creation of certain
categories, though they are not rigid, is yet very helpful.
/ 1.1.1 Cleaning Method
1.1.1 Cleaning Method
One such approach is to group BF designs by cleaning method. There are three major cleaning
methods: shakers, reverse gas and pulse jets. In addition to these three dominant cleaning methods,
there exist a large number of other cleaning methods which are less often applied. Combinations of the
three primary methods have been occasionally employed. For example, reverse air and shake have
been used in combination and reverse-air with a pulse assist. Today, in cement plants mainly pure
reverse gas or pulse jet BF are applied.
/ 1.1.2 Capacity
1.1.2 Capacity
Another approach to grouping bag filters is by capacity. Generally, the groupings are small volumes
(i.e. below 10'000 m
3
/h), medium volumes (i.e. 10'000 to 100'000 m
3
/h) and large volumes (> 100'000
to the multimillion m
3
/h level).
/ 1.1.3 Filter-Media Type / Temperature Capabilities
1.1.3 Filter-Media Type / Temperature Capabilities
The filter-media type and temperature capabilities provide two other ways to categorize and view bag
filters. Woven vs. felted media are the media-type categories and high-temperature (> 200C),
medium-temperature (150 to 200C) and low-temperature applications (< 150C) are useful
temperature groupings. One should be aware of these distinctions and attempt to find where the
collector in question fits; thus, when considering operating or troubleshooting recommendations, one
only applies recommendations that are suited to the type of collector being used.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 2. FILTER MEDIA
Query:
2. FILTER MEDIA
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 2. FILTER MEDIA / 2.1 Selection Criteria
2.1 Selection Criteria
The filter medium is the all-important central feature of any dust collector operating on the filtration
principle. With the correct or incorrect choice of the filter material the whole dedusting operation,
however well received, will stand or fall in actual practice. Important criteria are:
filter type, particularly cleaning principle
gas temperature (average and peaks)
composition and chemical properties of the gas
raw gas dust load
required dust load of the clean gas
physical and chemical properties of the dust
Furthermore, the filter medium must satisfy the following conditions:
high air permeability (low pressure losses)
good mechanical strength
good thermal stability at operational temperature
good dimensional stability at operational temperature

Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 2. FILTER MEDIA / 2.2 Properties of Various Media
2.2 Properties of Various Media
Wool and cotton, the only two raw materials that were available to our grandfathers for making filter
media have been nowadays, to a great extent, superseded by synthetic fibers. Even mineral and metal
fibers are used for special applications. Table 1 summarizes the main properties of various fibers. The
most extensively used ones in the cement industry are polyester, polyacrylnitrile, modificated
polyamide (aramide) and glass fibre.
Table 1: Properties of Various Fibers for Woven Fabrics and Needle Felts
Fabric,
Trademark
Chemical
Classification
Tensile
strength
N/mm2
max. Operating
Temperature
long short
time time
C C
Acide
Resist.
Alkali
Resist.
Abrasion
Resist.
Moist
Heat
Resist.
Price
Rating
Density
g/m2
Natural
Fibers
Cotton Cellulose 410-670 70-90 120 poor good very good fair $ 150-400
Query:
Fabric,
Trademark
Chemical
Classification
Tensile
strength
N/mm2
max. Operating
Temperature
long short
time time
C C
Acide
Resist.
Alkali
Resist.
Abrasion
Resist.
Moist
Heat
Resist.
Price
Rating
Density
g/m2
Wool Keratin
(protein)
120-230 90 120 fair-good fair fair-good fair $$ 400-600
Dralon T,
Acrilan,
Dralon, Orlon,
Zefran
Polyacryl-}
nitrile pure
mixed
200-570 120-140
100
150
120
very good good good excellent $$ 400-600
Polypropylene Polypropylene
(PP)
260-640 100 120 excellent excellent excellent fair $ 550
Synthetic
Organic
Fibers
Trevira,
Dacron, Tery-
lene, Tergal,
Vestan, Kodel
Polyester 560-820 130-150 170
(dry)
good fair-good very good poor
$ 400-600
Nylon, Perlon alipahtic
polyamide
370-850 90-110 120 fair very
good
excellent fair $ 300
Nomex aromatic
polyamide
(aramide)
570-690 200-220 250 good in
weak
acids
excellent
at low
temp.
excellent fair $$$$ 500-600
Teflon Polytetra-Fluorethylene
(PTFE)
100 260 280 very good very
good
fair excellent $$$$$$$
Ryton / PPS Polyphenylene-
Sulfid
1000-1200 180
max.
15%O2
200
max.
15%
O2
excellent excellent good $$$$$$ 500-800
P 84 Polyimid 850-900 260 280 excellent excellent poor $$$$$$ 550
Glass Glass 1500-2500 270-230 350 fair-good fair-good fair good $$$ 300-400
Synthetic Stone Wool Mineral 120-260 300-350 fair-good fair-good
Anorganic Various Steels Metals 500-750 up to 600 excellent excellent excellent
Fibers Ceramic Silicium
Oxyde
870 excellent fair fair 0 $$$$$$$$ > 30
Special treatment of the fabrics and needle felts can significantly improve the properties of the bags.
Table 2: Special Treatment of the Bag Surface
Non-Fiberglass Finish Purpose Available For
Singe Recommended for improved
cake release
Polyester, Polypropylene, Acrylic,
Nomex, Ryton, P 84 (felts)
Glaze Provides short-term
improvements for cake release
(may impede airflow)
Polyester, Polypropylene (felts)
Silicone Aids initial cake development and
provides limited water repellany
Polyester (felt and woven)
Flame
Retardant
Retards combustibility (not flame-
proof)
Polyester, Polypropylene (felt and
woven)
Query:
Non-Fiberglass Finish Purpose Available For
Acrylic
Coatings (Latex
base)
Improves filtration, efficiency and
cake release (may impede flow in
certain applications)
Polyester and Acrylic felts
PTFE Surface
Treatments and
Laminates
For capture of fine particulate,
improved filtration efficiency,
cake release
Nomex, Polyester, Acrylic,
Polypropylene (felt) (Laminates
available in Polypropylene, Ryton
and Polyester only)
PTFE
Penetrating
Finishes
Improved water and oil
repellency; limited cake release
Nomex (felt)
Acid Resistant Improved acid resistance and
water retardance
Nomex (felt)
Fiberglass Finish Purpose Applications
Silicone,
Graphite Teflon
Protects glass yarns from
abrasion, adds lubricity
For non-acidic conditions, primarily
for cement and metal foundry
applications
Acid Resistant Shields glass yarn from acid
attach
Coal-fired boilers, carbon black,
incinerators, cement, industrial and
small municipal boiler applications
Teflon B Provides enhanced abrasion
resistance and limited chemical
resistance
Industrial and utility base load
boilers under mild pH conditions
Blue Max-
CRF/70
Provides improved acid
resistance and release
properties, superior abrasion
resistance, resistant to alkaline
attack, improved fiber
encapsulation
Coal-fired boilers (high and low
sulfur) for peak load utilities,
fluidized bed boilers, carbon black,
incinerators
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 2. FILTER MEDIA / 2.3 Hydrolytic Influences
2.3 Hydrolytic Influences
One of the greatest enemies of the textile filter media is hydrolysis. By this is understood the
breakdown of the molecular chain of the polymerizate by the action of moisture. Hydrolysis is
intensified by the action of heat, acids and alkalis.
Polyester, for example, should not be used under conditions in which moisture and elevated
temperatures occur in combination. Also aromatic polyamides (Nomex) are subject to hydrolytic
influences at temperatures above 100C, especially if acids or alkaline agents additionally act as a
catalyser.
Query:
Fortunately, in recent years chemical modification processes have emerged which have enabled these
polyamides and also polyester to be substantially improved in this respect.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 2. FILTER MEDIA / 2.4 Woven Fabrics and Needle Felts
2.4 Woven Fabrics and Needle Felts
Filter media are available either in the form of woven fabric (cloth) or felt fabrics (more particularly
needle felt). The structure of these two types of filter media is shown as follows:
Figure 1 Woven fabric and needle felt with supporting structure
Characteristic of woven fabric is its system of warp and weft threads crossing one another. Essentially
the fabric pores, i.e. the holes between the warf and the weft threads, are decisive with regard to the
filter properties. Effective fabrics for dust collection purposes have a free perforated area of about
40%. Therefore, they must have a permanent dust crust to maintain their good filtering effect.
In contrast with woven fabrics, needle felts are "three-dimensional" filter media. Their active filtering
surface is located both on the surface and in the interior of the medium. The dust collection process,
beside the sieving effect as in woven fabrics, additionally takes place through inertia and barrier
effects. For reinforcement, needle felt can be provided internally with a supporting woven fabric
interlayer which is only of secondary importance as regards its dust- collecting effect but which serves
primarily to give tear resistance and dimensional stability to the material. The pore volume of needle
felts is 60 - 90%. This porous structure allows higher admission velocities with lower pressure drops
and higher dust collection efficiencies.
The filtration process for both types of filter media is shown in Fig. 2:
Figure 2 Dust Separation with Needle Felt and Woven Fabric
Query:
For the cleaning of the woven fabric bags reverse gas is usually used. The needle felt bag filters
generally have a jet pulse system for cleaning.
The high cleaning air pressure of the jet pulse allows the use of denser filter media which in turn
achieve higher dust collection efficiencies.
Special finishing or application of membranes on the bag surface become more and more important,
especially for the jet pulse filters (see table 2). The purpose of those treatments is to give the bags
improved resistivity against chemical and mechanical attack as well as optimum filtration efficiency and
cake release (especially for fine dust particulates). Bags with such a treatment may have a very much
improved filtering efficiency and therefore do not need any more cake formation on their surface to
achieve a good dedusting efficiency. Such bags can be operated with a much thinner dust crust and
have therefore a reduced flow resistivity.
Figure 3 Needle felts without and with membrane
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 3. CLEANING SYSTEMS
3. CLEANING SYSTEMS
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 3. CLEANING SYSTEMS / 3.1 Overall View
3.1 Overall View
Query:
Ten or twenty years ago, fabric filters used to be cleaned by rapping or shaking, sometimes in
combination with low-pressure air purging but in the early 1960's a new agent for filter media cleaning
was introduced: compressed air.
Fig. 4 gives a summary of the various cleaning principles used for bag filters.
Figure. 4 Cleaning Principles of Bag Filters
a, b: manual or mechanical, by rapping or shaking
c: mechanical, by vibrating
d: pneumatic, by reverse air flow (often combined with shaking or vibrating)
e: pneumatic, by compressed air (pulse jet)
Since most of the mechanically cleaned filters have been superseded by compressed air ones, mainly
in the cement industry, the mechanical cleaning devices will not be described further here.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 3. CLEANING SYSTEMS / 3.2 Reverse Gas Cleaning
3.2 Reverse Gas Cleaning
The reverse air cleaned bag filters usually contain woven filter bags. The raw gas enters the bags from
the bottom. It flows from the bag center to the outside of the bag. The dust is deposited on the inner
surface of the bag. Removal efficiency is improved and maintained by these particulate deposits
(residual dust cake). With time excess particulates are deposited on the bags and increase the system
resistance to the gas flow (pressure loss).
To allow the filter fan to operate within the design parameters and to reduce the fan power
consumption, this dust cake must be partly removed. Bag cleaning methods must be designed properly
- not over cleaning or under cleaning.
The bag cleaning process is triggered either by a timer or, better, when the pressure drop over the bag
filter reaches some predetermined level. A reverse air bag filter consists of several compartments,
usually of more than ten. When the bag cleaning process is started, the outlet valves of one of the
compartments are closed (off-line cleaning). Then, an auxiliary fan forces a relatively gentle flow of
filtered gas backwards through the compartment and bags to be cleaned. This causes the bags to
partially collapse inward, dislodging the dustcake. This falls through the bags, the thimble and the
tubesheet into the hopper. Metal anticollapse rings sewn into the bags along their length prevent
complete bag collapse.
Fig. 5 is a schematic of compartments in a reverse-gas-cleaned BF showing operation during filtering,
cleaning and purging prior to shut sown or maintenance. To support the cleaning of the bags low
frequency, pneumatic horns ca be installed and used simultaneously with the normal reverse gas flow.
Query:
Table 3: Typical data of reverse gas filter
Reverse gas pressure 30 - 40 mbar
Reverse gas flow
2.0 - 3.5 m
3
/m
2
h
Power consumption (installed capacity)
0.0075 kW/m
2
Figure 5: Schematic of a shake / deflate-cleaned baghouse filtering flue gas, isolated prior
to bag cleaning (null), with deflation gas entering the compartment prior to bag shaking,
bag shaking and purging (or ventilation) prior to maintenance
The main criteria that are defining the size of a reverse gas by filter are:
maximum actual flow
maximum permissible air to cloth ratio (A/C)
number of compartments

Table 4: Recommended A/C
)
2
3
(
h m
m
for reverse gas filter (net, net)
1)
Operating mode Compound Direct
Kiln exhaust gas 30 36
1)
A) Because one compartment is usually isolated for reverse gas cleaning only the
filtering area of n-1 compartments are used to calculate the A/C (net).
B)
The h
m3
of the reverse gas must be added to the filter inlet flow to calculate the total
gas flow passing the bags and the A/C (net).
Query:
gas flow passing the bags and the A/C (net).
C) A) + B) A/C (net, net)
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 3. CLEANING SYSTEMS / 3.3 Pulse Jet Cleaning
3.3 Pulse Jet Cleaning
Pulse jet cleaned bag filters normally employ felted fabrics of various types. The raw gas enters the
bags from the outside. The cleaned gas flows through the center of the bag to the clean gas plenum
and from there to the stack. The dust is deposited on the outer surface of the bag. To prevent bag
collapse during filtering, metal cages are inserted inside each bag. Just like the reverse-gas cleaned
bag filter, periodic bag cleaning is required to remove excess residual dust cake. This is accomplished
by pulsing compressed air down into each filter bag. Bag cleaning can be accomplished either with the
compartment isolated or not isolated (on-line or off-line cleaning, see Fig. 6).
The cleaning made is selected based on the particulates being filtered, process conditions and bag
quality.
Figure 6 Schematic of compartments in a pulse-jet cleaned baghouse filtering flue gas,
purging (or ventilating) prior to maintenance, cleaning bags and filtering flue gas again
Most "jet" filters use injectors for the periodic purging of the individual filter elements with a nozzle,
usually disposed centrally.
Figure 7 Injector with central nozzle
Each row of bags or each individual bag is equipped with an injector which operates as follows:
Query:
When the bag is in service, i.e. engaged in dust collecting, the clean gas flows from the interior of the
bag through the injector into the clean gas plenum.
When compressed air is released as a jet from the injector at a velocity which may be above or below
the velocity of sound (depending on its type and design), secondary air is entrained from the clean gas
chamber of the filter, and a purging air flow comprising the actual jet plus this entrained secondary air
is introduced into the filter bag. The ratio of secondary flow to jet flow is called mass flow ratio.
Cleaning the bags involves three stages:
1) The normal filtration gas flow is briefly interrupted by the barrier effect of the purging air flow in the
opposite direction.
2) The purging air injected into the bag expands it to its original circular section (Fig. 7) and removes
the dust cake which falls down into the dust bunker.
3) The purging air then flows outward through the filter medium in the direction opposite to that of the
raw gas flow.
A compressed air pulse of only 0.1 - 0.2 s duration is sufficient to perform all three above mentioned
stages. The pulse is applied at intervals of 1 to 10 minutes. Thus, the duration of the cleaning
operation amounts to only 0.02 - 0.3% of the overall operating time of the filter. Practically speaking,
therefore, the whole filter surface area is always available for filtration, and the net area is virtually
equal to the gross area.
Figure 8 Jet pulse bag charged from the outside
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 3. CLEANING SYSTEMS / 3.3 Pulse Jet Cleaning / 3.3.1 Guide
Values for Jet Pulse Filters
3.3.1 Guide Values for Jet Pulse Filters
Although there exist many different forms of construction of jet pulse filters it is possible to give some
guide values.
For common jet pulse filters, with vertical bags and nozzle injectors, the following data can be given:
Table 5: Typical data of jet pulse filters
Compressed air pressure bar 4 - 7
mass flow ratio - 3 - 6
Compressed air flow rate
Nm
3
/m
3
h
0.05 - 0.10
Query:
Nm
3
/m
3
h
spec. power consumption
1)
kW/m
2
0.005 - 0.010
1) installed capacity
The main criteria that are defining the size of a jet pulse bag filter are:
maximum actual gas flow
maximum permissible air to cloth ratio (A/C)
Table 6: Recommended A/C
)
2
3
(
h m
m
for jet pulse filters
Kiln Exhaust Gas Clinker Cooler
Vent Air
Cement Mill
with Cyclone without Cyclone
55 65 65 - 80 60 - 70 90.00
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 3. CLEANING SYSTEMS / 3.3 Pulse Jet Cleaning / 3.3.2 Bag
Dimensions
3.3.2 Bag Dimensions
Jet pulse bag filter bags are smaller than bags from reverse gas bag filters because of the different
cleaning principles. The diameters of the bags are usually between 130 and 150 mm. The length of the
bag should be between 4 and 3 meters, if a conventional gas flow pattern is applied, which means, that
the gas enters through the hopper and then flows upwards, along the bags. In newer applications, the
gas is distributed partially through the hopper and partially horizontally to the bags. Together with new
low pressure cleaning, here larger bags of up to 6 m are applicable.
Generally longer bags are more difficult to clean and have therefore an increased compressed air
consumption. It is also very difficult to remove a bag of more than 3 to 4 meters length if it is filled with
dust because of a hole in the felt.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 3. CLEANING SYSTEMS / 3.3 Pulse Jet Cleaning / 3.3.3 Bag
Material
3.3.3 Bag Material
As mentioned above, most bags for jet pulse filters are made with needle felt. This material allows a
higher air to cloth ratio and resist the stress of the jet cleaning. For some exceptions (mainly bypass
bag filter) and other high temperature applications, glass fiber bags are used which resist the high
temperature and the aggressive environment.
Experience during the last few years showed that jet pulse bag filter (operated at lower temperatures, <
130C) are more reliable and economical than others. At temperatures below 130C low cost bags like
polyester or polyacrylnitril bags can be applied and the power consumption of the filter fan is reduced
as well.
The still on-going fast development of fabrics significantly improved the performance of bag filters. Due
to this development it is possible to install very efficient bag filters at cost that are in the same range or
Query:
below the cost of EPs.
Special treatment of the bag fabric surface allows for more frequent cleaning without increased dust
emission. The smaller dust cake on the bags is reducing the pressure drop and therefore saves fan
power.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Bag Filter (BF) / 3. CLEANING SYSTEMS / 3.3 Pulse Jet Cleaning / 3.3.4
Maintenance of Jet Pulse BF (for Kiln and Clinker Cooler)
3.3.4 Maintenance of Jet Pulse BF (for Kiln and Clinker Cooler)
Except for the valves and dust discharge equipment jet pulse BF have no moving parts. The most
important aspect for maintenance are the bags. Holes in the bags can significantly increase the dust
emission. Defective bags in reverse gas BF are replaced on line by isolating the respective
compartment. Modern jet pulse BF do not need compartments like the reverse gas BF but usually
consist of about 4 to 6 modules (static stability) with manual outlet and inlet valves for each module.
It is proposed to only visually inspect the modules for defective bags through the inspection window or
from the open door (values closed!). If a defective bag is found it does not need to be replaced
immediately. It is sufficient to isolate the respective row of bags (~ 10) from the jet cleaning. The
incoming dust will close the hole after a short while. The bag can be replaced during the next kiln
shutdown.
Figure 9
Figure 10 Jet Pulse Bag Filter designed for Off-line Cleaning with High Clean Gas Plenum
(NEU Process)
Query:
Figure 11 Jet Pulse Bag Filter with High Clean Gas Plenum for 5000 t/d Kiln.
Dedusting of Kiln Exhaust Gas (Redecam)
Figure 12 Jet Pulse Bag Filter with Low Clean Gas Plenum for 5000 t/d Kiln.
Dedusting of Kiln Exhaust Gas (Redecam)
Figure 13 Air to Air Heat Exchanger and Jet Pulse Bag Filter with High Clean Gas Plenum.
Dedusting of Clinker Cooler Vent Air (Redecam)
Figure 14 3-D View on Jet Pulse Bag Filter with Low Clean Gas Plenum
Query:
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Dedusting Concepts for Cement Kilns
Dedusting Concepts for Cement Kilns
1. COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS AND BAG FILTERS
2. CONCEPT 1
2.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas
2.2 Clinker Cooler
3. CONCEPT 2
3.2 Clinker Cooler
4. CONCEPT 3
4.2 Clinker Cooler
5. CONCEPT 4
5.2 Clinker Cooler
6. CONCEPT 5
6.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas and Clinker Cooler Vent Air
7. CONCLUSION
Query:
Because of the changing needs and the different filter and cement production technologies, the
concepts for cement kiln dedusting are numerous. Each of them has certain advantages and
disadvantages.
The dedusting of preheater kilns with waste heat utilization (raw mill) and great cooler is the most
difficult case. Therefore, the following examples will be based on such a modern cement kiln system.
Chart 1 shows the different possible dedusting concepts. Within the presented concepts there is still
some differentiation possible; e.g. the bag filter concepts can be further differentiated by the fabric
quality or the type of pulse jet that is applied.
Figure 1 Different dedusting concepts
It can be seen that the first decision which must be made is, if the kiln and clinker cooler shall be
dedusted separately or in one common filter. The standard solution is to use two filters, one for the kiln
and one for the cooler, but we will see later that the simultaneous dedusting in one filter has some
important advantages.
The next decision is whether bag filters or electrostatic precipitators shall be used.
Because of the more and more stringent dust emission limits and the superior dedusting efficiency of
bag filters the present trend is to apply bag filters.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Dedusting Concepts for Cement Kilns / 1. COMPARISON BETWEEN
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS AND BAG FILTERS
1. COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS AND BAG FILTERS
The basic working principle of the two filters are completely different. The EP efficiency depends on
many variables like gas volume collecting area, dust characteristics, dew point etc. Once the
electrodes are not energized, the dust emission is increasing rapidly. The bag filter efficiency mainly
depends on the quality of the bags and the sealing between clean gas plenum and raw gas plenum
and is not affected by the process.
The EP used to be a very popular filter in Europe and other places because of the low pressure drop,
the little maintenance required and the high efficiency under normal operating conditions. Today, the
main problem of the EP is its efficiency under not normal operating conditions. Changing the operating
mode from compound operation to direct operation and start-up and shut down of the kiln always
causes increased dust emission (reduced EP efficiency) because of unfavorable temperatures and
Query:
dew point during the transition phase. Disturbances in the combustion process or excessive
concentration or organics in the raw material can produce CO peaks in the exhaust gas which force the
operators to shut the kiln EP down to prevent CO explosion. During kiln upset conditions the vent air
(clinker cooler) temperature, volume and dust load are increased. This usually leads to elevated dust
emission from the clinker cooler.
Some decades ago, increased dust emission during such incidences where generally accepted by the
neighbors and the authorities. Nowadays, with the stronger environmental awareness of the people
and the more stringent emission limits (20 mg / Nm
3
, continuous dust emission control) it can be
difficult to achieve the required long term efficiency with an EP.
An important advantage of the EP can be the classification of the dust particulates. The coarse
particulates are collected in the first hoppers, the fine ones in the last hoppers. Condensibles like
alkalies and metals are enriched in the fine fraction of the dust. With an EP less dust has to be
extracted from the filter to reduce the concentration of the condensibles in the system.
Bag filters, if well maintained, have a very high efficiency unaffected by the process conditions. Their
main disadvantage is the high pressure loss and the additional maintenance cost for the regular
replacement of the bags.
The new generation of jet-pulse filters have significantly reduced the pressure drop over the filter and
the maintenance cost compared to the reverse gas filters.
Table 1: Comparison of jet pulse filter with reverse gas filter for 4-stage preheater:
Kiln Bag Filters
Jet Pulse Reverse Gas
Bag quality Polyacrylnitrile Fiber glass
Relative cost for one set of bags
1
3 - 4
Pressure drop [mbar] 8 12 10 - 20
Bag cleaning
2)
[Wh/kg cli]
0.6 - 0.8 1.1 - 1.5
CT water pump [Wh/kg cli]
0.6 - 0.8
1) ---
Filter fan [kWh/kg cli]
2) 6.7 - 7.5 6.5 - 9.0
1) 1) Only during direct operation 2) Installed capacity
A disadvantage of the bag filters is that they produce a not neglectible amount of waste (used bags).
Depending on the local regulations for waste elimination and the quality of bags their elimination can
be expensive.
Generally, the investment cost for jet pulse filters and electrostatic precipitators are about the same.
For installations above 3'000 t/d and 50 mg/Nm
3
it is slightly in favor of the EP, below 3'000 t/dry in
favor of the bag filter. This is only a general rule and because of the very strong competition this may
be significantly different for individual projects.
For very low dust emission like 10 mg/Nm
3
EPs are higher in price than BFs because the required
collecting area of the EP is growing exponentially with the reduction of the clean gas dust content:
Table 2: Additional equipment cost for reduction of the clean gas dust content from 50 to
10 mg/Nm
3
:
Query:
50 mg / Nm
3

10 mg / Nm
3
EP 20%
BF 5%
The comparison of the operating cost is very difficult because of the variable cost of the bags and the
electrical power. As a general rule it can be said that the operating cost of EPs are still slightly lower
compared to BFs. For very low dust emissions (e.g. 10 mg/Nm
3
) the difference between EP and BF
becomes neglectible because the power consumption of the EP is increasing exponentially with the
reduction of the clean gas dust content.
Conclusion of Comparison of EP and BF:
For low clean gas dust contents the investment and operating cost of EP and BF (jet pulse) are about
the same. The dedusting efficiency of bag filters are superior to EP because bag filters are less
sensitive to process changes.
Among the bag filters there are two major technologies available:
the reverse gas filters
the jet pulse filters
Recent experience shows that the dedusting efficiency of jet pulse filters is the same as or better than
the efficiency of reverse gas filters. Investment and operating cost of jet pulse filters are significantly
lower compared to reverse gas filters. Below you will find six examples for cement kiln dedusting
concepts with short comments on their advantages and disadvantages.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Dedusting Concepts for Cement Kilns / 2. CONCEPT 1
2. CONCEPT 1
Separate dedusting of kiln exhaust gas and clinker cooler vent air.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Dedusting Concepts for Cement Kilns / 2. CONCEPT 1 / 2.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Dedusting Concepts for Cement Kilns / 2. CONCEPT 1 / 2.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas /
2.1.1 Concept
2.1.1 Concept
Conditioning tower before ID fan to cool the exhaust gas to below 150C during direct operation
3 fan system (separate raw mill fan and cyclones)
Electrostatic precipitator without pre-separation chamber
2.1.2 Advantages
2.1.2 Advantages
Query:
Length of duct between preheater and conditioning tower very short because the conditioning tower
is placed ahead of the ID fan. Therefore, the investment costs are reduced.
Improved raw mill control because of separate mill fan
Possibly reduced operating cost compared to bag filter
Less false air intake and danger of corrosion at the electrostatic precipitator because of small
negative static pressure (due to 3 fan system)
No precollection required at the filter (due to raw mill cyclones)
2.1.3 Disadvantages
2.1.3 Disadvantages
Strong load changes on the ID fan because of different gas temperatures during direct and
compound operation (due to conditioning tower before ID fan)
More false air intake into conditioning tower and higher corrosion risk because of strong negative
static pressure (60 - 40 mbar) compared to conditioning tower positioned after ID fan
Slightly higher pressure drop between ID fan and filter fan because of the raw mill cyclones
Over all dedusting efficiency of electrostatic precipitator is lower compared to bag filter
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Dedusting Concepts for Cement Kilns / 2. CONCEPT 1 / 2.2 Clinker Cooler
2.2 Clinker Cooler
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Dedusting Concepts for Cement Kilns / 2. CONCEPT 1 / 2.2 Clinker Cooler /
2.2.1 Concept
2.2.1 Concept
Electrostatic precipitator
2.2.2 Advantage
2.2.2 Advantage
Possibly reduced operating and investment cost
2.2.3 Disadvantage
2.2.3 Disadvantage
Efficiency of electrostatic precipitator is lower compared to bag filter
Figure 2 Concept 1
Query:
3. CONCEPT 2
3.1.1 Concept
3.1.1 Concept
Conditioning tower before ID fan to cool the exhaust gas to below 150C during direct operation
2 fan system (no separate raw mill fan and cyclones)
Electrostatic precipitator
3.1.2 Advantages
3.1.2 Advantages
Slightly reduced pressure drop between ID fan and filter fan because of missing raw mill cyclones
(compare Concept 1)
Possibly reduced operating and investment cost compared to bag filters
3.1.3 Disadvantages
3.1.3 Disadvantages
compound operation.
Increased false air intake and corrosion at the filter because of very strong negative static pressure
Query:
Electrostatic precipitator need separate precollector chamber
Efficiency of electrostatic precipitators is lower compared to bag filter
Gas recirculation to operate raw mill is increasing the required filter size (due to 2 fan system)
3.2 Clinker Cooler
See concept 1
Figure 3 Concept 2
4. CONCEPT 3
4.1.1 Concept
4.1.1 Concept
Fresh air intake before and / or after the ID fan to cool the exhaust gas to below 240C
Reverse gas bag filter
4.1.2 Advantages
4.1.2 Advantages
No cooling tower and water injection required
Higher overall dedusting efficiency than electrostatic precipitator
Query:
Simple filter inlet temperature control
Reduced corrosion in the filter because of high operating temperature and low dew point
4.1.3 Disadvantage
4.1.3 Disadvantage
Higher operating cost than electrostatic precipitator and jet pulse bag filter
Very large filter
If the temperature control fails it is possible to burn the bags
With a bad design it is possible that the pressure drop over the filter is increasing to a point where
the capacity of the filter fan is not sufficient anymore to pull the gases
4.2 Clinker Cooler
4.2.1 Concept
4.2.1 Concept
Cooling of the vent air with air to air heat exchanger (designed for up set conditions)
Jet pulse bag filter; preferably equipped with polyester bags
4.2.2 Advantage
4.2.2 Advantage
The air to air heat exchanger serves as a compensator in case of upset conditions and allows
therefore a very smooth operation of the filter.
Higher overall dedusting efficiency compared to EP
4.2.3 Disadvantage
4.2.3 Disadvantage
If air to air heat exchanger and the jet pulse are designed properly, there are no real disadvantages
in this concept. With a bad design it is possible to damage the bags during heat excursions or to
increase the pressure drop over the filter up to the point where the capacity of the filter fan is not
anymore sufficient to pull the gases.
Figure 4 Concept 3
Query:
5. CONCEPT 4
Separate dedusting of the kiln exhaust gas and clinker cooler vent air.
5.1.1 Concept
5.1.1 Concept
Cooling tower before ID fan to reduce the temperature to below 150C during direct operation
Fresh air intake to reduce the gas temperature to below 120C
Jet pulse bag filter; preferably with polyacrylnitrile bags.
5.1.2 Advantages
5.1.2 Advantages
Good mill control because of separate mill fan
Reduced investment and operating cost compared to reverse gas bag filter
Less false air intake and reduced corrosion risk at the filter because of low negative static pressure
(due to 3 fan system).
5.1.3 Disadvantages
5.1.3 Disadvantages
Query:
compound operation
More false air intake into cooling tower and higher corrosion risk because of strong negative static
pressure 860 - 40 mbar) compared to CT after ID fan
Slightly higher pressure drop between ID fan and filter fan because of the raw mill cyclones
Very reliable temperature control required to protect the bags
Higher risk for corrosion at filter because of low operating temperature
With a bad design it is possible that the pressure drop over the filter is increasing to a point where
the capacity of the filter fan is not sufficient anymore to pull the gases.
5.2 Clinker Cooler
See Concept 3.
Figure 5 Concept 4
6. CONCEPT 5
Simultaneous dedusting of the kiln exhaust gas and clinker cooler vent air in one jet pulse filter.
and Clinker Cooler Vent Air
6.1 Kiln Exhaust Gas and Clinker Cooler Vent Air
and Clinker Cooler Vent Air / 6.1.1 Concept
6.1.1 Concept
Reduction of the clinker cooler vent air dust concentration in a cyclone
Direct operation: mixing of the clinker cooler vent air with kiln exhaust gas and reducing the
temperature to below 120C in an air to air heat exchanger
Compound operation: reducing the clinker cooler vent air temperature and mixing it with the
exhaust gas from the raw mill in a air to air heat exchanger
Query:
3 fan system (separate raw mill fan and cyclone)
Jet pulse bag filter preferably with polyacrylnitrile bags
and Clinker Cooler Vent Air / 6.1.2 Advantages
6.1.2 Advantages
Only one filter
No cooling tower
No water injection
Simple temperature control
Reduced gas volume compared to all other solutions
Good mill control because of separate mill fan
Reduced investment and operating cost compared to the other bag filter concepts
Less false air intake and reduced corrosion risk at the filter because of low negative static pressure.
Only one stack
Clinker cooler gas can be used to dry raw material in the raw mill
No visible plume at the stack because of the reduced dew point (no water injection and "dry" clinker
cooler vent air)
No load changes on the ID fan
and Clinker Cooler Vent Air / 6.1.3 Disadvantages
6.1.3 Disadvantages
Because of raw mill cyclones slightly higher pressure drop between ID fan and filter fan
Kiln and clinker cooler not controlled by separate fan
Portion of the clinker cooler dust is mixed with the kiln dust
Figure 38 Concept 5
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C02 - Dedusting / Dedusting Concepts for Cement Kilns / 7. CONCLUSION
7. CONCLUSION
All concepts have certain advantages. Therefore, one cannot produce a ranking without respecting the
individual situation of the plants. Those that require a very reliable dedusting without short time dust
emission peaks should chose a bag filter concept. In case of water shortage the concepts 3 and 5
without cooling tower are most suitable.
In case that bag supply cannot be guaranteed or short time dust emission peaks are accepted EPs
may be the best solution.
If alternative fuels are burnt it is possible that CO peaks are produced more frequently than without,
especially during the commissioning phase of the waste feed equipment. The plants that are burning
alternative fuels or those that are planning to do so are usually under more intensive observation by the
neighbors and the authorities. Frequent dust emission peaks caused by EP CO-shutdown or changes
of process conditions may be very embarrassing when asking for a permission to burn alternative fuels
or when applying for extension of the permit.
Therefore, bag filters, especially the pulse jet type, will for many plants be the preferred solution for the
future.
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance
C03 - Maintenance
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT)
FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT)
CORPORATE PROGRAMS, October 1996
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.1 Objectives and expected Results of the Program MAC
1.2 Content of MAC
1.3 Approach
2. OBJECTIVES
3. CONTENT
4. APPROACH
4.1 Buy-in
4.2 Analysis
4.3 Ownership
4.4 Project-Implementation
4.5 Continuous improvement
5. PROJECT ORGANIZATION AND RESOURCES
5.1 Local resources
5.2 External Support: Peter Chadwick
6. TRAINING
7. COMPUTERIZED MAINTENANCE SYSTEM
8. COST/BENEFIT OF MAC
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT) / 1. EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
There is a gap between the actual state of maintenance in the cement plants of the "Holderbank"
group and what could be expected: Lack of availability of the equipment, upward trend of maintenance
cost and high inventories of spare parts. Corporate Programs of HMC together with four plants of the
Origny group, of Alsen-Breitenburg and of Holnam designed, tested and fine-tuned the focus program
MAC to bridge this gap.
SUMMARY / 1.1 Objectives and expected Results of the Program MAC
1.1 Objectives and expected Results of the Program MAC
MAC is a program to improve substantially the maintenance activity in our cement plants. The objective
is to maximize the total maintenance benefit which consists of three elements:
plant output, measured by a new Key Performance Indicator:
OEE (Overall Equipment Efficiency)
direct maintenance cost
NOA utilized
It is estimated that MAC will have the following impact on those three elements
Short-term
(annualized benefit at the
end of MAC)
Mid-term
(2-3 years after Focus program)
OEE + 5% + 10%
Direct Maintenance Costs - 10% - 25-30%
Spares Inventory - 5% - 20-30%
SUMMARY / 1.2 Content of MAC
1.2 Content of MAC
The program MAC reinforces or introduces a proactive and systematic way of doing maintenance. The
main elements contributing to excellent maintenance can be presented in form of a pyramid
Query:
The fundamental elements are at the bottom. As we move upwards the elements become more
sophisticated. The program MAC results in some elements fully implemented (green color) and some
elements in progress (yellow color).
It must be stressed that the program MAC represents a back-to-basics approach, combined with a
sustainable behaviour change.
SUMMARY / 1.3 Approach
1.3 Approach
The program MAC is structured into four general phases followed by continuous improvement.
Going through those phases guarantees
a shared understanding of the improvement potential of a specific plant
sufficient training for a behaviour change
a solid base for future continuous improvement
The implementation will be done by a local team coached by HMC staff and external consultants.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT) / 2. OBJECTIVES
2. OBJECTIVES
The objective of the focus program MAC is to bridge the gap between the current state of maintenance
Query:
in our cement plants and what could be called excellent or world class maintenance. This means
substantially improving our maintenance activities. Doing so will maximize the Total Maintenance
Benefit (Fig. 1) which consists of three elements:
plant output, measured by a new Key Performance Indicator: OEE
(Overall Equipment Efficiency) - see Fig. 2 for definition
direct maintenance cost
NOA utilized
Fig. 1: Total Maintenace Benefit
OEE as a new Key Performance Indicator in HOLDERBANK is defined as:
Fig. 2: OEE Definition
OEE = Availability x Performance x Quality
OEE therefore gives an indication how well the installed equipment is used. The maintenance activity
has a big impact on the availability; but there is also an impact on the other two factors.
Expected MAC-Impact on Total Maintenance Benefit:
Short term
(annualized benefit at the
end of MAC)
Mid term
(2-3 years after Focus program)
OEE + 5% + 10%
Direct Maintenance
Costs
- 10% - 25-30%
Spares Inventory - 5% - 20-30%
Remarks:
Additional benefits will also be a reduction of replacement - investments due to an increased
equipment-life-time with improved maintenance.
The benefits indicated in the table represent what can be expected on the average of all our plants;
Query:
some individual plants, however, might have higher or lower results depending on what they have
been doing in the past few years.
The OEE-objective represents a potential for additional tons. The realization of this potential,
however, cannot be done by MAC because it depends entirely on the market conditions.
All those objectives are percentages. The impact in USD can be calculated as follows:
OEE-improvement by 5%: Using the price, volume and margin situation 1996 of the Portland plant
of Holnam as a basis, this works out to be an impact of USD 1.89 per short ton or USD 1.7/t.
Maintenance cost: The average maintenance cost in the HBK group is estimated to be around USD
8.--/t. A reduction by 25% therefore has an impact of USD 2.--/t.
Lower inventories: No calculation has been made. Based on German figures the impact is
estimated to be within USD 0.2 to USD 0.5/t.
Taken together the total impact will be between USD 2.2/t (without OEE) and USD 4.2/t (with OEE).
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT) / 3. CONTENT
3. CONTENT
The focus program MAC reinforces or introduces a proactive and systematic way of doing
maintenance by:
Concentration on fundamentals (back-to-basic approach), such as work-orders, machine history,
break-down-analysis etc.
Training on the job of the plant-workforce as well as of the management.
Changing of the behaviour, thereby guaranteeing sustainability.
Building the base for subsequent continuous improvement.
The main elements of world class maintenance can be presented in form of a pyramid (Fig. 3 and
full-size in Appendix 1). This pyramid has been drawn in such a way that the most fundamental
elements are at the bottom. Subsequent layers of "bricks" can only be built on elements already
existing.
Fig. 3: Expected MAC-Attainment
The color code used in this pyramid shows the evolution towards world class maintenance:
Fully installed at the end of the MAC program.
Query:
Status: satisfactory maintenance
Process initiated during the MAC program. Fully installed within 1-2 years
after the MAC program, resulting in good maintenance.
To be addressed in the continuous improvement phase after MAC.
Necessary to achieve world class maintenance.
Input elements for maintenance
To measure the progress and control the systematic application of the maintenance system, a set of
Key Performance Indicators (KPI's) are introduced in the management report system with MAC. These
KPI's are:
OEE: Overall Equipment Efficiency as a factor of:
Availability x Performance x Quality
where
hours total
hours operating
ty Availabili
practice ed demonstrat best
output actual
e Performanc
1 Quality
(to be defined with MAC)
Work-Order Coverage: Ratio of available direct maintenance hours to hours
covered by work-orders
Maintenance Productivity: Ratio of earned standard labor hours compared to
planned hours.
Backlog: Amount of total direct maintenance hours needed to do
all pending jobs on work-orders
Direct Maintenance Costs: as the sum of:
material cost
labour cost
subcontracted services used in maintenance.
Direct maintenance costs should be also split into:
a) current maintenance
b) major repairs
Spare parts inventory: indicating the amount of all spares on inventory.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT) / 4. APPROACH
4. APPROACH
In order to realize the necessary change, there has to be an approach with a twin focus on technical
systems development and people organizational development as shown in Fig. 4.
Query:
Fig. 4: The development of world class performance in maintenance
Based on the information gathered so far most of our plants seem to be in stage 1. The MAC program
will bring them to stage 2 or 3 depending on their actual status. Stage 5 - required for world class
maintenance - will be achieved within 3 to 5 years after MAC, with the consequent usage and further
development of the elements in the pyramid.
In each plant the MAC program will run through five phases as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5: Basic Approach
Those five phases can be described as follows:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT) / 4. APPROACH / 4.1
Buy-in
4.1 Buy-in
to the need and benefits of such a program by management at company and plant level, through a
shared understanding of the improvement-opportunities. This buy-in phase consists of two steps:
a) A company-visit to:
present MAC to the local management
get familiar with the actual situation and the specific needs of maintenance
propose and discuss the steps needed to carry out the analysis and
ownership phases
Based on the result of that visit, local management will decide how to proceed with MAC in their
Query:
company-specific case.
b) A preparation of plant staff for the analysis with the objective to get commitment to the process as
well as to integrate/co-ordinate other ongoing initiatives in the plant with MAC. Part of this
preparation phase should be a visit to a plant where MAC is actually implemented. This will show
the approach in praxis and help to understand better the whole process.
Analysis
4.2 Analysis
of the plant to determine on the one hand specific potentials in the areas of increased output,
maintenance cost reduction and spare-parts reduction. On the other hand to identify the detailed
implementation approach required to realize the potentials.
Ownership
4.3 Ownership
of the project by company and plant management and full commitment to the potentials and therefore
objectives of the project.
Based on the cost/benefit-ratio a decision how to proceed with the project will be made by local
management.
Project-Implementation
4.4 Project-Implementation
with the 3 steps of:
a) Joint definition in detail of the problems, obstacles, tools and skills to be tackled.
b) Participative development and installation of the systems, processes and behaviours to be
improved, in the form of cross-functional teams, each focusing on one of the three aspects of the
overall maintenance benefit.
c) Transition of activities from a project base to incorporation in the day-to-day activities at all levels of
the plant and company, thereby fine-tuning them to adapt fully to the individual needs. By including
them in the day-to-day activities and closing the information loop through the different levels of
hierarchy the activities are essentially being sustained and can lead to the next phase.
Continuous improvement
4.5 Continuous improvement
of the maintenance level and results achieved to attain world class maintenance in the medium to
long-term.
The MAC program requires between 6 to 9 months per plant, depending on the actual situation of its
maintenance activities and the readiness of management and staff to embrace change.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT) / 5. PROJECT
ORGANIZATION AND RESOURCES
Query:
5. PROJECT ORGANIZATION AND RESOURCES
A key success factor to achieve a sustainable improvement is the continuous take over of project
activities into the day-to-day business. To support that process the typical project organization (see
Fig. 6) is integrated into and works within the actual structure and not in parallel.
Fig. 6: Typical Project Organization
To implement the MAC program in a plant requires a substantial number of resources. As indicated in
the organization chart in Fig. 6 the Support Team (4-6 people) should comprise local resources
working together with HMC staff and external consultants. There were and are two reasons for working
with an external consultant: Know-how transfer and need of resources. The external consultant chosen
- Peter Chadwick Ltd. - provides both: down-to-earth know-how in maintenance and trained consultants
willing and able to work in all parts of the world.
ORGANIZATION AND RESOURCES / 5.1 Local resources
5.1 Local resources
The majority of the resources will come from the companies themselves. Therefore early on a list of
potential candidates must be established, a selection made and the necessary training (see section 5)
given.
One of the beneficial consequences of the focus program MAC will be the creation of a group of very
skilled individuals in the area of organization, planning and implementation in HMC and the companies.
These individuals will develop into maintenance, production and plant management positions, or
higher, in the future, thereby facilitating succession planning in management.
ORGANIZATION AND RESOURCES / 5.2 External Support: Peter Chadwick
5.2 External Support: Peter Chadwick
The know-how and skills for the maintenance program and specifically for the behaviour change
required to perpetuate the results is provided by Peter Chadwick Ltd. Initially all plant projects will be
led by consultants from Peter Chadwick. In a second phase HMC and company staff will take on more
importance in the support teams, to ultimately be able to run these projects without any Peter
Chadwick support. This take-over from Peter Chadwick will depend upon the availability of trained
local- and HMC-resources.
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT) / 6. TRAINING
6. TRAINING
A number of training workshop modules (see Fig. 7) have been developed to properly prepare support
team members or provide the context and conceptual groundwork for company and plant staff during
the project. These modules on their own can not create the behaviour change required to achieve the
sustainability of results - this is only done through the continuous on-the-floor involvement, coaching of
management and employees and utilization of tools and skills - but it creates the framework and
conceptual understanding to improve acceptance of change.
Fig. 7: Training Modules
Most of the training, however, will be done on the job and will be given by the external consultants and
the HMC staff.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT) / 7. COMPUTERIZED
MAINTENANCE SYSTEM
7. COMPUTERIZED MAINTENANCE SYSTEM
As shown in the maintenance pyramid, the element "computerized maintenance systems" is located in
level 4 and therefore not directly targeted by MAC. However, during the analysis the project team will
check how efficient an eventually existents system is used and define the needs to optimize the usage
if possible. The experience so far has clearly shown the need "go back" and practice with the
maintenance staff the systematic application of the redefined maintenance manually, that means with
"paper and pencil"! The move towards a "computerized maintenance system" should only be done,
when all the user know how to use system elements like work orders and reports in their daily routine.
As many of our companies are in the process of installing SAP, a special task force is actually working
with SAP with the objective to give a clear recommendation how MAC and SAP links together. So far it
has been concluded, that (whenever possible) MAC should be done:
a) before installing PM module, and
b) in close coordination with the SAP project group.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / FOCUS PROGRAM MAC (MAINTENANCE CEMENT) / 8. COST/BENEFIT OF
MAC
Query:
8. COST/BENEFIT OF MAC
The one-time investment for the program would lie between USD 0,7 and USD 1,0 per ton of cement.
This investment is to be compared with the projected saving of USD 2.5 to 4.2, half of which should be
achieved at the end of the formal MAC project. These figures are estimates based upon experiences in
the pilot plants. The specific costs and savings for each plant are estimated at the end of each analysis
phase as basis whether or not to go for MAC.
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements
The Maintenance Elements
1. MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS PYRAMID
1.1 Description
1.2 Purpose
1.3 Examples
2. CRITICAL ASSET
2.1 Description
2.2 Purpose
2.3 Examples
3. WORKS ORDER SYSTEM
3.1 Description
3.2 Purpose
3.3 Examples
4. DAILY / WEEKLY PLAN
4.1 Maintenance Master Schedule
4.2 Weekly Plan
4.3 Daily Plan
5. MAINTENANCE KPIS
5.1 Description
5.2 Purpose
5.3 Examples
6. DAILY MAINTENANCE REPORT
6.1 Description
6.2 Purpose
6.3 Examples
7. MAINTENANCE COST STRUCTURE
7.1 Description
7.2 Purpose
7.3 Examples
Query:
7.4 Description
7.5 Purpose
7.6 Examples
8. PRODUCTION PLAN
8.1 Description
8.2 Purpose
9. SPARES POLICY & MANAGEMENT
9.1 Description
9.2 Purpose
9.3 Examples
10. STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS
10.1 Description
10.2 Purpose
10.3 Examples
11. ASSET HISTORY SYSTEM
11.1 Description
11.2 Purpose
11.3 Examples
12. WEEKLY MAINTENANCE REPORT
12.1 Description
12.2 Purpose
12.3 Examples
13. MAINTENANCE COST REPORT
13.1 Description
13.2 Purpose
13.3 Examples
14. RESOURCE SKILLS MATRIX
14.1 Description
14.2 Purpose
14.3 Examples
15. BUDGET
15.1 Description
15.2 Purpose
Query:
15.3 Examples
16. BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM)
16.1 Description
16.2 Purpose
16.3 Examples
17. MAINTENANCE MASTER SCHEDULE
17.1 Description
17.2 Purpose
17.3 Examples
17.4 Overview
17.5 Description
17.6 Purpose
17.7 Examples
18. FMEA / RCM
18.1 Description
18.2 Purpose
19. RCM APPROACH
20. MTBF / MTTR / MTBCF
20.1 Description
20.2 Purpose
20.3 Examples
20.4 MTBF (Hours)
20.5 MTTR (Hours)
20.6 MTBCF (Hours)
21. PREDICTIVE ROUTINES / CONDITION BASED MONITORING
21.1 Description
21.2 Purpose
21.3 Examples
22. PLANT MASTER PLAN
22.1 Description
22.2 Purpose
23. MULTI-SKILLING
23.1 Description
Query:
23.2 Purpose
23.3 Examples
23.4 Description
23.5 Purpose
23.6 Examples
24. COMPUTERIZED MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
24.1 Description
24.2 Purpose
24.3 Examples
25. AUTONOMOUS MAINTENANCE
25.1 Description
25.2 Purpose
25.3 Examples
26. BUSINESS PLAN
26.1 Description
26.2 Purpose
27. AREA WORK TEAMS
27.1 Description
27.2 Purpose
28. PROCESS MAINTENANCE TEAMS
28.1 Description
28.2 Purpose
28.3 Examples
28.4 Description
28.5 Purpose
28.6 Examples
28.7 Examples
29. INTEGRATED PROCESS / MAINTENANCE SYSTEM
29.1 Description
29.2 Purpose
29.3 Examples
30. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 1. MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS PYRAMID
1. MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS PYRAMID
Asset Numbering System (HAC/PNS)
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 1. MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS PYRAMID /
1.1 Description
1.1 Description
Unique asset numbering system describing :
All assets (to the lowest discrete maintainable level)
Its physical location
The equipment numbering system should be consistent for a plant and ideally, but not necessarily,
across the whole business
1.2 Purpose
1.2 Purpose
Allow tracking of reliability, activity and costs against each item of maintainable asset
It is a requirement for basic history reporting
1.3 Examples
1.3 Examples
HAC, PNS Code
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 2. CRITICAL ASSET
2. CRITICAL ASSET
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 2. CRITICAL ASSET / 2.1 Description
2.1 Description
Query:
Failure of the asset (for more than n hours) interrupts production of the finished product
Failure of the asset may result in a failure to meet legislative, safety or environmental requirements
Failure to repair the asset immediately will result in significant damage to that or another item of
equipment
No other back-up equipment is available
The equipment requires special or external attention
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 2. CRITICAL ASSET / 2.2 Purpose
2.2 Purpose
To focus and prioritize maintenance effort for maximum gain
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 2. CRITICAL ASSET / 2.3 Examples
2.3 Examples
Kiln Girth Gear, Mill Drive, Cooler Grates
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 3. WORKS ORDER SYSTEM
3. WORKS ORDER SYSTEM
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 3. WORKS ORDER SYSTEM / 3.1 Description
3.1 Description
Information and control system providing :
- Instruction to perform a task
- The priority of the task
- Task description
- Feedback of what was done, lost time and parts used
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 3. WORKS ORDER SYSTEM / 3.2 Purpose
3.2 Purpose
Controls and monitors maintenance activity
Provides an auditable trail for all jobs
Provides feed to other information systems
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 3. WORKS ORDER SYSTEM / 3.3 Examples
3.3 Examples
Mapcon / SAP / Marcam / etc. Works Order System
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 4. DAILY / WEEKLY PLAN
Query:
4. DAILY / WEEKLY PLAN
LEVELS OF MAINTENANCE PLANNING
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 4. DAILY / WEEKLY PLAN / 4.1 Maintenance
Master Schedule
4.1 Maintenance Master Schedule
Capacity and Resource Planning
Medium Term (13 weeks)
What-If Modeling
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 4. DAILY / WEEKLY PLAN / 4.2 Weekly Plan
4.2 Weekly Plan
Weekly Scheduling
Task Prioritization
Planning of skills, resource and equipment requirements
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 4. DAILY / WEEKLY PLAN / 4.3 Daily Plan
4.3 Daily Plan
Allocation of tasks to individuals
Flexing of the plan on a daily basis
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 5. MAINTENANCE KPIS
5. MAINTENANCE KPIS
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 5. MAINTENANCE KPIS / 5.1 Description
5.1 Description
The key operational performance measurements which can be used to manage Maintenance or an
area within Maintenance
Query:
A KPI should have a base, plan and target
For a KPI to be useful it should be timely and capable of being influenced by the person using it
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 5. MAINTENANCE KPIS / 5.2 Purpose
5.2 Purpose
Allows performance to be measured and reviewed
Enables good fact based business decisions
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 5. MAINTENANCE KPIS / 5.3 Examples
5.3 Examples
Management Report, Daily/Weekly Operating Report (DOOR)
and Short Interval Controls
OEE, Availability, Performance, etc.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 6. DAILY MAINTENANCE REPORT
6. DAILY MAINTENANCE REPORT
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 6. DAILY MAINTENANCE REPORT / 6.1
Description
6.1 Description
Timely reporting of plan attainment of maintenance activities and equipment performance including
cause of variation
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 6. DAILY MAINTENANCE REPORT / 6.2 Purpose
6.2 Purpose
To allow structured review and to assign corrective actions to improve towards the agreed target
levels
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 6. DAILY MAINTENANCE REPORT / 6.3
Examples
6.3 Examples
SIC Log sheet
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 7. MAINTENANCE COST STRUCTURE
7. MAINTENANCE COST STRUCTURE
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 7. MAINTENANCE COST STRUCTURE / 7.1
Description
7.1 Description
Definition of the level of detail for cost reporting
Query:
Purpose
7.2 Purpose
Systematic cost roll up to enable analysis and reporting on all required asset levels
Examples
7.3 Examples
SHORT INTERVAL CONTROL (SIC)
Description
7.4 Description
Regular monitoring and control of a process or activity
The frequency of SIC should reflect the span of control that an individual has to influence the
process or activity
Purpose
7.5 Purpose
To identify problems early and prevent them of becoming
bigger ones
Examples
7.6 Examples
Maintenance activities
Operation performance [t/h]
Maintenance costs
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 8. PRODUCTION PLAN
8. PRODUCTION PLAN
[Input Element to Maintenance System]
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 8. PRODUCTION PLAN / 8.1 Description
8.1 Description
A Weekly Plan indicating production requirements for the week should be broken down into Daily
Plans indicating target production levels
The Production Plan should be linked to the Maintenance Plan to identify the agreed equipment
availability for both maintenance activities and production needs
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 8. PRODUCTION PLAN / 8.2 Purpose
8.2 Purpose
To support the co-ordination of activities and requirements between Production and Maintenance
Note: The production plan is not a development of MAC. However the production plan is an
important input to the maintenance system as described above. The maintenance system as
developed by MAC will feed the production plan with more accurate information and therefor help to
improve its content.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 9. SPARES POLICY & MANAGEMENT
9. SPARES POLICY & MANAGEMENT
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 9. SPARES POLICY & MANAGEMENT / 9.1
Description
9.1 Description
Spares policy and management takes into account:
Spares criticality
Lead-Time of critical spares
Economic Order and Stocking Quantities
Query:
Parts Availability and Quality
Inter-plant parts sharing agreements
Systematical planning and control (reporting) of spare parts in order to maximize availability and
minimize cost
Purpose
9.2 Purpose
To maximize critical equipment availability at minimum cost
A stocking policy is a pre-requisite for maintaining a spares management system
Examples
9.3 Examples
Decision whether or not to store a kiln tyre
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 10. STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS
10. STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 10. STANDARDS & SPECIFICATIONS / 10.1
Description
10.1 Description
Standard short Description of a planned or routine maintenance activity like :
What needs to be done
How it should be performed
The optimum time to complete it
How many people are required
What skill or trade is required
What materials & tooling
Quality and safety requirements
Standard short description of failure cause
Standard short description of lost time causes
Purpose
10.2 Purpose
To enable the identification of lost time and to provide clear and consistent instruction of the best
way to perform a task.
Clear identification of failure causes in order to make statistical analysis
Examples
Query:
10.3 Examples
Instructions for a routine inspection or tensioning of a belt
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 11. ASSET HISTORY SYSTEM
11. ASSET HISTORY SYSTEM
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 11. ASSET HISTORY SYSTEM / 11.1 Description
11.1 Description
A performance history record for each item of asset including:
Downtime and number of failure
Descriptions of major failures
Causes for those failures
Maintenance activities performed
Maintenance costs
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 11. ASSET HISTORY SYSTEM / 11.2 Purpose
11.2 Purpose
Allows the simple analysis showing basic history and performance of all assets.
Supports strategic or capital decisions.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 11. ASSET HISTORY SYSTEM / 11.3 Examples
11.3 Examples
Equipment performance log book
Work Order History
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 12. WEEKLY MAINTENANCE REPORT
12. WEEKLY MAINTENANCE REPORT
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 12. WEEKLY MAINTENANCE REPORT / 12.1
Description
12.1 Description
Timely reporting of maintenance KPIs to allow the review and analysis of maintenance activity and
equipment performance.
Purpose
12.2 Purpose
To allow structured review and to assign corrective actions to improve towards the agreed target
levels
Query:
Examples
12.3 Examples
Maintenance KPI Report.
Management Report
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 13. MAINTENANCE COST REPORT
13. MAINTENANCE COST REPORT
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 13. MAINTENANCE COST REPORT / 13.1
Description
13.1 Description
A life-cycle cost analysis system to determine the true costs of operating and maintaining an item
of asset.
Purpose
13.2 Purpose
To enable improved decision making including repair, replacement or re-engineer decisions.
Examples
13.3 Examples
Cost Report out of machine history (top ten spendings)
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 14. RESOURCE SKILLS MATRIX
14. RESOURCE SKILLS MATRIX
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 14. RESOURCE SKILLS MATRIX / 14.1
Description
14.1 Description
Matrix identifying the skills needed for all people who perform maintenance activities.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 14. RESOURCE SKILLS MATRIX / 14.2 Purpose
14.2 Purpose
To identify the skills base, needs /gaps and training requirements for an individual or group of
people in order to optimize skills flexibility.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 14. RESOURCE SKILLS MATRIX / 14.3
Examples
Query:
14.3 Examples
Human Resource Training records.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 15. BUDGET
15. BUDGET
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 15. BUDGET / 15.1 Description
15.1 Description
The Budget should explicitly identify projected maintenance costs by period including:
Labor
Materials
Spare parts
Major Project
Contractors
The Budget should be linked to the planned KPIs levels.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 15. BUDGET / 15.2 Purpose
15.2 Purpose
To identify and plan maintenance costs and to set operating targets.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 15. BUDGET / 15.3 Examples
15.3 Examples
Annual maintenance budget
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 16. BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM)
16. BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM)
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 16. BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM) / 16.1
Description
16.1 Description
Explosion of all of the parts and consumables, to the level of each purchasable item, required to
maintain an item of asset.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 16. BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM) / 16.2 Purpose
16.2 Purpose
To identify the parts required to perform all maintenance activities.
Maintenance Planning and Stock Management.
Maintainability improvement.
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 16. BILL OF MATERIALS (BOM) / 16.3 Examples
16.3 Examples
Asset - Spare Part identification/relation, (HAC-PNS)
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 17. MAINTENANCE MASTER SCHEDULE
17. MAINTENANCE MASTER SCHEDULE
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 17. MAINTENANCE MASTER SCHEDULE / 17.1
Description
17.1 Description
A long term plan (3 month) indicating all maintenance activities and the resources required to
complete them, considering :
Labor Availability
Labor Productivity
Planned / Predictive Maintenance Routines
Task Priorities
Materials and Spare Parts Availability
Purpose
17.2 Purpose
To identify maintenance resource requirements and to optimize maintenance efforts.
Examples
17.3 Examples
13 week Master Schedule for the cement grinding area
Overview
17.4 Overview
Query:
PLANNED MAINTENANCE ROUTINES (PMRs)
Description
17.5 Description
Routine activities designed to minimize the risk of unplanned failures, including:
Routine overhauls
Fixed frequency replacement of parts or equipment
Purpose
17.6 Purpose
To minimize unnecessary downtime and increase predictability by reducing the level of unplanned
maintenance.
Examples
17.7 Examples
Replacement of Cement Mill liners every 20000 hrs. of production.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 18. FMEA / RCM
18. FMEA / RCM
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 18. FMEA / RCM / 18.1 Description
18.1 Description
Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an analytical tool to systematically establish the failure
mode and effect of a failure.
Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM) is a process, utilizing FMEA, for determining what
maintenance, if any, should be performed in order to respond to the demands for :
Safe Operation
Environmental Protection
Production Quality
Plant Availability
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 18. FMEA / RCM / 18.2 Purpose
18.2 Purpose
To proactively identify the optimum maintenance activity.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 19. RCM APPROACH
Query:
19. RCM APPROACH
A continuous process for determining the optimum preventive maintenance plan for
each item of plant in its operating context.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 20. MTBF / MTTR / MTBCF
20. MTBF / MTTR / MTBCF
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 20. MTBF / MTTR / MTBCF / 20.1 Description
20.1 Description
Indicators to measure maintenance effectiveness
Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF)
Indication of the average time between failure for an item of asset.
Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)
Indication of the average downtime duration for an item of asset.
Mean Time Between Cause & Failure (MTBCF)
Indication of the MTBF by specific cause.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 20. MTBF / MTTR / MTBCF / 20.2 Purpose
20.2 Purpose
To measure and focus on the correct alignment of maintenance activity.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 20. MTBF / MTTR / MTBCF / 20.3 Examples
20.3 Examples
Focus Maintenance activities in the Bottle Neck area.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 20. MTBF / MTTR / MTBCF / 20.4 MTBF (Hours)
20.4 MTBF (Hours)
Query:
Total Time Controlled - Duration of Breakdowns
________________________________________
Number of Breakdowns
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 20. MTBF / MTTR / MTBCF / 20.5 MTTR (Hours)
20.5 MTTR (Hours)
Cumulative Downtime
_____________________
Number of Breakdowns
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 20. MTBF / MTTR / MTBCF / 20.6 MTBCF (Hours)
20.6 MTBCF (Hours)
Total Time Controlled - Duration of Breakdowns by Cause
_________________________________________________
Number of Breakdowns due to that cause
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 21. PREDICTIVE ROUTINES / CONDITION
BASED MONITORING
21. PREDICTIVE ROUTINES / CONDITION BASED MONITORING
BASED MONITORING / 21.1 Description
21.1 Description
Predictive inspection routines, condition based monitoring and condition based maintenance to
asses the condition of equipment to predict failure and perform planned maintenance activities.
BASED MONITORING / 21.2 Purpose
21.2 Purpose
To minimize the level of intrusive maintenance.
To optimize the use of asset lifetime.
BASED MONITORING / 21.3 Examples
21.3 Examples
Oil analysis to determine change.
Vibration measurement to determine the optimal time to replace a rolling bearing.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 22. PLANT MASTER PLAN
22. PLANT MASTER PLAN
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 22. PLANT MASTER PLAN / 22.1 Description
22.1 Description
A long term plan (1 to 3 year) indicating :
Production Requirements
Labor Availability
Training Plan
Major Maintenance Activities
Investments
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 22. PLANT MASTER PLAN / 22.2 Purpose
22.2 Purpose
To identify planned major maintenance activities and investments in order to optimize resource
requirements (capital, people, training).
Note: The Plant Master Plan is not a development of MAC. However the Plant Master Plan is an
important input to the maintenance system as described above. The maintenance system as
developed by MAC will make a sound base for updating the Plant Master Plan.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 23. MULTI-SKILLING
23. MULTI-SKILLING
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 23. MULTI-SKILLING / 23.1 Description
23.1 Description
Training of all operational employees in the core maintenance skills either between Process
Operators and Maintenance Technicians or between different trades.
Note : Multi-Skilling does not mean that everyone should be expected to do everything.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 23. MULTI-SKILLING / 23.2 Purpose
23.2 Purpose
To maximize labor utilization.
Basic requirement for Autonomous Maintenance
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 23. MULTI-SKILLING / 23.3 Examples
23.3 Examples
Quarry truck drivers doing their own oil changes.
Production doing daily inspection.
SHUTDOWN CYCLE TIME COMPRESSION (CTC)
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 23. MULTI-SKILLING / 23.4 Description
23.4 Description
Approach for planning, controlling and reviewing activities during a shutdown period in order to
minimize downtime:
Critical path planning to identify and manage parallel or critical activities
Value Added (VA) / Non-Value Added (NVA) analysis to identify and remove non-essential
activities.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 23. MULTI-SKILLING / 23.5 Purpose
23.5 Purpose
To minimize equipment downtime by identifying activities which can be performed outside of a
shutdown or in parallel
To minimize equipment downtime by improving maintainability.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 23. MULTI-SKILLING / 23.6 Examples
23.6 Examples
Kiln shut down
Mill shut down
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 24. COMPUTERIZED MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
24. COMPUTERIZED MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
/ 24.1 Description
24.1 Description
Integrated, comprehensive maintenance management system linked to all of the other relevant
business systems including purchasing, stock control, engineering & finance.
/ 24.2 Purpose
24.2 Purpose
To automate the development and management of maintenance information.
Note : It is only appropriate to fully automate the maintenance system once it has been developed,
tested and utilized in a live application.
/ 24.3 Examples
24.3 Examples
Mapcon / SAP / Marcam / JDE / etc.
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 25. AUTONOMOUS MAINTENANCE
25. AUTONOMOUS MAINTENANCE
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 25. AUTONOMOUS MAINTENANCE / 25.1
Description
25.1 Description
High frequency maintenance tasks which can be performed routinely by the immediate operator,
outside the control of the planning system. Often utilizing check sheets or where the operator does
not need to be told to do a task.
Dependent upon behavioral change and true ownership of the process.
Purpose
25.2 Purpose
To devolve and simplify maintenance tasks.
Examples
25.3 Examples
Simple lubrication, cleaning to identify contamination, gauge marking.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 26. BUSINESS PLAN
26. BUSINESS PLAN
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 26. BUSINESS PLAN / 26.1 Description
26.1 Description
A long term plan (5 year) indicating the company's strategies and activities, and the resources
required to complete them, considering :
Market Development
Business Focus
Labor Availability
Training Plan
Investments
KPIs Targets
Mission
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 26. BUSINESS PLAN / 26.2 Purpose
26.2 Purpose
Query:
To manage direction of business.
To identify operation resource requirements and to optimize operation efforts.
Note: The Business Plan is not a development of MAC. However the Business Plan is an important
input to the maintenance system as described above. The maintenance system as developed by
MAC will make a sound base for updating the Business Plan.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 27. AREA WORK TEAMS
27. AREA WORK TEAMS
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 27. AREA WORK TEAMS / 27.1 Description
27.1 Description
Individuals from the Maintenance and Process functions aligned to an area responsible for the
operation, maintenance and improvement of all assets in that area, supported by specialists
(assessor) when required.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 27. AREA WORK TEAMS / 27.2 Purpose
27.2 Purpose
To create ownership of the process and to ensure continuous improvements.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 28. PROCESS MAINTENANCE TEAMS
28. PROCESS MAINTENANCE TEAMS
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 28. PROCESS MAINTENANCE TEAMS / 28.1
Description
28.1 Description
A Multi-Functional Team replacing discrete or Cross-Functional Maintenance and Process Operator
teams.
Everyone is a Maintainer Operator.
Purpose
28.2 Purpose
To minimize maintenance cost whilst maximizing flexibility.
Examples
28.3 Examples
Query:
RISK BASED MAINTENANCE (RBM)
Description
28.4 Description
Extension of the RCM process to determine the optimum maintenance approach based upon cost
and reliability requirements within a changing environment.
Purpose
28.5 Purpose
To achieve the optimum operational cost for a business.
Examples
28.6 Examples
When there are no sales and the silo is full, why incur the cost of fixing an item of asset?
Examples
28.7 Examples
Risk Profile
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 29. INTEGRATED PROCESS / MAINTENANCE
SYSTEM
29. INTEGRATED PROCESS / MAINTENANCE SYSTEM
SYSTEM / 29.1 Description
29.1 Description
Systems developed and utilized for process control used to take maintenance decisions. These
would include expert systems, rate loss and downtime accounting systems.
Query:
SYSTEM / 29.2 Purpose
29.2 Purpose
To return rate to optimum or to predict the deterioration of plant condition in order to identify
maintenance requirements.
SYSTEM / 29.3 Examples
29.3 Examples
Computerized maintenance system linked with a fully developed TIS
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The Maintenance Elements / 30. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
30. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
MAC MAintenance Cement
KPI Key Performance Indicator
ESLH Earned Standard Labor Hours
W/Os Works Orders
BOM Bill of Materials
CTC Cycle Time Compression
SIC Short Interval Control
PM Preventive Maintenance
PDM Predictive Maintenance
CBM Condition Based Monitoring
FMEA Failure Mode Effect Analysis
RCM Reliability Centered Maintenance
OEE Overall Equipment Efficiency
MTBF Mean Time Between Failure
MTTR Mean Time To Repair
MTBCF Mean Time Between Cause and Failure
RbM Risk based Maintenance
HAC Holderbank Asset Code
PNS Part Numbering System
TIS Technical Information System
DWOR Daily / Weekly Operating Report
PMR Planned Maintenance Routines
Query:
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / The main focus of MAC: Equipment efficiency, Maintenance Systems,
Spares Management
The main focus of MAC: Equipment efficiency, Maintenance Systems,
Spares Management
1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT
1.1 Team Development
1.2 Design engineers have the skill to design the car ...
1.3 The driver competes on the track ...
1.5 The team
1.6 If Design ignored input ...
1.7 The driver ignored the pit ....
1.8 And the pit team only focused on their needs ....
1.9 Successful and winning teams work together
1.10 Both the driver and the pit team have input into design
1.11 As the car is developed there are constant reviews of progress
1.12 It is not difficult to draw the parallel to cement production ...
1.13 Motor racing uses indicators to measure performance ....
1.14 Under the MAC we do not want complex measures of performance ...
1.15 A common unit of measure helps establish where we are and where we want to be
2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS
2.1 Why do we need effective maintenance systems?
2.2 Sailing a small ship within sight of shore requires little data - just the weather report perhaps
2.3 But in times of danger data is vital...
2.4 Behavioural Change
2.5 The need for behavioural change
2.6 Control the whole...
2.7 THREE TYPES OF BUSINESS SYSTEMS
2.8 What systems do
2.9 There are three major maintenance activities
2.10 Can we answer some of the following questions
Query:
2.11 Short Interval Control
2.12 PERFORMANCE SYSTEMS
2.13 BASIC SYSTEM ELEMENTS
2.14 THE COMMUNICATIONS STRUCTURE
2.15 SYSTEM CONCEPTS
2.16 Typical phases
2.17 SYSTEM CONCEPTS - GENERIC MGMT. CONTROL
2.18 What do Management Control systems do for our business?
2.19 Control the whole... by controlling the parts
3. SPARES MANAGEMENT
3.1 THE NEED TO BE COMPETITIVE
3.2 The financial performance of any plant can be evaluated by a simple formula
3.3 Costs are made up of many things, one of which is the costs of the spares held
3.4 Some of those will be critical
3.5 One area often neglected in operations is the quality of maintenance spares held
3.6 Where do we begin?
3.7 Set the policy
3.8 Spares Management is juggling
3.9 Spares Management is understanding
3.10 The Objective - Financial
3.11 The Objective - Operational
3.12 To manage spares we must understand spares
3.13 The two steps in bringing greater control to spares holdings
3.14 The 20 / 80 theory
3.15 COST
3.16 MOVEMENT
3.17 Stock Rotation
3.18 It is useful for the MAC teams to overlay certain definitions as they consider cost
3.19 ONGOING CONTROL
3.20 INDICATORS
3.21 THE KEY TO SUCCESS
Query:
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT
1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.1 Team Development
1.1 Team Development
The principles that underpin the concept of OEE (Overall Equipment Efficiency) can be vividly
illustrated by turning to the world of motor racing.
Motor manufacturers assemble a team with the sole objective of winning Formula One Grand Prixs
and if possible, the World series. A Team Manager is selected and he is instrumental in selecting the
various people he will need to achieve the goal. It is interesting to note that although racing drivers
themselves are celebrities in their own right, the goal is for the Manufacturing team to win.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.2 Design engineers have the skill to design the car ...
1.2 Design engineers have the skill to design the car ...
The design team will be drawn from engineers with many different disciplines. There will be those who
specialise in suspension systems. Others will be experts in aerodynamics, focusing on the vital job of
reducing wind resistance. Others will specialise in the various aspects of engine manufacture, from
Query:
ignition systems to lubrication systems. Each very knowledgeable in their own field.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.3 The driver competes on the track ...
A Formula One driver who is successful is a celebrity. They seek fame and are blessed with a not
inconsiderable amount of ego. They have to have skill - and courage, yet they must also have patience
so that when lying in second place they can tactically choose the right point at which to challenge for
the lead. They must know their machines and know the various circuits that go up to make the world
series.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.4 The driver competes on the track ...
Mechanics, like the engineers, will come from different disciplines. They are responsible for preparing
the vehicle for the race and for maintaining it during the race. They need to be able to handle the
stress of working under extreme pressure when a pit stop occurs and be able to work as part of a
team.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.5 The team
1.5 The team
Query:
Many different disciplines, many different personalities, all focused toward achieving victory. At the
moment of victory the driver is the one who wears the laurels and gets the champagne. The team are
left to celebrate away from the limelight and television cameras. Yet all participated in the victory.
Victory would not - could not - be gained unless each had built their own personalities and skills into
the achievement of one common goal - crossing the line first in one of the most competitive arenas that
it is possible to envisage. But it could all have been so very different.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.6 If Design ignored input ...
1.6 If Design ignored input ...
Imagine how it would have been if the design team had totally ignored the needs of the remainder of
the team. Lets concentrate on designing a car that we like - that is a marvel of engineering - but not
really suited to Formula One, let alone winning. Sometimes design niceties have to be sacrificed
because of a maintenance requirement that will allow the pit team to meet the stringent times required
for a pit stop if there is to be any hope of being in the first five - let alone out in front. Driver needs must
be catered for. What use is a superb car if the driver becomes so fatigued that concentration has failed
by the fifth lap.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.7 The driver ignored the pit ....
1.7 The driver ignored the pit ....
Query:
Even when in front there are times when the car just has to come in for maintenance. It would be very
little use for the driver to go blasting past the pit, when signalled to come in, then break down halfway
round the circuit. At any given moment there will be decisions to be made that are in the interest of the
goal of the team, not individual needs.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.8 And the pit team only focused on their needs ....
1.8 And the pit team only focused on their needs ....
There are often moments when, just having completed one pit stop, the car has to come back in again.
Weather conditions might change quite dramatically and what were the right tyres one lap earlier are
now totally unsuited for the new conditions. When this happens the pit team must effect a pit change
on successive laps.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.9 Successful and winning teams work together
1.9 Successful and winning teams work together
Query:
To be successful a team must all work together to meet the common goal - victory. Ideas must be
shared. When a pit stop is taking too long then it has to be examined in detail, using everyones input.
Is it a design problem or a skill problem with members of the pit team? Is it a method change thats
required - or an engineering change? Personalities no longer count. Always the common goal of victory
keeps the team focused on the goal.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.10 Both the driver and the pit team have input into design
1.10 Both the driver and the pit team have input into design
Problems are discussed and new ideas tried out, first in theory, then in practice. If engineering input is
required then the engineering specialist will attend the groups discussion. The problem is a team
problem. The common function is winning - everything and everyone is secondary to that.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.11 As the car is developed there are constant reviews of
progress
1.11 As the car is developed there are constant reviews of progress
Query:
When the solution is found everyone included in the problem solving process is congratulated. There is
only one common measurement for team success - winning. Because the measurement is so visible
there can be no one function that is successful at the expense of the others. There may be secondary
measurements under the umbrella of winning, for example the time taken for a pit stop, the top speed
of the vehicle, the number of laps completed without breakdown, but each one of these indicators
needs the input of more than one function in the solution. More importantly, no one function can solve
its own problems at the expense of the others.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.12 It is not difficult to draw the parallel to cement
production ...
1.12 It is not difficult to draw the parallel to cement production ...
It is not too difficult to draw the comparison between the world of Formula One and the less glamorous
but more practical world of the cement industry. The roles are very very close to the roles undertaken
in Formula One. The skills required are also very similar. The need to measure performance by the
team remains the same need in cement business performance as it does in Formula One - a single
overall indicator supported by other indicators for problem solving.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.13 Motor racing uses indicators to measure performance
....
1.13 Motor racing uses indicators to measure performance ....
Query:
As we have already seen, the world of Formula One uses these series of indicators to measure
performance. In production we need the total overall indicator by which the team - as a whole - can
measure degrees of success and benchmark themselves against the competition.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.14 Under the MAC we do not want complex measures of
performance ...
1.14 Under the MAC we do not want complex measures of performance ...
These indicators must be straightforward and reasonably simple to understand. Just as the Team
Manager will look at lap times in Formula One (Short Interval Control) so we need something that is
reasonably easy to calculate so that we can measure business performance on a short interval basis
also. Trying to calculate the amount of oil in the gearbox by weighing the vehicle and subtracting from it
the manufacturers specified weight is not an indicator that will be useful and straightforward.
Spares Management / 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OEE CONCEPT / 1.15 A common unit of measure helps establish where we are
and where we want to be
1.15 A common unit of measure helps establish where we are and where we want to be
Query:
In the process of MAC such an indicator has been introduced and is termed Overall Equipment
Efficiency (OEE) This measures the efficiency of the production team as a whole, where the production
team is defined as being everyone involved in ensuring that the product is delivered to the client at the
right specification, on time.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS
2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.1 Why do we need effective maintenance systems?
2.1 Why do we need effective maintenance systems?
You can get management books on a wide range of topics from strategic planning through to team
building but it is very difficult to obtain books on the subject of Effective Management Control Systems
.
Yet management can only be as good as the systems that support them. Shipping spends a vast
amount of money on navigational systems - companies put satellites into space to improve
communications into space to improve communication speed and accuracy yet in many companies
managers have to wait three to four weeks after the end of the financial period for the accounting
system to produce the numbers so that they can begin to see where they are financially.
Many times the data input to these systems is suspect; often data is mismatched in that one statistic
will be relating to a different time period or scope than another.
Query:
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.2 Sailing a small ship within sight of shore
requires little data - just the weather report perhaps
2.2 Sailing a small ship within sight of shore requires little data - just the weather report
perhaps
In the same way that sailors need navigational systems to plot a course and to periodically check how
they are doing against that course, managers need systems to plot the course of the company and to
periodically check whether they are on course or are drifting.
As seafaring companies need to know not only what money they will make at the end of the journey,
but also how they are doing day to day in terms of longitude and latitude, speed and depth of water,
companies need to know how much money they will make, providing they stay on course.
On the high seas constantly checking latitude and longitude is the seafarers way of guaranteeing they
will make port, so management need to be able to check the equivalent data to ensure that, at the end
of each month, budgetary goals will be achieved.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.3 But in times of danger data is vital...
2.3 But in times of danger data is vital...
At sea conditions can change quickly. It is not always fair weather sailing. In business conditions can
change quickly also and effective management control systems will help management navigate
through difficult times. Management need to know, as soon as possible, if they are drifting off course
so that action can be taken immediately. A small deviation from course on Monday will be large
Query:
deviation by Friday if corrective action is not taken quickly.
A Management Control system should be capable of telling management not only how well they have
done but also how well they could have done. For without the process of continuous improvement the
sunrise companies of today become the sunset companies tomorrow. For many years the Americans
won the America cup in sailing until finally the Australians won. When asked what the secret of
success was the skipper replied There wasnt any one thing- it was lots of little things. If I had to
choose one thing that made the difference it was attention to detail. Systems must provide attention to
detail.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.4 Behavioural Change
2.4 Behavioural Change
When we consider upgrading systems the ultimate goal must never be forgotten. Systems are
upgraded so that, through using them, management may improve operational performance, and
therefore, financial results using the upgraded systems management must adopt new patterns of
behaviour so the link between systems, change and results is developed. Upgraded systems provide
the opportunity for management change; management change generates improved results. But it is not
just management that need to change. Who will provide the upgraded data? Who will input data into
the systems? The improvement of systems requires change at all levels. Not only must management
embrace this change but they must also act as role models for the rest of the organisation. The
essential factor that must be present in any system for it to be effective is compliance - that is everyone
must play their part. No-one will play their part unless management comply to the system
requirements, thereby acting as a role model for the remainder of the organisation.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.5 The need for behavioural change
2.5 The need for behavioural change
Query:
There is a saying that if you continue to manage the business as you have always managed the
business then the results will continue to be the same.
The converse of this is true and this is the definition of madness. Madness is continuing to manage
the business as you have always managed the business and expecting that, somehow, mysteriously,
results will improve.
Management cannot rely upon luck to improve the results of the business, neither can they live in a
world of madness. To change the results being achieved something must be done differently. Too
many companies focus upon investment in new machinery and technology and the only way towards
improved results, ignoring that there are so many opportunities to create improvements within the
organisation through behavioural change. The major behavioural change is to focus more upon detail.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.6 Control the whole...
2.6 Control the whole...
To be effective Management Control Systems must do this questioning for management. It must
distinguish between activity that is productive and activity that is non productive, and naturally identify
periods when activity has not occurred at all, although these are generally not filtered so effectively by
the mind. An effective system will provide a continuous monitoring of an operation through its complete
cycle from forecasting to planning, through the mechanisms of control to a reporting element that will
alert management to situations where their intervention is required. By providing this continuous cycle
management will be able to see when the decisions they have made have been effective.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.7 THREE TYPES OF BUSINESS SYSTEMS
Query:
2.7 THREE TYPES OF BUSINESS SYSTEMS
There are many types of system and one persons perception of the word system may vary
considerably from another. There are fire alarm systems, systems for working out numbers on the
lottery, computer systems and rail systems or networks.
The systems referred to in business fall into three major categories. Financial systems are the systems
that forecast and track the financial performance of a company. These operate at the higher level of
the business. Then, at the lower level, there are operational systems. These are the systems that
control the product or service ordered and will contain data such as colour, quantity, due date etc. and
are underpinned by the specifications of a product and the parameters of a service. These tell us what
we have to do and to what standard. Finally there are Management Control Systems that tell us how
well we did what we had to do.
Financial systems operate at the highest level of a company. They track the financial result of doing
something. They are monthly in nature, use financial terms ( return on investment etc.) and use money
as the common language. They tend to appear three to four weeks after the end of the period under
consideration.
Operational systems are one-off. Once the activity has occurred the system cycle is complete.
Management Control Systems monitor the activity levels that occur because of the operational system
and track how well we did what we had to do. Management Control Systems talk in terms of
productivity, utilisation and focus on lost opportunity. By controlling these factors, on a shorter time
base than the financial systems, the financial result will be more likely to occur as planned.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.8 What systems do
Query:
2.8 What systems do
Because Management Control Systems focus on activity levels the principles they are built upon will be
applicable to almost any type of operation. Selling might be creative but it consists of activities. In some
operations the activities might be less defined than in others but the underlying principles will remain
true. An administration functions through activities in the same that a production unit does, so there is
no reason to believe that one can be controlled - yet the other can not. Accountants would never
accept that an operation which was predominantly administration should not have a budget, yet in
many instances management fail to accept that the same principles of control that apply to production
should also apply to administration operations. In the same way that a financial system will focus on
the financial parameters of that operation a management control system needs to focus on the
activities of that same operation.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.9 There are three major maintenance activities
2.9 There are three major maintenance activities
Viewing maintenance from the high ground there are three major types of activity. The first is routine
maintenance. Routine maintenance tasks have frequencies attached to them and the work required to
be done should be specified in the routine maintenance procedures (operational system)
The second type of work carried out by a maintenance department is that of breakdowns - work on
plant and assets that fail during service.
The third type can be termed major overhauls, those activities that occur on a larger and less frequent
basis than preventive maintenance, although it can be argued that overhauls are just larger types of
Query:
preventive maintenance.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.10 Can we answer some of the following
questions
2.10 Can we answer some of the following questions
A simple test of how effectively an operation is being controlled is to ask some basic questions about
that operation.
How many hours of routine maintenance is going to be done next week - and the week after. Do we
have the resources for it? Are we maintaining our plan or is there routine maintenance work
outstanding? If so - how many hours will be required to bring the backlog down to zero?
How many hours are spent annually on breakdowns? Is there a pattern of how those hours are spent?
How long should a job take? How long is it taking? Can we reduce the gap between the two. To be
really in control the answers to all these questions - and many more beside - must be readily available.
This can only be achieved through an effective management control system.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.11 Short Interval Control
2.11 Short Interval Control
The first principle that must be inherent in a system is that of short interval control (SIC) The more
frequently performance is monitored the quicker management recognise, through he system, that a
problem has occurred. For this to occur actual performance must be noted and recorded. This actual
performance must then be compared to a realistic plan, that is a plan that has been derived from an
Query:
accurate standard.
The system must also show when a problem has been recognised and solved. This function is effected
by the KPIs which will rise back to planned level when the problem has been solved.
The short interval control function is the heart of the system. It occurs at the point of execution of the
activities. Once an effective standard has been developed then this can form the basis of the planning
capability. Planning can be set up on a weekly basis. This weekly plan can be lifted to a higher level by
forecasting on a monthly basis giving the basic elements of the system as short interval control,
supported by a weekly and monthly planning function.
At the monthly level of the management control system we have arrived at the same level as the
budget and a link needs to be established between the budgetary system and the Management Control
System. This can be done through what is termed the Master Schedule, which forecasts the resources
needed to meet the budget forecast. So where the budget is forecasting labour cost the management
control system forecasts hours. Where the budget forecasts material costs the master schedule will
forecast parts and materials in terms of volume required. This link, between the management control
system and the budget, illustrates how, by controlling activities and materials on a short interval basis,
we can manage more predictability into the budget. It must be remembered that so far generic
principles have been discussed and these need to be tailored to differing situations. What is applicable
to a fast moving production operation may not be translated into a maintenance function in the same
way.
Query:
The planning has now been structured on a short interval, weekly and monthly basis, linked to the
budget through the master schedule, which encompasses the forecasting and planning elements of the
system. The link to the control element of a system is effected through the short interval control which
both plans and reports against the plan. In the reporting function of the system the reporting elements
can be matched against the planning elements to ensure that a clear focus is kept on what variances
are occurring at a short interval period, weekly and monthly. This is important because the type of
problems that occur at these frequencies will differ in nature. This difference in the nature of problems
will direct how the management structure will align with the management control system. Many of the
problems experienced at the short interval control level will be of short duration. Because this point of
the system is at the point of execution of the activities this function can be handled by first line
management (Level 1) Problems of a longer term nature but still linked to the execution of activities
can be handled by mid-management (Level 2) At the monthly level problems of a longer term nature
will need to be dealt with and these will more revolve around structural and strategic decisions.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.12 PERFORMANCE SYSTEMS
2.12 PERFORMANCE SYSTEMS
By constructing a system in this manner the four integral blocks of any system will be inherent in within
that system. Obviously these are inherent in any system but will vary in nature according to the nature
of the system under review. In both the financial system and the management operating system the
forecast is annual and monthly. The management control system differs from the budgetary system in
that it focuses upon the hours and materials required to meet the expected demand, not upon the cash
value of those resources. The management control system differs from most financial systems in that
beneath the monthly level it has a weekly and a short interval function. The short interval function may
Query:
be as short as hourly or as long as daily, depending on the operation for which it is being designed.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.13 BASIC SYSTEM ELEMENTS
2.13 BASIC SYSTEM ELEMENTS
Looking at these elements in more detail: The forecast projects the hours required to meet the
operational targets, together with the materials and tooling required to support those hours and related
back to the forecast budget levels of financial performance. The planning element breaks the overall
monthly plan down into smaller elements of a weekly nature which builds in the basis for shorter term
control underneath the monthly frequency of both the budget and the master schedule. The short
interval control breaks this interval down even further, monitoring short term achievements through the
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and finally the repairing element will be matched to each level of
the planning function, the focus being to provide a basis for review of planned performance against
actual, with the KPIs (planned and actual) indicating where variance shave occurred.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.14 THE COMMUNICATIONS STRUCTURE
2.14 THE COMMUNICATIONS STRUCTURE
As has been discussed earlier, the management structure must be aligned to the management control
system so that communication concerning problems experienced and actions taken can be handled
effectively and efficiently by the management structure. At the level of day to day activities the first line
management (Level 1) will handle short term problems. Longer term problems need to be passed to
the next level of management on a structured basis and this is done through a scheduled performance
review meeting. As this is normally carried out on a daily basis this is termed the Daily / Weekly
Query:
Operating Review Meeting. The document that records daily performance is termed the Daily/Weekly
Operating Report (DWOR). Finally mid-management review performance with plant management
(Level 3) on a weekly / monthly basis, the communication structure providing s structured pathway for
the highlighting and solution of problems.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.15 SYSTEM CONCEPTS
2.15 SYSTEM CONCEPTS
In the development of a system which will meet the parameters of an effective Management Control
System certain inherent characteristics must be in place. The whole of an operation can only be
controlled by controlling the individual parts of the operation. How detailed these parts are must be
taken into account during system design. Systems are only effective when used and unless everyone
who is required to use the system actually uses the system then that system will not be fully effective.
We can only control what we can measure. We measure through Key Performance Indicators and
these will restore to the planned level of performance when management action against any problem
has been successful. Finally the information generated by the system must be timely, so that
management can use it to proactively control and not posthumously review what has happened.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.16 Typical phases
2.16 Typical phases
The term Installation of a system means that the system has been designed, is in place and is being
used by the management team to more effectively control the operation. To ensure this happens
effectively five stages must be observed. The first stage is gaining acceptance of the need for
Query:
upgraded systems. Unless people see the need then they will not see the need to be involved. The
second stage is compliance; this means people will be involved in the design of the system, the
development of the controls and the setting of the standards(if they dont exist) that will be used for the
planning element of the system. The third step is understanding what the system is communicating and
this is a function of training. Fourthly, management must use the system and if the four first steps are
undertaken correctly then the fifth step, commitment to continuing to use the system to maintain and
improve on the results, will fall into place.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.17 SYSTEM CONCEPTS - GENERIC MGMT.
CONTROL
2.17 SYSTEM CONCEPTS - GENERIC MGMT. CONTROL
The diagram of how the system links together is termed the Generic System Flow and is indeed
generic. The elements of the system have already been covered in terms of the typical structure. The
budget determines the levels of the master schedule which then enables the monthly plan, weekly plan
and short interval control detail to be generated. Reporting is against the planning element. Systems
need to be dynamic and the generic system flow shows a series of key meetings, all supported by an
Action Log. An action log records what needs to be done, who will do it and the due date on which the
action will be completed. The review meetings shown are either for the purpose of commitment to a
plan or to review performance, highlight variances (which indicate problems) and to agree the actions
to be taken to solve those problems.
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.18 What do Management Control systems do for
our business?
2.18 What do Management Control systems do for our business?
Query:
Effective Management Control Systems provide vital guidelines for management. Firstly they define
clearly the managerial routines and disciplines that need to be observed to optimise the control over an
operation. The major advantage is that these are not only clearly defined but agreed at all levels.
Another key characteristic is that management is based upon fact rather than upon personality. Clear
plans and regular reporting against those plans in meetings supported by Action Logs, avoids
procrastination by any level of management. Everyone in the organisation has clearly defined goals,
thus avoiding anxiety and ambiguity. By designing the system on how well we could do, not just on how
well we did, the basis for a continuous improvement culture is put in place. By reducing the cycle of
firefighting more time is freed up for management to focus of proactive rather than reactive
management
Spares Management / 2. MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2.19 Control the whole... by controlling the parts
2.19 Control the whole... by controlling the parts
An effective system must contain the elements of forecasting, planning, control and reporting. It must
enable management to collect data, analyse the data make decisions based upon the analysis and
then ensure that these actions are implemented. The inherent structure of the system must be such
that the whole operation is controlled by controlling the parts.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT
3. SPARES MANAGEMENT
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.1 THE NEED TO BE COMPETITIVE
3.1 THE NEED TO BE COMPETITIVE
Query:
How well a company is doing can be expressed quite simply as incomes minus outgoings. Companies
need to make profit to set aside money for reinvestment in training, process development and product
development. Therefore, one key aspect of asset management is the money spent on spares. Like
every other aspect of upgrading performance it requires two stages. Stage 1 is a reassessment of
current practices and the current levels of spare parts, their usage and applicability at this point in time,
given other initiatives that are being taken in preventive maintenance. The second focus needs to be
on ensuring that we have the systems for the future to ensure that whatever improvements are made
are maintained. Management is not just about making one-off improvements. It is about generating a
climate where continuous improvement is the natural way of life.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.2 The financial performance of any plant can be evaluated by a simple formula
3.2 The financial performance of any plant can be evaluated by a simple formula
As has been stated, profit is the difference between revenue and costs. There are many areas of costs
ranging from the cost in losses when the plant should be operating to the loses incurred when
maintenance staff are unable to work because of shortage of parts. The temptation is to generate a
culture of just in case, where that little bit extra is held just in case it is needed. The term
management when applied to levels of spare parts means balancing the need for just in case a part
may not be there with just sufficient to ensure that the plant will be maintained but that the cost of
holding such spares is not a burden on the business. Another way of looking at the the situation of
spares is to ask the simple question: Is this a maintenance organisation or a warehousing
organisation? Every time a spare part is purchased the difference between the revenue and the costs
narrows. Every piece of spares bought that is not vital means that the organisation must sell more to
maintain the margin. In the climate of today the market place is very competitive
Query:
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.3 Costs are made up of many things, one of which is the costs of the spares
held
3.3 Costs are made up of many things, one of which is the costs of the spares held
It is not just the direct cost that hits the organisation. Costs for spares have hidden costs that often far
outweigh the cost of the part itself, obviously depending on the actual price of the part. Requisitions
have to be made out .. stationery costs are inflated. They have to be processed .. maintenance time
and administration time is involved. Goods are received .. distribution costs are incurred. Finally they
have to be stored and this soaks up more cost. Even stock checks take longer because higher levels
of inventory are involved and we are now back on the circle of increased administration costs. An
efficient company holds just sufficient stock so that the plant is maintained but cost is kept to the
minimum. This means managing stocks so that they move. Non moving stock is frozen money. The
only exception to this rule is for strategic stock, that is stock that is maintained because the impact of
not having it available when needed would be catastrophic.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.4 Some of those will be critical
3.4 Some of those will be critical
An examination of the stock held by maintenance departments shows that parts fall into three major
categories. There are those stocks, as we have said, that are critical or strategic, spares that must be
held because if they are needed and are not available there would be a complete and sustained loss of
production. Some will not be so critical, where even if they are not held, the lead time to obtain them is
not so long that production can not be protected. Finally the third type of spares .. left-overs from days
Query:
gone by. It is easy to fall into the trap of using spares to cushion the effect of poor systems. Because
the systems are unable to predict with reasonable accuracy when the parts will be needed the
temptation is to hold some, sometimes a substantial some, just in case. Because the systems do not
flash a light when a piece of equipment is replaced and spares become obsolete they sit on the shelf,
gathering dust and incurring cost. Because the systems do not identify needs common to all plants,
strategic parts are held by every plant.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.5 One area often neglected in operations is the quality of maintenance spares
held
3.5 One area often neglected in operations is the quality of maintenance spares held
There is a term used by many organisations when referring to spares and that is quality. Quality, in this
case, does not refer to whether the part is in good quality condition but refers to the need for holding
the part. How essential is this part to the well being of production? There is a tendency for parts to be
raised in quality in order to overcome shortcomings in the systems and procedures in place. To
improve the level of parts management requires that this quality element is questioned, as are the
systems in place. One additional part on the stock list may not seem much, but multiplied by that
situation many times over in one location, then multiplied by the number of locations throughout the
organisation, it soon builds up a figure that would build several additional plants; fund a much more
aggressive stance in the market place; and give the competition cause for concern if it was realised.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.6 Where do we begin?
3.6 Where do we begin?
Query:
Because the sensitivity of parts availability is critical to production sustainability, it is vital that any
approach is logical and well thought out. We can not afford to take risks or, if we do, they must be
calculated risks that have been carefully evaluated. Anyone can reduce the level of stocks - just turn off
the tap and the flow of spares will fall. But which of the spares that have been reduced are vital? How
much of the stock in the stores is moving stock and how much is dead stock? The answers to these
questions can only be arrived at by a systematic and detailed approach. The first steps are to tackle
those areas that have a very low risk. As more data is developed then the more controversial and
sensitive areas can be dealt with. It will take time to develop some of the data but we can not afford to
sit and wait. We must not put off until tomorrow what our competitors are doing today.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.7 Set the policy
3.7 Set the policy
The MAC approach advocates that all functions within a company become involved in working together
to identify opportunities for improvement and to realise them by working out solutions to the problems
that have created the opportunity for improvement. The advantage of this approach can be seen in
spares management where production can assess the impact on the production element of the
company, and the maintenance function can assess the degree of difficulty in affecting the repair.
Together the two viewpoints give a complete picture of the factors affecting a given situation and
illustrates the value of treating maintenance not as a discreet focus but as a process that will benefit
from input from all the disciplines. When dealing with factors that can have a major impact on
production it is sensible to ensure that as broad an input of knowledge and experience as possible act
as an input to the situation.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.8 Spares Management is juggling
3.8 Spares Management is juggling
Query:
Spares management never will be, and can not be, a precise science. It is a case of using the best
input available to weigh up all the factors impacting on the situations and then making the best possible
decision in the light of the known facts. The more facts and data available the better the decision but
there will always be the need for management expertise and experience in assessing the areas where
data will not be available and in arriving at a decision that can be supported by all. The reality of the
situation is that there will have to be a juggling of the commercial needs of the organisation, with the
cost of carrying the level of spares held. Then there is the aspect of customer services which will vary
from plant to plant. In some plants there may be excess capacity, in others none. The range of
equipment will also vary from plant to plant; some plants may have a narrow range of equipment,
others a wide range. Finally the availability of spares, or lead time, may vary from region to region.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.9 Spares Management is understanding
3.9 Spares Management is understanding
Criticality of parts will vary according to the impact on the production process. If the part is required for
a support item that will have no direct impact on the production process the rules governing the holding
of those parts will vary from those of a part that can have a direct impact on production. The lead times
for parts will also have an impact on holding levels. The lead time is the time between the time when
the part is ordered and the time when it becomes available for maintenance use. This will vary
according to not only the part type but also the supplier. For one supplier, two parts can have separate
lead times. For one part two suppliers may have different lead times. Then for every part held there is a
different usage rate. To begin to manage spares more efficiently all these aspects of parts need to be
understood if they are not known already. Where data does not exist it has to be generated.
Query:
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.10 The Objective - Financial
3.10 The Objective - Financial
Any spare part that is not being used represents money that is frozen. This money costs the
organisation twice over. Firstly, there is the cost of carrying that money which means that interest will
be incurred. Secondly, there is the lost opportunity to have invested that money and by earning an
income from it rather than paying someone else for using it. The objective of spares management is to
reduce the money that is frozen and not free for use. The objective is to achieve a position where the
minimum of money is tied up in spares, but at the same time doing so in a climate where an emphasis
is being placed upon the increment of plant availability. This will require management of a different
nature than has been used in the past. One fact is indisputable; however efficient spares management
has been in the past there will still be room for improvement. The amount of money involved in holding
spares is not only phenomenal but represents money that is not value added. The financial objective of
the spare parts initiative is to reduce this sum.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.11 The Objective - Operational
3.11 The Objective - Operational
The achievement of the financial objective for spare parts management will require a detailed
examination of the systems and procedures currently in use. The objective of the operational section of
the spare parts management approach is to ensure that the right systems are in place to see that the
right part is available at the right time for the right piece of equipment. The parts must be held in the
right quantity and be the right quality. To achieve this goal will require a detailed examination of the
systems currently in use to understand how they deal with lead times, usage rate and criticality and to
upgrade them if they are not effective for management needs. This will require understanding the
Query:
documentation of the current system, developing a set of principles upon which effective spares
management can take place, and then upgrading the systems to meet these principles. These are the
actions that fall under the umbrella of the MAC approach.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.12 To manage spares we must understand spares
3.12 To manage spares we must understand spares
The message that comes through again and again when the subject of spares management is raised
in any management seminar is in order to manage spares we must understand spares. The
beginning of the understanding of spares is to understand why spares are held in the first place. There
are only two reasons why spares are held. The first is to ensure that plant availability is maximised.
When a plant is running it earns an income but when it isnt running it costs. Plant availability is the
outcome of a good partnership between production personnel and maintenance. The second reason
spares are held is to ensure that the maintenance team can remain productive at all times. When
maintenance can not be productive, preventive maintenance falls behind and a back log develops.
When a backlog of essential maintenance builds up the probability of failure increases. Spares
availability has a direct impact on both plant availability and maintenance productivity. It makes the
difference between a virtuous circle where maintenance catch failures before they occur or a vicious
circle where maintenance are always one stage behind the failures.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.13 The two steps in bringing greater control to spares holdings
3.13 The two steps in bringing greater control to spares holdings
So the approach for improving the control of spares is two fold. The first is to analyse the current
Query:
situation which will require developing data to understand a wide range of operational characteristics.
In addition to an understanding of lead times and criticality it will be necessary to understand far more
about the frequency of need. Preventive maintenance does not always meet the exact needs of the
equipment and in many cases has been proven to actually do more harm than good. To ensure that
preventive maintenance assists plant availability and doesnt hinder it new maintenance indicators will
need to be developed if they dont already exist. Mean time between failures (MTBF) is critical to
understanding when parts will be required but even this knowledge does not give the whole picture.
What actually caused the failure, termed mean time between causal failures (MTBCF) is more
meaningful and will indicate the exact focus of maintenance.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.14 The 20 / 80 theory
3.14 The 20 / 80 theory
The 20 / 80 theory is a common theory in management. It states that in any given situation 20 % of the
causes will create 80% of the effects. Of course, it is not strictly accurate but it is a generalisation that
is very useful in the management of many situations. Obviously once again up to date, accurate data is
required. Where this is not available we must rely on the perceptions of the people involved as to which
are the 20% of the root causes that are generating 80% of the effects. However, once again caution
must be used in connection with statistics. They are there as a guide line and management must
decide if a) the information makes sense and b) it is giving an accurate base of information from which
good management decisions can be made. A 20/80 analysis of cause and effect in accidents
highlighted the fact that 17% of drivers are company car drivers and cause 80% of the accidents.
Suggested solution? Pass legislation to force all companies to give their drivers advanced driving
lessons. Impact high cost. Question: how many miles do company drivers do in relation to ordinary
drivers? Is kilometres per driver a more accurate key performance indicator?
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.15 COST
3.15 COST
Query:
In the investigation into the reduction of spares one objective is to reduce the amount of money frozen
in spares and therefore it makes common sense to examine the relationship between categories of
items and the value of those items. Do 20% of the items held account for 80% of the cost, or a near
approximation of this relationship? This relationship would, if it existed, give management the chance
to focus first on high cost holdings. A small percentage reduction in the large cost areas will probably
be far greater in impact than a large reduction in a small cost area. This does not mean that we focus
only on the 20/80 relationship. It merely gives management a starting focus point where large gains
may be made quickly with the minimum of effort.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.15 COST / 3.15.1 Actions
3.15.1 Actions
Step 1 in this process is to determine the number of items held by category. The detail to which this is
taken has to be the subject of common sense and a very quick assessment can be made by using the
estimated number of items and cost per item to give a guidance in this process. Once the range of
items held and the detail to which it will be taken are established, then the next step is to determine the
numbers held by time. By time infers reviewing the average holding levels over a given time period as
usage of the parts may rise and fall dramatically, particularly if they are used in major overhauls. The
value per item can then be inserted into the equation and the total cost of holding each item can be
arrived at. Once this has been achieved then by plotting the value of each item as a percentage of the
total cost against the total cost the high ticket items will appear. This process is termed Pareto
analysis and in this exercise is being used only to determine if 20% of the items (cause) makes up 80%
of the cost (effect)
Query:
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.15 COST / 3.15.2 Pareto analysis
3.15.2 Pareto analysis
A typical Pareto analysis chart is shown in the above illustration. On the vertical axis the percentage
refers to the percentage of total cost generated by the items plotted along the bottom. Any spreadsheet
application will automatically carry out the steps of calculating the cost of each item against the total
cost and will then sort them into descending order. Setting up a spreadsheet in this way is a good
investment for two reasons. Firstly, the spreadsheet can be used to generate what if scenarios. What
if we could reduce the cost of carrying these items by 15%? Secondly, as the level of cost of items is
reduced by management actions the new levels can be entered into the spreadsheet. And thirdly, the
situations with spares will never remain static. Actions taken under other initiatives, such as Failure
Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA) will have an effect on spares holding levels and the spreadsheet model
will act as a dynamic tool between these initiatives and the spares management focus.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.15 COST / 3.15.3 The ABC Analysis
3.15.3 The ABC Analysis
It is useful, as in so many management situations, to have a common language in which to converse
and exchange information. Common language reduces the risk of misperception and breakdowns in
communication through the misinterpretation of information. The items that fall into high cost areas are
called A parts and should always be the focus of management actions. There will be a group of items
that fall outside the 20% of the items accounting for 80% of the cost and these are termed B items or
parts. These should not be ignored but will be the second phase of management attention. Finally
there will be a group of parts who cost level is minimal and where the effort of reducing the cost will be
totally out of proportion to the management time and effort involved. These are termed C parts. As
Query:
many actions are taken in other areas these categories may become fluid. A parts may become B
parts; conversely B parts may become A parts. The analysis is an interactive link to all other initiatives
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.15 COST / 3.15.4 Under the MAC umbrella work teams will now examine these
A class items
3.15.4 Under the MAC umbrella work teams will now examine these A class items
Under the concept of MAC working teams or groups will have been formed to examine the A class
items. The analysis is just the beginning of the process. There are at least two important questions to
be answered. The first is: Are we holding too many? The second is: Can we reduce the level of
current and average holdings? The difference between these two - current and average holding - is
that of a seasonality factor. Holding levels may vary according to the season - that is - different points
in time. This is particularly pertinent to a maintenance situation where some items are held for frequent
preventive maintenance routines and others are held for major/annual overhauls. This time element is
of particular importance in maintenance, high value items being held for overhauls because money
starts to cost the minute the items are received and paid for. This begs the question: Can we hold off
longer before we order the items? followed by: Can we gain more favourable payment terms? These
questions illustrate the two aspects of spare parts management the teams must focus on. What is the
operational aspect of this situation? and: Can we manage the money flow better?
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.15 COST / 3.15.5 To do this they will need to focus on
3.15.5 To do this they will need to focus on
The expertise of the group will be called into play to answer the first part of the three statements,
Query:
namely, how critical is this item to the production process? Factors which will influence the answer to
this question will be whether the item is a discreet item or not. Discreet can have two meanings in this
situation. The first definition of discreet is whether the asset for which the item is held is a one off in the
process flow. If this asset fails there is no alternative asset that can be brought into the production
process. The second description relates to the points where this item can be used. Is this part common
to many different types of plant items? Obviously an item which is discreet to one asset, which in turn is
a discreet part of the process flow will be viewed differently from a part that is not discreet to one asset,
that is it is used in many different types of equipment, none of which are discreet process items. The
second factor that needs to be taken into account is: How long does it take to get one of these? If
they are off the shelf items from a local stockist this will have different connotations than an item that
has to be especially ordered and takes three weeks to arrive.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.16 MOVEMENT
3.16 MOVEMENT
The Pareto analysis of cost per item as a percentage of total cost is a financial way of looking at
spares holdings and brings into focus not just the value of the items but the management of cash flow
as well. Lead times will have been considered and here the work team will have solicited the help of the
purchasing function. The view of payment terms will have brought the finance department into the team
arena but the work group, to be efficient, must only invite in those specialists that are needed when
they are needed. To have specialists included in the standing composition of the work group will not be
productive for them of the group. The work team will be a core of individuals who have a deep
understanding of the core process and who have the authority to co-opt other people on to the team as
and when they are needed.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.16 MOVEMENT / 3.16.1 Movement can be classified as zero, some a lot
3.16.1 Movement can be classified as zero, some a lot
Query:
Another way in which the Pareto analysis principle can be applied is by looking into movement. The
frequency of movement will indicate a degree of importance related to constant need and use, but will
not indicate criticality. This frequency of use is important for one specific aspect of planning spare parts
holding efficiencies. But first, the common language of movement. Some items will be high usage,
frequently ordered but frequently used. Some will be of medium frequency usage and some will have
zero usage or as near makes no difference. Naturally the time span under review needs to be the
same for all items being reviewed and usually is defined as annual use. How many of these items are
used on an annual basis? In general terms low usage items should should reflect a low level of
holdings and vice versa, high usage, higher holdings.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.16 MOVEMENT / 3.16.2 Usage / Holdings matrix
3.16.2 Usage / Holdings matrix
To help in the process of evaluating holding levels against usage a matrix can be developed where one
axis indicates the holding level and the other records the frequency of movement. The exact definitions
for each of the three levels of holdings can be determined locally by the work teams but would be
something in the order of zero, 1-5 and greater than 5. The movement categories would reflect the
zero movement position, 1 - 20 and greater than 20 per annum. By analysing the holding levels and the
movement frequencies items can be entered on the matrix. Once again the point must be made that
this is not a precise statistical science; it is merely a way of focusing management onto those areas
where there may be the greatest opportunity for improvement. Common sense must always prevail
because of the strategic stock definition. A zero movement item with a holding of one may be
strategically essential to the maintenance of maximum plant up time.
Query:
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.16 MOVEMENT / 3.16.2 Usage / Holdings matrix / 3.16.2.1 The green area
denotes where usage matches holdings
3.16.2.1 The green area denotes where usage matches holdings
With reference to the illustration above certain situations will appear natural for the relationship
between holding levels and usage. Zero usage for example, related to zero holding (bottom left hand
corner) would appear to make sense. A low holding level (1-5) allied to a low movement (1-20) would
also appear to make sense. In general the area shaded (green) indicates where holding levels plotted
against movements rates seem to have a common sense logic. However, the findings should always
be questioned. A low holding level, an average of one half an item per annum ( the item is on stock for
six months of the year) allied to a usage rate of one, may indicate that the item is ordered to far in
advance. Is this because of excessive lead times or because purchasing have not been given specific
guidelines? Could an alternative supplier be found to provide this item at a lower lead time? The
interaction of conditions means that the work teams must stay very flexible in their thinking.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.16 MOVEMENT / 3.16.2 Usage / Holdings matrix / 3.16.2.2 Top left indicates
excessive cost.
3.16.2.2 Top left indicates excessive cost.
Some general guidelines can be used when viewing the holding against the movement matrix. The top
left area of the matrix generally indicates excessive cost being incurred with regards to spares
holdings. The holdings are high whereas the movements are low. Likewise the bottom right hand side
of the matrix will tend to indicate areas of plant risk, that is items that have a high movement but low
holdings. This is where the knowledge of the work teams comes into its own. Nothing is seldom what it
appears to be but then again nothing must ever be accepted at face value. The faithful serving words
Query:
of management must always be in constant use: Why, when, how, what, who, and where; these
valuable words will, in many cases, expose some flaw in the logic that was initially used to determine
the organisational practices that are now reflected on the Movement / Holding matrix.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.16 MOVEMENT / 3.16.2 Usage / Holdings matrix / 3.16.2.3 The exception to the
movement rule
3.16.2.3 The exception to the movement rule
Over-riding all the logical arguments for reducing stock levels will be two important aspects of any
maintenance organisation: Are these items strategic in that they need to be held to avoid a total plant
shutdown in the event that the in process part fails? and: What is the lead time for this item?
However, the terms criticality, strategic and lead times can often cloud the thinking process,
particularly when viewed solely from a maintenance process. The objective of the spares management
process is to minimise the capital involved whilst maintaining or improving customer service. This does
not mean that production availability must be 100% and that it must be protected at all costs.
Availability is a function of demand and process management and it is possible to maintain customer
service with less than 100% availability. A part is critical to production but production can stand
downtime of four hours when this part fails. This part is held at another plant which is two hours away
and can be fitted in one hour if work to remove the defective part is started when transport is
despatched to collect the spare. Spare parts management is questioning all aspects of the holding and
usage matrix.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.16 MOVEMENT / 3.16.2 Usage / Holdings matrix / 3.16.2.4 Non critical
3.16.2.4 Non critical
Query:
The top left hand side of the matrix, where holdings are high and movements are low may indicate a
situation which is often referred to as a dead stock situation. Why are a large number of items being
held that are never used? With the vast amount of communication that is required in a plant, is it
possible that the communication process has broken down and that a particular item of plant that used
to require a high replacement of parts has been replaced by a more durable item that requires less
replacements, but the communication to the stores function went adrift or never happened? Anything
that does not move is dead stock and must be viewed with suspicion. Why is money being frozen in
something that never moves? Dead stock clutters up the system. Is it very valuable? Often not. But
there are options. Is there another plant still using this item? If so perhaps it can be transferred there.
Is this item still in use anywhere? - it could be sent back to the supplier and a credit obtained. Finally,
when all other options are exhausted it could be sold for scrap; at least it will be out of the picture.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.17 Stock Rotation
3.17 Stock Rotation
The third aspect of spares management is a term called rotation. Rotation is a ratio that rates the
levels of stock held against the annual usage. This is calculated by dividing the quantity of the part held
by the annual usage. This will generate a ratio and once again the Pareto analysis principle can be
used to relate the ratio for a particular item to the ratios of all other items held. In order for this
relationship to be meaningful, an understanding of the ratio is needed. It is probably easier to
understand this by taking some examples
An item has a rotation ratio of 0.25. This means that the annual usage is twelve and the average
holding level is three. divided by twelve equals 0.25. What would be the rotation ratio for an item that
has an average holding of 10 and a usage of 100 per annum? Holding (10) divided by usage (100)
Query:
gives a rotation ratio of 0.1. In terms of the efficient use of money the lower the ratio the more
efficiently money is being used. A number that is approaching zero is the most efficient ratio here is.
Zero would indicate that the minute the part was received it was used - just in time maintenance. The
most costly ratio is that of infinity - parts are held but never used. The objective of spares management
is to achieve wherever possible, (compatible with he goals of the programme), the lowest possible
rotation ratio for all parts. However, two factors will come into effect. The first is once again the
criticality factor. The second is the return on investment of management time. Overall cost of the item
will play a pat in this initiative.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.18 It is useful for the MAC teams to overlay certain definitions as they consider
cost
3.18 It is useful for the MAC teams to overlay certain definitions as they consider cost
The whole process of making decisions based around the holding of spares is one where the
generation of accurate and pertinent data, overlaid by knowledge of both the production and
maintenance processes, plus a healthy dose of common sense, is the ideal situation. The work teams
that focus on spare parts management must always wear 2 hats, that of the technical specialist and
that of the accountant. This requires a special degree of objectivity which will be enhanced if the team
can focus on facts rather than historic practice, past experience etc... For example, past experience
may be that a particular item has always been difficult to obtain. This does not necessarily mean that it
will always be difficult to obtain. A deeper understanding of the factors affecting spares parts holding
costs is also important so these will be explored a little deeper. Several factors affect spares holding
costs, for eg. criticality (which has been raised on many occasions), expandability, rotability, prediction
and obsolescence.
cost / 3.18.1 CRITICAL PARTS
3.18.1 CRITICAL PARTS
Query:
Critical parts have been defined before as those parts that will cause a major impact on production
capability if a failure of a plant item occurs and there are no spares immediately available. This
criticality is not a function of impact, rather a function of the degree of difficulty in either locating a
source of supplier for the item or finding a supplier who can provide the item with minimum lead time. If
the part is readily available and can be supplied at extremely short notice, the wisdom of permanently
holding one of these items needs to be questioned. Just because historically this situation has
occurred does not mean that these conditions still apply. Perhaps alternative suppliers could be, or
indeed have been found. Perhaps the nature of the criticality has changed. Is it possible that, because
of the market conditions a year ago the part was critical but now the market conditions have changed
and we are set up for a condition that no longer exists?
cost / 3.18.2 EXPENDABLE PARTS
3.18.2 EXPENDABLE PARTS
Expendable parts is a term used to describe parts that are automatically discarded at the end of their
life cycle. These are essentially parts that can not be over-hauled or are not deemed to be worth
overhaul because the cost would not be in relation to their value. (Unless they are obsolete and can no
longer be obtained). The major aspect of cost reduction in this situation is to locate a supplier who can
generate shorter lead times. This will reduce the holding against use and reduce the rotation ratio.
Another aspect of the management of this spares situation is the possibility that a supplier can be
found who can provide the item to an improved specification, that is with longer life. By reducing the
number of parts used per annum the number held can also be reduced. It is true that this move might
well bring the rotation ratio right back to where it was before but this illustrates the interaction of the
various aspects of spares management. The rotation ratio might have remained the same but the
Query:
average holdings will have been reduced having an effect on the carrying costs for this item.
cost / 3.18.3 ROTABLE PARTS
3.18.3 ROTABLE PARTS
Rotable parts is a term used to describe those parts that are overhauled at specific intervals or are
overhauled when when there is an indication of need. These are normally of high value because the
cost of overhaul must be justified in relation to the value of the part. There are two aspects that need to
be looked at in respect to rotable parts. The first is the possibility of maintaining central holdings. The
second is taking an objective look at the frequency at which the part is overhauled and the means by
which overhaul is determined if it is being determined through a monitoring basis. If this is not the case
then a means of monitoring the condition of the part needs to be considered and will probably already
have fallen into the province of a work group looking at reliability centred maintenance (RCM) or risk
based management (RbM). This is an example of where the work of one initiative may impinge on the
work of another and stresses the need for effective intercommunication between work groups.
cost / 3.18.4 PRODUCTION PARTS
3.18.4 PRODUCTION PARTS
Production parts are those parts whose life tends to be related to the volume of use. In many instances
this relationship will be governed by the production hours scheduled. With a good system for tracking
this relationship the need to replace these items becomes quite predictable and can be scheduled
through the preventive maintenance (PM) system. The management of spare parts in this instance is
Query:
much more straightforward than in most other cases. The stock needs to be managed against use. A
low rotation ratio must be obtained through the management of lead times, minimum order batch sizes
(MOBS) and quantity reorder levels (QRLs)
cost / 3.18.5 OBSOLETE STOCK
3.18.5 OBSOLETE STOCK
Obsolete stock is indicated by no usage against some stock holding (the holding/usage matrix) or a
very high rotation ratio (some stock level but no usage for a considerable time) The longer the period
of non use the more likely it is that the stock has come become obsolete. Obsolete stock situations
leave a working group with few options. Is there another plant where the asset for which the item was
originally needed is still in operation? If so arrange to transfer it there. If not is the supplier still
distributing this item to customers? If so perhaps it can be returned and a credit obtained. Finally, is
there any scrap value? - an option which is a last resort but which at least brings in some revenue and
clears the stores of items that will only cloud the spares management picture.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.19 ONGOING CONTROL
3.19 ONGOING CONTROL
The whole process of spares management in order to minimise financial cost whilst maintaining or
improving customer service is an interactive process. New equipment is commissioned, old equipment
becomes obsolete. Supplier practices change and lead times shorten. Preventive maintenance
routines are reviewed and ways of extending them are found or criticality is designed out of something
Query:
that was a critical item for years. Ongoing spares management, to be effective, must be continuous
and can not be measured purely by looking at stock value levels. These tell us how well we are doing,
not how well we could do.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.20 INDICATORS
3.20 INDICATORS
Effective spares management is all about using several indicators. The ones we have reviewed have
been not just the financial indicators but operational indicators as well. Stock rotation, holding levels
and usage levels are all influencing factors in the decision process which determines stock levels for
maintenance spares. Because parameters will change due to changes in lead times, criticality, etc., the
20/80 theory (Pareto analysis) is not just a one off tool but part of a continuous process of data,
analysis, decision and action, the whole underpinned by the financial and operational indicators.
Spares Management / 3. SPARES MANAGEMENT / 3.21 THE KEY TO SUCCESS
3.21 THE KEY TO SUCCESS
The key to success - to a competitive edge over the competition - the ability to not put off until
tomorrow what our competitors are doing today - is an interactive spares management system that
links financial performance to operational indicators through which management can continue to ask
the question - why?
Query:
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING
CONDITION MONITORING
1. THE MAINTENANCE ENVIRONMENT TODAY
2. TYPES OF MAINTENANCE TASKS
3. WHAT IS CONDITION MONITORING
4. ADVANTAGES
5. IMPLEMENTING A CONDITION MONITORING TASK
6. THE P-F-CURVE
7. LIMITS
8. HOW OFTEN IS A TASK TO BE PERFORMED
9. CONDITION MONITORING METHODS WITHOUT INSTRUMENTS
10. CONDITION MONITORING METHODS USING INSTRUMENTS
10.1 Types of Techniques
10.2 On-Condition Techniques
10.3 Inspection Techniques
10.4 List of Techniques
11. OUTLOOK
12. CONCLUSION
13. REFERENCES
14. ANNEXES
14.1 Condition Monitoring Task
14.2 Condition Monitoring Techniques and their Applications
14.3 Annexes 3
Query:
Summary
There have been many changes in the world of maintenance in the past few years. Predictive
maintenance is one of the strategies to be used today to guarantee optimal performance at the lowest
possible cost. Condition monitoring is a tool needed for predictive maintenance and the main
requirement for it, is that it proves to be cost-effective.
On-line condition monitoring techniques are gaining importance in the field of maintenance, sometimes
incorporating on-line diagnoses of the results. These include:
Data from the process side since it can give a hint of a maintenance related problem.
Expert systems and statistical process control (SPC) techniques for the evaluation of trends used
to support decision making.
For a proper selection of a specific CONDITION MONITORING task it is crucial to know the
characteristic of the failure it is meant to prevent.
Most failures give a warning that they are about to occur (potential failure). With condition monitoring
deviations from the normal condition are detected. Based on these readings decisions can be made as
to what corrective maintenance action has to be carried out and when.
Suggestions are made of guidelines for the proper selection and implementation of condition
monitoring tasks and the condition monitoring techniques described.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 1. THE MAINTENANCE ENVIRONMENT TODAY
1. THE MAINTENANCE ENVIRONMENT TODAY
The world of maintenance has drastically changed in the past few years. The requirements have been
growing and still are. The main aspects that maintenance has to cope with today are:
Higher Plant Availability and Reliability
Greater Cost Effectiveness
Greater Safety
Better Product Quality
No damage to the environment
Longer Equipment Lifetime
The first two points are focused on, because they are easy to quantify by means of money.
Maintenance strategies have to be selected to produce the lowest overall cost possible.
Overall costs include:
Prevention cost
Repair cost
Secondary damage cost (e.g. a bearing sizes due to a broken tube oil line)
Loss of production (due to the down time of the equipment)
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 2. TYPES OF MAINTENANCE TASKS
Query:
2. TYPES OF MAINTENANCE TASKS
Apart from servicing it is possible to split maintenance tasks into three types.
Two of them do not need condition monitoring:
Breakdown Maintenance; where the equipment is left in service until it fails. This can be both,
dangerous and expensive.
Scheduled Overhaul and Exchange; where the equipment, or part of the equipment, is restored or
changed irrespective of its state. This is expensive and increases the risk of premature failures.
The third type strongly depends on condition monitoring:
Predictive Maintenance; where the equipment, or part of the equipment, is to be restored or
changed the moment before it fails. One could say Just in Time.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 3. WHAT IS CONDITION MONITORING
3. WHAT IS CONDITION MONITORING
For many people Condition Monitoring is vibration analysis. In this paper we will look at it in a much
broader sense.
Condition monitoring is everything which helps us to establish the state of equipment or the part to be
maintained. Based on the findings, it is possible sometimes to estimate the residual lifetime of it.
According to standards [1], condition monitoring can be explained as:
Measures to establish and evaluate the actual condition.
It serves to recognize that repair work has become necessary at a time sufficiently early to allow
preparation for such work, thereby permitting the work to be performed according to a schedule
and avoiding secondary defects.
The term Inspection is also often used in this context.
Most failures give some warning of the fact that they are about to occur. This warning is called a
potential failure. It can be defined as an identifiable physical (abnormal) condition which indicates that a
failure is either about to occur or in the process of occurring.
With different techniques we intend to detect these deviations to the normal condition. These are
condition monitoring techniques
Condition monitoring detects deviations to the normal conditions
The actual state of equipment can be established in different ways:
Continuously or periodically
On-line measurements or routine checks every certain time period
Directly or indirectly
E.g. weight belt / power consumption of the drive
Qualitatively or quantitatively
As a measured value or subjective (this noise is louder than normal)
With or without instruments
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 4. ADVANTAGES
4. ADVANTAGES
Predictive maintenance and therefore condition monitoring is applied to reduce overall cost. That
means substituting secondary damage and down time cost, by the expense to avoid them (prevention
cost). Therefore:
Condition monitoring has to be cost-effective.
Based on experience condition monitoring very often proves to be cost-effective.
The benefits are:
Prolonged equipment life time
Minimized unscheduled downtime
Fewer unnecessary overhauls
Less stand-by equipment
More efficient operation
Increased safety
Improved quality performance
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 5. IMPLEMENTING A CONDITION MONITORING
TASK
5. IMPLEMENTING A CONDITION MONITORING TASK
The need for a condition monitoring task can come from various sources:
Out of the risk assessment process [2]
From a cost/benefit analysis
Dictated by law
etc.
The steps to establish a task can be seen on the flow sheet in Annex 1.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 6. THE P-F-CURVE
6. THE P-F-CURVE
For the suitable selection of a specific condition monitoring task it is crucial to know the characteristics
of the failure it is meant to prevent.
The condition monitored has to have a correlation to the failure; e.g. there is no sense in monitoring the
temperature if there will not be a temperature rise before the equipment fails.
The characteristics in which failures occur can be visualized in a diagram which plots the condition
against time. This forms a curve degrading in time. An example with some explanations can be seen in
the following picture.
Query:
The P-F-Curve
The most common curves are degrading faster in time or are linear.
The function of the curve is not necessarily age related. It can start at any time. But when a failure
starts to occur it will progress according to that curve.
The P-F-Interval is the time taken between the occurrence of a potential failure (detection possible)
and its decay into the failure itself.
In reality P-F-Intervals are not necessarily consistent. In fact they can vary over a considerable range
of values. For most purposes the shortest P-F-Interval should be taken into account.
A sudden impact from the environment (e.g. Overload, foreign object, etc.) can cause a immediate
deterioration of the condition into a functional failure. There is no P-F-Interval associated to these kinds
of occurrences.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 7. LIMITS
7. LIMITS
There are some limits for the application of condition monitoring.
The failure occurs without warning or too fast to undertake any action (P-F-Interval close to zero);
there is no condition monitoring task to prevent it from occurring.
The deviations are too small to be detected or if it is impossible to establish limits for the condition to
be monitored.
The P-F-Interval is so inconsistent, that no meaningful task interval can be established. The ultimate
limit is given by the cost for the task in comparison to the money saved.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 8. HOW OFTEN IS A TASK TO BE PERFORMED
8. HOW OFTEN IS A TASK TO BE PERFORMED
As a guidelines the frequency of a condition monitoring task has to be half of the (shortest) P-F-Interval
of the failure. Therefore the frequency for the task depends mainly on two things:
the characteristic in which a failure occurs
the deviation needed to detect a potential failure
Query:
The characteristics of the failure is predetermined mainly by design and equipment operation. This fact
does not give maintenance the possibility to act directly on them.
The only way to influence the frequency is to recognize a potential failure earlier in time. This means
the deviation from the normal condition will be less and therefore the method of detecting the deviation
has to be more sophisticated.
In the case of a detected abnormal condition (potential failure), the frequency can be adjusted if the
repair task will not be carried out immediately and the future development of the failure is not known
well (lack of experience, inconsistencies of the P-F-Interval). The idea is to have the equipment, or
part, remain in service for as long as possible.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 9. CONDITION MONITORING METHODS
WITHOUT INSTRUMENTS
9. CONDITION MONITORING METHODS WITHOUT INSTRUMENTS
The basic condition monitoring methods are use of the human senses:
sight
sound
smell
touch
They exist as long as mankind and should not be forgotten even in the high-tech-times of today. These
methods can be improved on by using simple instruments (magnifying lenses, mirrors, etc.). However,
the disadvantage of inspections by human senses are that they are relatively unprecise, and therefore
the associated P-F-Intervals are usually very short. Most of the smaller deviations tend to be beyond
the range of the human senses and need specialized instruments to be detected.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 10. CONDITION MONITORING METHODS USING
INSTRUMENTS
10. CONDITION MONITORING METHODS USING INSTRUMENTS
We have learnt that a longer P-F-Interval means that the task needs to be done less often, and/or that
there is more time to take whatever action is needed to avoid the consequences of the failure. In fact
this will save money.
This is why so much effort is being spent on trying to define potential failure conditions and develop
techniques for detecting them with the longest possible P-F-Interval (as early as possible).
Still one has to bear in mind that it has to be cost-effective.
INSTRUMENTS / 10.1 Types of Techniques
10.1 Types of Techniques
In this paper the techniques using instruments are divided into two main groups:
On-Condition Techniques; where the equipment remains in service
Inspection Techniques; where the equipment has to be shut down or even dismantled
Query:
The above mentioned division is not the only one, neither are the following ones.
Some of the techniques can be used for more than one purpose. In Annex 2 a table can be found with
various methods and their possible applications.
INSTRUMENTS / 10.2 On-Condition Techniques
10.2 On-Condition Techniques
On-condition techniques have the advantage that the equipment can remain in service. In some cases
they even have to be in service; e.g. dynamic measurements. Therefore there is no production loss
cost associated with this type of measurement and they do not need special co-ordination with the
production. For this reason on-condition techniques have become popular over the past few years.
However, they are normally more expensive and the results are sometimes difficult to interpret. Often it
is necessary to take baseline readings and decisions have to be based on trends rather than on single
measurements.
Very often this type of task is carried out on a regular basis by inspectors following a given route in
the plant.
A possible way of dividing them into smaller groups is by type of measurements:
Dynamic; e.g. Vibration Analysis, Acoustic Emission, Torques
Temperature; e.g. Thermography, Fibre Loop
Particle and Chemical Analysis; e.g. Spectrometric Oil Analysis, Ferrography
Electrical; e.g. Meggers, Resistance
INSTRUMENTS / 10.3 Inspection Techniques
10.3 Inspection Techniques
Many inspection techniques are well known and have been used in the cement industry for a long time.
They include a wide range of solutions from simply determining the length with a tape measure to x-ray
testing where expensive equipment is needed and good skills are necessary to handle them.
A possible way of dividing them into smaller groups is by the failure they detect:
Surface Degradation (Wear, Corrosion, Cracks, a.s.o.); e.g. Magnetic Particle Test, Dye
Penetration Test, Endoscopy
Internal Deficiencies; e.g. Ultrasonic Measurements, X-Ray Testing
Properties; e.g. Hardness Test
Dimensions; e.g. Meters, Calibration, Shell test
Alignment; e.g. Laser Distance Measurements, Lead Wire
Leaks; e.g. Pressure Testing, Ultrasonic Leak Detection
INSTRUMENTS / 10.4 List of Techniques
10.4 List of Techniques
Query:
In Annex 3 different condition monitoring techniques are described in detail. For every technique the
following parameters are given:
Condition moitored
Applications
Technical Base
P-F-Interval
Advantages/Disadvantages
Skills necessary
Standards applied
Approx. Cost
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 11. OUTLOOK
11. OUTLOOK
Taking into consideration all maintenance methods applied today a major movement towards
on-condition monitoring techniques can be seen. This movement is expected to continue and to
accelerate in the future.
Together with the on-line monitoring the on-line diagnoses of the results will gain in attraction, because
the expert systems have, and still are becoming more powerful and easier to handle.
To involve process data into the condition monitoring is another step on the way to Excellence in
Maintenance. A higher power consumption of the equipment or a quantity/quality decrease of the
product can be a hint of a maintenance related problem.
With the availability of long term data, statistical process control (SPC) techniques for the evaluation of
trends can be used to help determine the actual condition of an equipment. Apart from others, two
valuable tools to be applied for condition monitoring are:
Moving X-bar Charts
EWMA Charts (Exponentially Weighted Moving Average)
Both of them cope with the small amount of measured values available over the time period.
For the evaluation of on-line data (process or maintenance) a much wider field of SPC-techniques are
worthwhile for consideration.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 12. CONCLUSION
12. CONCLUSION
Condition monitoring is a tool needed for predictive maintenance. It is one of the tools for state of the
art maintenance to cope with the requirements that it is confronted with; basically to guarantee optimal
performance at the lowest possible cost. Therefore, every condition monitoring task has to prove to be
cost-effective.
For the proper selection of a specific task it is crucial to know the characteristics of the failure it is
Query:
meant to prevent.
Most failures give a warning of the fact that they are about to occur (potential failure). With condition
monitoring, deviations to the normal condition are detected. Based on these readings, decisions can be
made regarding what maintenance action has to be carried out and when.
As a guideline the frequency of a task has to be half of the P-F-Interval of the failure, i.e. half of the
time to elapse between the possible detection of a potential failure and its decay into the failure itself.
The only way to lower the frequency is to recognize a potential failure earlier in time. This means the
deviation from the normal condition will be less and the method of detecting it has to be more
sophisticated.
On-line techniques are gaining importance in the field of maintenance, sometimes incorporating on-line
diagnose of the results.
Data from the process side has to be involved as well, since it can give a hint of maintenance related
problem.
Expert systems and statistical process control (SPC) techniques for the evaluation of trends can be
used to support decision making.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 13. REFERENCES
13. REFERENCES
[1] BS 3811; British Standard N 3811; Maintenance terms in tero
technology, 1974
[2] Holderbanks Risk based Maintenance Policy; Information
Brochure; Author: Holderbank Management & Consulting Ltd.;
1993
[3] NDE Handbook Non-destructive examination methods for
condition monitoring; Author: Knud G. Bving; 1989
[4] RCM II; Reliability-centered Maintenance; Author: John Moubray;
1993
[5] VA 92/6008/E; Efficient Condition Monitoring of Rolling Bearings;
Author: H. Burger, 1992
[6] VA 83/5012/E; Author: W.H. Brgi, 1983 Methods of Detecting
Damage in Machine Parts;
[7] VA 84/92/E; Scheduled Maintenance; Part A: Setting up a
Maintenance Plan; Author: U.W. Hess, 1986
[8] VA 82/4922/E; The HMC Maintenance Philosophy; Author: U.W.
Hess, 1988
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES
14. ANNEXES
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.1 Condition Monitoring Task
Query:
14.1 Condition Monitoring Task
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.2 Condition Monitoring
Techniques and their Applications
14.2 Condition Monitoring Techniques and their Applications
Techniques and their Applications / 14.2.1 Annex 2.1
14.2.1 Annex 2.1
On-Condition Techniques
Techniques and their Applications / 14.2.2 Annex 2.2
14.2.2 Annex 2.2
Inspection Techniques
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3
14.3 Annexes 3
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.1 Acoustic
Emission
14.3.1 Acoustic Emission
Conditions monitored
Plastic deformation and crack formations caused by fatigue, stress and wear.
Applications
Metal materials used in structures, pressure vessels, pipelines and mining excavations.
Technical Base
Stress waves are emitted by the materials which are subjected to loads, due to the crystallographic
changes. These stress waves are received by a transducer and amplified at an impulse analyser and
fed to a X-Y plotter or an oscilloscope. The curve is evaluated visually.
P-F Interval
Several weeks, depending on the application
Experience and knowledge necessary
Equipment functioning and interpretation of the results: An experienced and trained technician
Advantages
Remote detection of flaws: Covers entire structures: Measuring system set up very quickly: High
sensitivity: Only limited access to test objects required: Detects active flaws: Only relatively low loads
are required. Can sometimes be used to forecast failure load.
Disadvantages
The structure has to be loaded: A-E activity is highly dependent on materials: Irrelevant electrical and
mechanical noise can interfere with measurements: Gives limited information on the type of flaw:
Interpretation of results may be difficult.
Standards
Query:
ASTM in preparation
Estimated Costs
Ultraprobe USD 6000.
Stethoscopes USD 1000.
Supplier/Products
SPM/ELS-12
Keel Engineering (CH) / Ultraprobe
Westhill (South Africa)
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.2 Graded
Filtration
14.3.2 Graded Filtration
Particles in lubricating oils (such as iron, copper, lead, chromium, aluminium, silicon, etc.) caused by
wear, fatigue and corrosion.
Applications
Enclosed lubricating and hydraulic oil systems, such as gearboxes, engine sumps, hydraulic systems,
etc.
Technical Base
An oil sample is diluted and passed through a series of membranes (filters) with decreasing particle
passing size. The collected particles are counted under a microscope according to the element and
size. Its statistical distribution is shown in a graphical form. The analysis of the characteristics of the
distribution of the particles shows whether the wear is normal or not.
P-F Interval
Usually from several weeks to months.
Sample: a laboratory assistant; analysis of the characteristics for the distribution of the particles: An
experienced laboratory technician or an engineer.
Advantages
Can determine whether wear is normal or not. Relatively cheap. Can be used to compare one element
with another.
Disadvantages
It is not an on-line technique: A high degree of experience is necessary to interpret the results of the
sample. Identification of particle elements is difficult
Standards
ISO 4406
Estimated Costs
Query:
USD 2000.
Supplier/Products
Schak 01 (CH)
Cortec Corporation (USA)
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.3
Ferrography
14.3.3 Ferrography
Wear, corrosion and fatigue
Applications
Enclosed lubricating and hydraulic oil systems such as gearboxes, engine sumps, hydraulics, etc.
Technical Base
Wear particles are separated magnetically from the lubricating oils onto an inclined glass plate by
means of a instrument known as a ferrograph. The particles are distributed along the length of the slide
according to their size. The slide is treated so that the particles adhere to the surface when the oil is
removed. The total density of the particles and the ratio of large to small particles indicates the type of
extent of wear and the analysis is made by means of a technique which is known as bichromatic
microscopic examination. An electron microscope can also be used to determine the particles shapes
and provide an indication of the cause of the failure.
P-F Interval
Usually several months
To extract the sample and operate the ferrograph: A semi-specialized operative suitable trained. To
analyse the ferrogram: An experienced technician.
Advantages
More sensitive than the emission spectrometry at the at early stage of engine wear: measures particles
shapes and sizes.
Disadvantages
It is not an on-line technique: measures only the ferrormagnetical particles: Requires an electron
microscope for a more profound analysis.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
BP, Mobil
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.4 Magnetic
Plugs
Query:
14.3.4 Magnetic Plugs
Wear and fatigue
Applications
Equipment with closed lubrication systems, such as reductors, collectors of motor oil, compressors,
etc.
Technical Base
In the lubrication system a magnetic plug is mounted so that it is exposed to the circulating lubricant.
The small metal particles in suspension in the oil and the unfastened metal scales due to fatigue, are
captured by the magnetic force. The probe is taken out by regular intervals and the adhering particles
are examined under a microscope. An increase in the quantity and size of the particles indicates a
potential failure. The particles have different characteristics (form, colour and structure) according to
the type and location of the failure.
P-F Interval
From days to weeks
To pick up a sample: A semi-specialized operator trained accordingly. To analyse the particles: An
experienced and trained technician.
Advantages
It is a cheap method to monitor the contamination of liquids. Only a ordinary microscope is required to
analyse the particles. Some plugs may be taken out during operation.
Disadvantages
Short P-F interval: Experience is necessary to interpret the results.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
SHELLTEST
14.3.5 SHELLTEST
The deformation of the shell of a rotary kiln, rigidity of shell and tyre and the play between them.
Applications
Shell of rotary kilns
Technical Base
The linear movements of a pin which is in contact with the surface of the shell is registered on a paper
during a complete revolution of the kiln. There exist mathematical relations to the deformations of the
Query:
shell. This procedure is carried out three times every 120of the circumference of the kiln at various
planes. Additionally the relative movement between the tyre and the shell is measured placing the pin
on the shell and a plate with a paper on the tyre.
P-F Interval
Usually several months.
An experienced operator
Advantages
It is an on-line technique; long p-f intervals
Disadvantages
The evaluation of the results needs experience. Kiln operation does have a significant influence on the
mesurement results.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Shelltest equipment USD 10000
Supplier/Products
HMC Holderbank
Phillips
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.6 Lead Wire
Test
14.3.6 Lead Wire Test
Alignment, contact area
Applications
Alignment of tyre / roller kiln
Technical Base
A lead wire is passed between the tyre and a roller. The moulding of the wire is drawn on a sheet. This
procedure is carried out three times per tyre every 120of the its circumference for both rollers. The
form of the wire is evaluated for: alignment, straightness of the surface, contact area and stress points.
P-F Interval
Usually several months
No experienced or special knowledge is required
Advantages
Cheap and easy, it is an on-line technique.
Query:
Disadvantages
There is no quantitative result; additional measurements are required (oil film on the shoulders) for the
evaluation of the alignment of the rollers. Kiln operation does have a significant influence on the
measurement results.
Standards
Estimated Costs
< USD 100
Supplier/Products
Thermometer, Thermocouple
14.3.7 Thermometer, Thermocouple
Elevated temperatures due to wear, overloading, etc. at the surface or inside of an equipment
Applications
Refractory, reductors, motors, etc.
Technical Base
The electrical resistance of a wire changes with the temperature. The tension loss over the resistance
is measured. In case of a PT100 the resistance at 20C is 100 Ohm.
P-F Interval
From several hours to several days depending on the application.
Permanent installation: A specialist. Measurements with portable equipment: A suitable trained
semi-specialized operator
Advantages
Cheap and easy to apply the portable equipment: often used as on-line measurement through the
process control system
Disadvantages
In some cases the P-F interval is short - various hours
Standards
Estimated Costs
PT100: > USD 200
Digital thermometers: > USD 1500
Supplier/Products
Rikenta (CH); Ahlborn (D); Endress + Hauser
Query:
Keithley, Bailey, Foxboro, Kent
Spectrometric Oil Analysis
14.3.8 Spectrometric Oil Analysis
The wear of the following elements can be detected: iron, copper, lead, chrome, aluminium,
molybdenum, tin, silver, zinc, nickel, silicon, sodium, boron
Applications
Circulating oil systems
Technical Base
The contaminants in a sample of oil are measured by emission or atomic absorption spectrometry. The
emission spectrometry excites the metallic impurities in the sample with a direct high voltage (15000
V), causing the impurities to emit characteristic radiations which can be analysed.
The atomic absorption spectrometry works on the principle that every atom absorbs light of its own
specific wave length. The oil sample is diluted and vaporised in an acetylene flame, and the presence
of each element is determined using a light source of the appropriate wave length. In this way, the
wear particles are identified, quantified and qualified so that the source of deterioration can be located.
The graphs of the wear rates for each metal show deteriorating or improving conditions.
P-F Interval
Usually from several weeks to months.
To take out a sample: A semi-specialized, suitable trained operator. To operate the spectrometer: a
trained laboratory technician. To analyse the results of the sample: an experienced chemical analyst.
Advantages
This test, of atom absorption, is comparatively cheap (sometimes it can be included in the service of
the oil supplier): More reproducible at lower concentrations: Emission spectrometry is much faster than
the atomic absorption spectrometry.
Disadvantages
Normally the analysis have to be made by specialised contractors (or oil suppliers) because the
equipment and experience is lacking (long response time).
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
BP, Mobil
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.9 Strain
Gauges
14.3.9 Strain Gauges
Query:
Forces and deformations on parts
Applications
Gear reductor, structures, shafts, drives, etc.
Technical Base
The resistance of the wire changes linearly to the prolongation caused by the deformations. This
resistance is measured by a bridge circuit.
P-F Interval
Several weeks to several months
An experienced technician is required to decide the position and affix the strain gauges as well as
evaluate the results.
Advantages
Long P-F interval
Disadvantages
The measuring equipment are expensive, an external expert is required.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
MEC; Brel & Kjr
Stroposcopy
14.3.10 Stroposcopy
Fissures, wear, direction, rotation speed and alignment in rotating and oscillating parts.
Applications
Rotary equipment such as shafts, ventilators, etc. for fissures or wear; check coupling for distance
between the plates, loose screws, etc., balancing of rotary equipment (together with vibration
measurement equipment)
Technical Base
The eyes follow the movement of one part in relation to the frequency in which it is illuminated. The
frequency of the stroboscope is adjusted until the part appears to be stationary. Then the part can be
inspected.
P-F Interval
Depends on the application; from several days to weeks
Query:
No experience or special knowledge is required.
Advantages
Easy to use and cheap, it is an on-line technique.
Disadvantages
Gives the impression that the part does not move, therefore security aspect should be kept in mind.
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 500
Supplier/Products
Picostrob; Tourostrob
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.11 Test
Coupon
14.3.11 Test Coupon
General and localised erosion and corrosion such as metal loss and pitting
Applications
Petrol refineries, process plants, gas transmission plants, underground structures, monitoring of
cathode protection, abrasive slurry transport, water distribution systems, atmospherique corrosion.
Technical Base
Usually coupons are produced from mild, low carbon steel with a low coal content or of a grade
material which duplicates the wall of a vessel or pipe. The coupons are carefully prepared, weighted
and measured before they will be exposed. After the coupons have been submerged in the process
flow for a period of time (from several weeks to several months) they are removed and checked for
weight loss and pitting. From these measurements, the relative metal loss of the tube walls can be
calculated and pitting can be estimated.
P-F Interval
Several months
A suitable trained specialist
Advantages
Very satisfactory when corrosion is constant: Useful in dangerous areas where the electrical
dispositives are prohibited: Fairly cheap: Indicates the type of corrosion: Widely used.
Disadvantages
Results take time: The response to dangerous corrosive conditions is low: The use of coupons requires
several personnel: The determination of the rate of corrosion usually takes several weeks: Information
Query:
about temporal or abnormal conditions are not supplied.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
Thermography
14.3.12 Thermography
Temperature variances caused by wear, corrosion, fatigue, leaks, poor electrical connections, etc.
Applications
Power transmission lines, transformers, refractories, electrical switchgear, building insulation,
hydraulics, bearings, gas mains (dirt accumulations), etc.
Technical Base
Thermography extends the human vision to infrared waves. It is based on the principal that all objects
above absolute zero (-273C) emit infra-red radiation. An infrared camera that produces a live thermal
picture detects this energy. Temperature differences of the surface are seen as light and dark areas
and false colours. The thermal drawing can be recorded by a video camera attached to the display
screen or directly onto a floppy-disk.
P-F Interval
A few days to several months depending on the application
Operation of equipment: A trained specialist. Interpretation of results: An experienced technician.
Advantages
Stationary or moving objects can be examined at any distance without touching or influencing the
temperature of the object: Photographs and videotapes provide a permanent record: Examinations are
carried out at safe distances from dangerous gases and high temperatures: Equipment portable and
quick to use.
Disadvantages
Inaccessible components have to be uncovered: Costs: Needs specialist to interpret results: wide
range of applications are needed to justify cost of the equipment.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Portable systems USD 1500 - 6000
Complete systems (including software) USD 50-100000
Supplier/Products
AGEMA: Thermovision
Query:
AHLBORN: Raynger
HENZ: Infratherm
Land (USA); Williamson (USA); Kane May
Temperature Indicating Paint
14.3.13 Temperature Indicating Paint
Equipment temperature at surface
Applications
Refractories, thermal treatment
Technical Base
A chemical substance is applied to the machine surface. If the temperature exceeds the design
temperature of the substance, the state changes from solid to liquid. Although the temperature is
lowered afterwards, the traces of the liquid are still visible.
P-F Interval
From days to several weeks depending on the application
No experience of special knowledge is required.
Advantages
Cheap and easy to use; provides a maximal temperature indication
Disadvantages
Indicates only a temperature limit; several paints are needed to cover temperature range; Once the
temperature has been exceeded a new paint is required.
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 30 per tube or pencil
Supplier/Products
Medicina (FL): Tempil
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.14 Vibration
Monitoring
14.3.14 Vibration Monitoring
Changes in the vibration frequencies caused by wear, fatigue, corrosion, imbalances, disalingnment,
loosening, etc.
Query:
Applications
Rotating and oscillating machines in general such as reductors, ventilators, motors, etc.
Technical Base
Vibrations are produced by the movement of the machine or a part of it. The most important
characteristics that can be measured are: displacement, speed, acceleration, frequency, phase, using
an accelerator or a speed sensor, a vibrometer, filters, oscilloscopes, etc. Several methods exist to
evaluate the vibrations (e.g. wide band, broad band, octave band, etc.) each of them has its advantage
for a special problem
P-F Interval
From days to weeks depending on the application
To operate the measuring equipment: an appropriate trained technician; To interpret the results: An
experienced technician, sometimes of superior level
Advantages
Cheap and compact: Test during service; can be portable or permanently installed. The interpretation
can be based on established acceptance criteria for the condition such as VDI 2056
Disadvantages
An in depth analysis requires an expert and a relatively long analysing time. Different evaluation
techniques are needed to cover a case in detail
Standards
VDI 2056 ISO 3945
Estimated Costs
Simple Instrument USD 1000
Date collector, including software approx. USD 30000
On-line system for several measuring points > USD 60000
Supplier/Products
IRD; Bruel & Kjaer; Karl Deutsch; Schenk, MAAG, ABB; SPM
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.15 Visual
Inspection
14.3.15 Visual Inspection
The range of conditions is enormous: Function, condition, surface, integrity, dimensions, shape,
material, etc. of a piece of equipment in any industry not only for condition monitoring but also for
damage analysis
Applications
For all equipment
Query:
Technical Base
Human sense is the technical base, sometimes supported with simple auxiliary instruments such as
mirrors, lamps, etc.
P-F Interval
From several days to several months depending on the application
An attentive operator
Advantages
Most important method; cheap and easy, can be realised by operators of every level and education
Disadvantages
Human senses are limited: results are subjective and sometimes they can not be quantified.
Standards
DIN58220; DIN 8524; DIN 8563
BS 5289; BS 4080; ISO 3058; ASME sect V Art. 9
Estimated Costs
Nothing for inspections that are carried out during the daily work.
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.16 Sight
14.3.16 Sight
The range is enormous: Function, condition, surface, integrity, dimensions, shape, material, etc. of an
equipment or of a part of any industry not only for condition monitoring but also for damage analysis.
Applications
For all equipment
Technical Base
Use of eyes
P-F Interval
Advantages
Very important method; cheap and easy, can be realised by on an every day base.
Disadvantages
Query:
Human senses are limited; results are subjective and sometimes they can not be quantified.
Standards
DIN 58220; DIN 8524; DIN 8563
BS 5289; BS 4080; ISO 3058; ASME sect V Art. 9
Estimated Costs
Nothing for inspections made by the operators during the daily work
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.17 Sound
14.3.17 Sound
In majority: loosening, wear and forces
Applications
For all equipment or moving parts
Technical Base
Use of ears
P-F Interval
From several hours to several months depending on the application
Advantages
Very important method: cheap and easy, can be realised by operators
Disadvantages
Human senses are limited, results are subjective and sometimes they can not be quantified.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Nothing for inspections made by the operators during the daily work
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.18 Smell
14.3.18 Smell
In majority leaks and forces (overloads)
Applications
Query:
For all equipment or moving parts, electrical, tubes, tanks, etc.
Technical Base
Use of nose
P-F Interval
From minutes to several hours depending on the application
Advantages
Cheap and easy, can be realised by operators
Disadvantages
Human senses are limited; results are subjective and sometimes they can not be quantified, P-F
interval is very short.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Nothing for inspections made by operators during the daily work
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.19 Touch
14.3.19 Touch
In majority loosening, wear and property
Applications
For all equipment
Technical Base
Use of hands
P-F Interval
From several hours to several months depending on the application
Advantages
Cheap and easy, can be realised by operators
Disadvantages
Human senses are limited; results are subjective and sometimes they can not be quantified; can be
dangerous (hot surfaces, splinters, etc.)
Query:
Standards
Estimated Costs
Nothing for inspections made by operators during the daily work
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.20 SPM
(Shock Pulse Method)
14.3.20 SPM (Shock Pulse Method)
Shock waves due to fissures, wear, disalignment, insufficient lubrication, etc.
Applications
Rolling element bearings, pneumatic impact tools, valves of internal combustion engines
Technical Base
A accelerator detects the shock waves transmitted by the machine. The signals passes through a band
pass filter which selects only frequencies exceeding 10 kHz. This high frequency input is converted into
square pulses. The peak values of these pulses are read off as a measure of bearing damage.
P-F Interval
Depends on the application, but usually several weeks to months
An experienced and suitably trained technician
Advantages
Long P-F intervals: Equipment portable: Simple to use, on-line technique
Disadvantages
Not suitable for slow-moving machinery with high levels of product impact noise unless adaptive noise
cancelling is also used. Application is limited to a shock impulse measurement and transitory signals.
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 3000
Supplier/Products
SPM Instrument AG
AE Advanced Engineering, Rolle (CH)
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.21 Dye
Penetrant Examination
14.3.21 Dye Penetrant Examination
Query:
Surface discontinuities, fissures, etc. caused by fatigue, wear, surface shrinkage, grinding, heat
treatment, laminations, corrosion, corrosion stresses
Applications
Ferrous and non ferrous materials such as welds, machined surfaces, shafts, boilers, plastic
structures, compressor receivers, etc.
Technical Base
The penetrant liquid is applied to the test surface and sufficient time is permitted for it to penetrate the
surface discontinuity. The excess surface penetrant is removed. A developer is applied which draws
the penetrant from the discontinuity to the test surface where it is interpreted and evaluated. The liquid
penetrants are categorised according to the dye type (visible dye, fluorescent or penetrates of double
sensity) and the required procedure to eliminate them from the test surface (washable with water, post
emulsified or solvent removed)
P-F Interval
To apply the penetrate: a semi-specialized suitable trained operator. Interpretation: A suitable
experienced technician
Advantages
The sets of visible penetrate dye are very cheap but the fluorescent sets are a lot more sensitive.
Detects surface discontinuities also on non ferrous materials.
Disadvantages
Fluorescent penetrates require an darkened area for inspection; Not an on-line technique, monitors
only surface-breaking defects; It cannot verify materials with a porous surface; use is limited at
temperatures from 0to 50C.
Standards
DIN 54152; BS 4416
ASTM-E 165; MIL-I-25135
Estimated Costs
USD 40 per set
Supplier/Products
ARDROX; MAGNAFLUX; CASTROL
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.22 Eddy
Current Testing
14.3.22 Eddy Current Testing
Surface and sub-surface discontinuities caused by wear, fatigue and stress, detection of dimensional
changes produced trough wear, strain and corrosion, determination of material hardness.
Query:
Applications
Ferrous materials used for boiler tubes, heat exchanger tubes, hydraulic tubing, hoist ropes, railway
lines, etc.
Technical Base
A test coil carrying alternating current between 100 kHz and 4 MHz induces eddy current in the part
being inspected. Eddy current detours around cracks, becoming compressed, delayed and weakened.
The electrical reaction on the test coil is amplified and recorded on a cathode ray tube or direct reading
meter.
P-F Interval
Several weeks, depending on the application
An experienced and suitable trained technician.
Advantages
Applicable to a wide range of conducting materials. Can work without surface preparation. High defect
detection sensitivity: Strip chart recorder provides a permanent record
Disadvantages
Poor response from non-ferrous materials. Usually an external specialist is required.
Standards
ASNT; DIN
Estimated Costs
from USD 3000
Supplier/Products
Frster (Germany)
Endoscopy
14.3.23 Endoscopy
Surface cracks and their orientation, oxide films, weld defects, corrosion, wear, leaks
Applications
The internal visual inspection of narrow tubes, bores and chambers of engines, pumps, turbines,
compressors, boilers, etc. in several industries
Technical Base
These instruments are known as endoscopes or borescopes. The light is channelled with mirrors or
fibre cables to allow inspection of otherwise inaccessible points of view. If the light is insufficient, an
external light can be sent through some of the fibre cables. For this an equipment producing cold light
is used. It lightens the area so that photographs can be taken or video equipment used.
Query:
P-F Interval
Several weeks depending on the application
An experienced and suitable trained operator
Advantages
A detailed inspection of the surface in inaccessible areas can be obtained without having to dismantle
the pieces; photographs can be taken to provide permanent records. They can be magnified; portable
equipment.
Disadvantages
Only surface defects can be detected; Not an on-line technique; when equipment with cold light
source, video camera, etc. is used, the method becomes costly
Standards
Estimated Costs
Inflexible: USD 2000; with fibre cables USD 5000-10000
Complete systems: USD 30000-50000
Supplier/Products
Volpi; Classen + Co; Olympus
Electrical Resistance (Corrometer)
14.3.24 Electrical Resistance (Corrometer)
Integrated metal loss (i.e.: total corrosion)
Applications
Petroleum refineries, process plants, gas transmission plants, underground structures, cathodic
protection monitoring, abrasive slurry transport, water distribution systems, atmospheric corrosion
Technical Base
The system is composed of a probe and an instrument to read it. The probe consists of a wire, strip or
tube of the same metal in the plant being monitored. The electric resistance of the probe which is
measured by a bridge circuit, increases as the probe cross-section decreases with corrosion. This
increase in resistance enables total metal loss to be read out which is easily converted to corrosion
rate
P-F Interval
Depends on the application and on the corrosion rate. Usually several months.
A trained specialist
Advantages
Query:
When plotted against a time scale, yields both corrosion rate and total metal loss; Can be used in any
environment. Portable equipment available. On-line monitoring possible: In-plant equipment provides
permanent records: Interpretation normally easy.
Disadvantages
Gives no indication of whether the corrosion rate at a particular time is high or low; portable equipment
provides no permanent record.
Standards
ASTM D 1776-79
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
Hardness Test
14.3.25 Hardness Test
Propriety of a material (hardness, crystallisation)
Applications
Shafts, gears, wear plates (i.e. clinker cooler), laminations, castings, welds
Technical Base
A test body is accelerated and collides with the test surface. The resistance of the material against
penetration of the body into the surface is an indication of the hardness. Two types of evaluations are
used depending on the method applied: A typical dimension (i.e.diameter) of the trace of the test body
on the surface is measured or the energy difference of the test body is measured before or after the
collision. For both methods the value is converted in hardness using tables.
P-F Interval
Depends on the application, but usually from several weeks to months
A suitable trained operator
Advantages
Rapid and simple measurements
Disadvantages
Application in a plant limited: inaccuracy of approx. 10%, Not an on-line technique. The measurement
point has to be easily accessible.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Equotip USD 4000; Poldi USD 600
Query:
Supplier/Products
Poldy Hammer
Equotip
Shore Hardness Tester
Dimension Measurement
14.3.26 Dimension Measurement
Dimensions of parts and dimension changes due to deposits or wear
Applications
For all equipment or parts such as shafts, bearings, tubes, etc.
Technical Base
There exist a wide variety of methods
A dimension is measured with a calibrator, a micrometer, etc. The results are in units of length and are
compared with previous or basic values.
A dimension is compared with a calibre. The results are in a digital form , it DOES or DOES NOT
have the required value including tolerances.
The contour of a part is formed with a wire and compared with the previous or basic contours.
P-F Interval
No experience or special knowledge is required.
Advantages
Cheap and simple to use and evaluate
Disadvantages
Difficult to apply to big dimensions; only a decision YES or NO in the case of calibres, not an
on-line technique
Standards
ISO
Estimated Costs
Very depending on the technique selected, from USD 100 for calibrators, micrometers, etc.
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.27 Laser
Query:
14.3.27 Laser
In the majority dimensions or distances between two points are measured or it is used for alignment
purposes
Applications
Kilns, transport ways, couplings, etc.
Technical Base
It is the modern form of the theodolite. A laser source is used to create an uniform and visible light of
an exact wave length. This light is sent to a point on the surface. With a second instrument this point is
also adjusted to this point, producing a triangulation measurements and evaluating them
trigonometrically. With another Methode the beam is reflected and the difference at the source is
evaluated.
P-F Interval
A suitable trained technician
Advantages
Rapid, can be measured without contact, measurement possible with the equipment in service.
Disadvantages
Relatively expensive, practice is required.
Standards
Estimated Costs
Coupling alignment systems USD 10000
Supplier/Products
Optalign FLS (kiln alignment service)
Theodolite
14.3.28 Theodolite
In the majority dimensions or distances between two points are measured or it is used for alignment
purposes
Applications
Kilns, transport ways, coupling, etc.
Technical Base
Triangulation measurements and evaluating them trigonometrically
Query:
P-F Interval
A suitable trained technician
Advantages
Rapid and relatively cheap, can be measured without contact, sometimes possible with the equipment
in service
Disadvantages
Practice is required, limited use in a cement plant
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.29 Leak
Testing
14.3.29 Leak Testing
Leaks in tube systems and tanks, etc.
Applications
Distribution systems, tanks and vessel for oil, petroleum, lubricants, chemicals, liquid alternative fuels,
etc.
Technical Base
The range of methods is so great that only the types are mentioned:
- by lost quantity
- by pressure differences: see also Pressure Test
- by tracing substances
P-F Interval
A semi-specialized suitable trained operator. In some countries a certification is required to be allowed
to perform the tests
Advantages/Disadvantages
The range of techniques is so great that the advantage of one technique is the disadvantage of the
other. Some are simple to use and cheap.
Standards
Query:
BS 3636; ASTM-E 432-71
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.30 Voltage
Generator
14.3.30 Voltage Generator
Resistance of electrical isolation
Applications
Electrical Circuits
Technical Base
The measurement is based on the ratiometer principle using two moving coils connected mutually at
right angles (90) within a permanent magnetic field. The reference coil is connected in series to a
constant resistance, the other (deflecting coil) in series with the isolation resistance to be measured.
The amount of deflection is a function of the resistance of the isolation. Test voltages of 250 to 10000
V are used.
P-F Interval
From months to years
Operator or technician, depends on the voltage
Advantages
Simple and known technique
Disadvantages
No on-line technique
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.31 Magnetic
Particle Test
14.3.31 Magnetic Particle Test
Surface and near-surface cracks and discontinuities caused by fatigue, wear, laminations, inclusions,
surface shrinkage, grinding, heat treatment, hydrogen embrittlement, laps, seams, corrosion fatigue
and corrosion stress.
Applications
Query:
Ferromagnetic metals such as compressor receivers, welds, machined surfaces, shafts, steel
structures, boilers, etc.
Technical Base
A test piece is magnetised and then sprayed with a solution containing very fine iron particles over the
area to be inspected. If a crack exists, the iron particles will be attracted to the magnetic flux leaking
from the area caused by the discontinuity and give an indication. These leakage fields act as local
magnets. The indication is then interpreted and evaluated. Fluorescent magnetic particle sprays
provide greater sensitivity and inspection should be carried out under ultra-violet light in a darkened
room.
P-F Interval
From days to months depending on the application
Application: a suitably trained semi-specialized operator, Interpretation: an experienced technician.
Advantages
Reliable and sensitive: relatively cheap and simple; independent of temperatures
Disadvantages
Detects only surface and near surface cracks: Time consuming: Contaminates clean surfaces: Not an
on-line monitoring technique; only for ferromagnetic materials.
Standards
DIN 54130 and following; BS 4397
MIL 1949; ASTM-E and ASME-SE various
Estimated Costs
USD 3000
Supplier/Products
Tiede; Magnaflux
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.32 Oilproof
Lacquer
14.3.32 Oilproof Lacquer
Alignment, contact area
Applications Girth gear/pinion, gears
Technical Base
A coloured liquid is applied to the contact surface of one of the two parts. When the equipment is
moved the coloured area comes into contact with the opposite part and leaves a fingerprint on it.
Those are to be examined for colour distribution.
P-F Interval
Query:
No experience or special knowledge is required
Advantages
Cheap and simple to use
Disadvantages
There is no quantitative result; clean surfaces are required.
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 50 per 0.2 litres
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.33 Electron
Fractography (Replica)
14.3.33 Electron Fractography (Replica)
The growth of fatigue cracks
Applications
Metallic components in motor vehicles, industrial equipment, etc.
Technical Base
Every fracture has its own fingerprint, in that the history of the fracture process is imprinted on the
fracture surface. By studying a replica of the actual fracture surface with an electron microscope, it is
possible to establish the causes and circumstances of failures.
P-F Interval
Depending on the application
Replica of the fracture surface: suitably trained technician. Analysis and reading: experienced
engineer.
Advantages
Failures can be analysed with a high degree of certainty: No damage caused the actual to fracture
surface when replica is made.
Disadvantages
Electron microscope is expensive: High degree of specialisation required to read the results: Not an
on-line monitoring technique: Inaccessible components must be dismantled.
Standards
Query:
DIN 54150
ISO 3057
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.34 Pressure
Test
14.3.34 Pressure Test
Leaks, fissures, fractures and deformations in tanks, pressure vessels, etc.
Applications
Tanks for, gas, pressured air, etc.
Technical Base
For security reasons the tests should be carried out using water or oil if possible. The systems have to
be adequately ventilated. Higher pressures than required during operation are introduced to the system
to see if it can withstand them. The percentage of overpressure required before rupture, depends on
the safety regulations applicable.
P-F Interval
YES or NO decision
A semi-specialized suitably trained operator. In some countries certification is required before testing
can be carried out.
Advantages
This test can be combined with a leak test, cheap and simple to do.
Disadvantages
Not an on-line technique, The components have to be emptied and cleaned before and after the test.
Standards
BS 5430
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
Radiography (X-Ray)
14.3.35 Radiography (X-Ray)
Surface and sub-surface discontinuities caused by fatigue, stress, inclusions, lack of penetration in
welds, gas porosity, intergranular corrosion and stress corrosion.
Query:
Applications
Ferrous and non-ferrous materials, welds, steel structures, plastic-structures, metallic wear
components of engines, compressors, gearboxes, pumps shaft, etc.
Technical Base
A radiograph is produced by passing x-rays or gamma rays through materials which are optically
opaque. The absorption of the initial x-ray depends on thickness, nature of the material and intensity of
the initial radiation. The areas exposed become dark when the film is developed. The degree of
darkening depends on the amount of radiation reaching the film. It will be darkest where the object is
thinnest. A crack, inclusion or a void is observed as a dark patch.
P-F Interval
Several months
Use of equipment: a suitably trained and skilled technician. To interpret the results: a highly skilled
technician or engineer.
Advantages
Provides a permanent record, detects defects in parts or structures not visually accessible
Disadvantages
Sensitivity often low on crack-line defects: Two-sided access sometimes needed; external expert
required; security precautions elevated; costly
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 6000 - 300000
Supplier/Products
Specialised companies
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.36 Linear
Polarisation Resistance (Corrator)
14.3.36 Linear Polarisation Resistance (Corrator)
The rate of corrosion in electrically conductive corrosive fluids
Applications
Cooling water systems, municipal water systems, heat exchanger, desalination plants and pulp and
paper mills and in the plants where the measurement and/or the corrosion control is required in acid
water systems
Technical Base
Corrosion rate is measured by the electro-chemical polarisation method with two or three probes and a
measuring instrument. The principle is based on the fact that a small voltage applied between a metal
specimen and a corrosive solution will produce a current. The ratio of voltage to current is inversely
Query:
proportional to the corrosion rate so it provides a measure of the corrosion rate increase.
P-F Interval
Depends on the application and the corrosion rate. Usually several months
A suitably trained operator
Advantages
Provides a direct indication of the corrosion rate and pitting tendency: Measures corrosion as it occurs:
Some instruments provide a record of the corrosion condition: Automatic detection and control
available: Sensitive to very low corrosion rates: Portable equipment available: Rapid measurement:
Interpretation normally easy
Disadvantages
Portable equipment does not provide a permanent record: Readings must be adjusted when taken in
high sensitivity corrosive media: Gives no information on total corrosion.
Standards
ASTM D 2776
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.37 Liquid
Chromatography
14.3.37 Liquid Chromatography
Changes in lubricant properties such as alkalinity, acidity, ash, flash point, insoluble, viscosity, etc.
Applications
Enclosed oil systems such as transformers, engine sumps, compressor sumps, hydraulic systems, etc.
Technical Base
Liquids are selectively absorbed by passing through a column of finely divided absorbent material. The
separate liquids are then set free by passing a mixture of two solvent liquids, with different polarities,
through the column. Light liquids appear first from the column and complex liquids last. The analysis
appears on a strip chart recorder, or a screen, and the area under each peak is measured to determine
the respective liquid concentrations
P-F Interval
Depending on the degradation rate of the lubricant and the application, but usually several weeks.
Operating the equipment and interpretation of results: a laboratory technician who has passed a
course of chromatography.
Advantages
Query:
High sensitivity: Quick sampling and analysis: Strip chart provides a permanent record
Disadvantages
Considerable skill is needed to interpret results: Equipment not portable: Wide range of applications
required to justify purchase: Not an on-line monitoring technique: not widely used in maintenance
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
Ultrasonic
14.3.38 Ultrasonic
Surface and below surface discontinuities caused by fatigue, heat treatment, inclusions, lack of
penetration and gas porosity in weld, laminations, etc. as well as material thickness.
Applications
Ferrous and non-ferrous materials related to welds, steel structures, boilers, boiler tubes, plastic
structures, shafts, compressor receivers, etc.
Technical Base
A transmitter sends an ultrasonic pulse into the test surface and a receiver amplifies the return pulse to
an oscilloscope. The echo is a combination of return pulses from the opposite side of the test piece
and from any intervening discontinuity. The time elapsed between the initial and return signals and the
relative height indicate the location and severity of the discontinuity. A rough idea of the size and shape
of the defect can be gained by checking the test piece from another location.
P-F Interval
From several weeks to several months
An experienced and suitably trained technician
Advantages
Applicable to the majority of materials, relatively low costs, no expensive preparations needed
Disadvantages
Difficult to differentiate types of defects, evaluation relatively difficult; Problems with complex
geometrical pieces, superficie has to be machined.
Standards
Estimated Costs
USD 8000
Supplier/Products
Query:
Krautrmer; Karl Deutsch
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / CONDITION MONITORING / 14. ANNEXES / 14.3 Annexes 3 / 14.3.39 Potential
Monitoring
14.3.39 Potential Monitoring
Corrosive states of plant (active or passive) such as stress-corrosion cracking, pitting corrosion,
selective phase corrosion, impingement attack, etc.
Applications
Electrolyte environments such as chemical process plants, paper mills, electrical generating plant,
pollution control plants, desalination plants, etc. best suited to materials of stainless steel,
nickel-based alloys and titanium
Technical Base
This technique takes advantage of the fact that, from the point of view of corrosion, a metal which is in
a passive state (low corrosion rate) has a noble corrosion potential, while the same metal in an active
state (higher corrosion rate) has a much less noble potential. The potential changes when passivity
breaks down, and measurements can be made using a voltmeter of about 10 megohm input
impedance and full-scale deflection of 0.5 to 2 volts
P-F Interval
Depends on the material and the corrosion rate
Signal detection is normally easy, but sometimes an experienced engineer is needed to interpretate de
results further
Advantages
Monitors localised attack: Fast response to change
Disadvantages
Small potential changes can be influenced by changes in temperature or acidity: Does not give a direct
measure of corrosion rate or total corrosion: Not widely used: Expert assistance may be required for
interpretation
Standards
Estimated Costs
Supplier/Products
Rohrback Instruments
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment
Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment
W. H. Brgi, R. Burkhalter, T. Elvermann
PT 97/14233/E (Revision 2, February 1999)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OBJECTIVE OF QUALITY INSPECTIONS
3. EXAMPLES OF DAMAGES
4. REASONS FOR DEFECTS
5. INSPECTION METHODS / TESTS
6. SUPPLIERS / MANUFACTURER'S INSPECTIONS
7. STEPS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE
8. QUALITY INSPECTION PROGRAM
9. HMC AS AN INSPECTION COMPANY BENEFITS
10. CONCLUDING REMARKS
11. ANNEXES
Summary:
Quality is not an invention of the twentieth century. Conscientious manufacturers have always been
endeavored to assure the good quality of their products. But through the demand for substantial cost
reduction, manufacturers reduced or outsourced their internal quality control.
Suppliers also place their orders to manufacturers in low cost countries where quality control is not yet
sufficiently observed.
At the same time cement machines change to always larger dimensions and capacities. With this trend
new problems appear as well.
Our statistic shows that during the last few years only 60% of the items inspected are without any
shortcomings. Out of the 40% rejected due to non-conformances, 2% could not be repaired and had to
be discarded and re-fabricated. If not detected during the inspection, this would have caused
substantial loss of production due to the down time, which means a loss of money and in the worst
case even loss of customers.
The Vision for our Quality Control Equipment was therefore clearly defined.
No break downs in the "HOLDERBANK" group due to components failures on purchases of
new equipment
The objective of quality services is always the profit of the purchaser. The investment into quality will
Query:
be paid back in lower production costs as the items are more reliable (less down time), lower
maintenance costs (breakdown maintenance) and a longer live time (reduction of NOA).
One of the most important points from the very beginning is to include adequate quality requirements
(specifications) in the purchase order/contract to assure a trouble free roll-out. Following this procedure
the quality requests have to be included in the contract and the supplier has to follow it. Each
deviations from the specifications must be communicated with the inspectors and needs an agreement.
After a seriously review of operating requirements it can lead into longer guarantee time, price
reduction or manufacturing of a new part.
Finally, from HMC experience we can say: Quality depends very much on the suppliers care and
regular quality inspections remind them for this responsibility.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment / 1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
For the purchaser of a production plant, new machine or component the mayor problem is normally the
loss of production due to equipment break down and less the cost of a replacement. The failed item is
sometimes still under guarantee. Due to production loss, substantial loss of sales or even loss of
customers can occur.
To avoid unexpected down time due to manufacturing defects of items, companies started to contract
independent inspectors to supervise the quality control of the manufacturer. The history of the quality
inspection service at "HOLDERBANK" shows typically this evolution.
Recalculating the main items as girth gears, gear boxes and kiln tyres to influence its design was the
first step. Anyhow, damages still occurred and it was found that some of the reasons were
manufacturing defects. The experience with quality inspections showed that still nowadays it is
necessary to supervise the fabrication through an independent body. This not only because the
suppliers move their production into low price countries, but also because sometimes there is poor
quality produced even in well-known companies with normally good products.
Consequently "HOLDERBANK"'s objectives were set:
Achieve high reliability of the equipment at adequate cost
Maximize effective life time of assets
Form the suppliers to deliver the expected quality
Train our inspectors in supervising efficiently and precisely the quality inspections
Full responsibility for the products remains with the supplier and the quality inspections have to be cost
effective. Therefore our inspections are limited to important items as mentioned in Annex 1.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment / 2. OBJECTIVE OF
QUALITY INSPECTIONS
2. OBJECTIVE OF QUALITY INSPECTIONS
The objective of quality inspection services is always the profit of the purchaser. The investment into
quality will be paid back in lower production costs as the items are more reliable (less down time),
lower maintenance costs (breakdown maintenance) and have a longer life time (reduction of NOA).
Query:
Further valuable information with regard to applied materials and procedures, which normally are not
supplied by the manufacturer, are handed out.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment / 3. EXAMPLES OF
DAMAGES
3. EXAMPLES OF DAMAGES
In a cement plant the catalogue of possible examples of damages is quite long, e.g.
Cracked / fractured girth gears and pinions
Cracked / fractured kiln tyres, rollers, shafts
Cracked kiln or mill shells
Cracked mill end-castings and flanges
Damaged roller mill bodies
Damaged roller press rollers etc.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment / 4. REASONS FOR
DEFECTS
4. REASONS FOR DEFECTS
Reasons for defects are many fold. In some cases it is lack of knowledge, unfavorable design or a
price that was too low for a good quality product. It may be added that the production of large castings
not only demands excellent knowledge and modern facilities but also involves a great deal of luck.
Errors, such as insufficient supervision or checks, a carefree attitude, fatalism and taking calculated
risks up to deliberate attempts to cheat have all been observed.
The life cycle of an equipment/component explains very well that the quality of a part is made at
different stages, starting with the design (specification) followed by the manufacturing (inspections) and
finally at the installation.

The quality inspections focus on the manufacturing of the equipment/component, which is a very
important step in its life. Defects can originate in every manufacturing step: casting, forging, welding,
Query:
machining or assembling. The most common defects are:
Material inhomogeneities
Cracks
Surface deficiencies
Dimensional/Geometrical errors
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment / 5. INSPECTION METHODS
/ TESTS
5. INSPECTION METHODS / TESTS
During the course of fabrication of components / machines quite a series of quality tests are carried out
and different inspection methods are applied.
Destructive Testing (Mechanical tests and Chemical analysis)
Non-destructive testing
Ultrasonic test
Magnetic particle test
Dye penetration test
Hardness test
Dimensional check
Verification of procedures / documents
Destructive Testing and Chemical Analysis
Materials samples taken from the component in question are tested for the ultimate strength, yield
strength, elongation, reduction of area and impact energy. Their chemical composition is analysed as
well. The values received are compared with current standards and specifications.
Visual Testing
Visual testing includes checking of general appearance, surface quality, dimensions, conformity with
drawing, functions and is the most often employed method and the one which has proved its worth for
acceptance inspections of cement equipment.
Ultrasonic Testing
The most difficult of the above mentioned test methods might be the check for internal defects with
ultrasonic sound waves. The microstructure of the material, the geometry and surface quality of the
test piece has an important influence on the sound waves. A broad and permanent experience is
needed to interpret the respective signals on the screen.
A wide variety of ultrasonic probes is available, each of them has its special features. For the
inspection of cement equipment it is not possible to take advantage of all technical possibilities (as for
nuclear equipment) owing to the high cost. Therefore, a certain risk of failure during operation can not
be excluded.
Magnetic Particle Testing
A test piece is magnetized and then sprayed with a solution containing very fine iron particles over the
area to be inspected. If a crack exists, the iron particles will be attracted to the magnetic flux leaking
from the area caused by the discontinuity and giving an indication. These leakage fields act as local
Query:
magnets. The indication is then interpreted and evaluated. Fluorescent magnetic particle sprays
provide greater sensitivity; the inspection should be carried out under ultra-violet light in a darkened
room.
Dye Penetration Testing
The penetrant liquid is applied to the test surface and sufficient time is permitted for it to penetrate the
surface discontinuity. The excess surface penetrant is removed. A developer is applied which draws
the penetrant from the discontinuity to the test surface where it is interpreted and evaluated. The liquid
penetrants are categorized according to dye type (visible dye, fluorescent or penetrates of double
sensity) and the required procedure to eliminate them from the test surface (washable with water, post
emulsified or solvent removed).
Hardness Testing
A test body is accelerated and collides with the test surface. The resistance of the material against
penetration of the body into the surface is an indication of the hardness. Two types of evaluations are
used depending on the method applied: A typical dimension (i.e. diameter) of the trace of the test body
on the surface is measured or the energy difference of the test body before and after the collision is
measured. For both methods the value is converted in hardness and/or strength using tables.
Verification of Procedures / Documents
No quality inspection is complete without the verification of the welding and heat treatment
procedures/parameters (if applicable) and the complete documentation. This documentation includes
all forms completed during the manufacturing and the quality inspection. It has to come along with the
part for further reference at the plant in case of a failure during the operation phase.
Inspectors Qualifications
The inspectors carrying out quality checks on components and machines during fabrication must have
knowledge, sufficient training and practical experience in the different testing methods and
management of such jobs.
Documents and Arrangements necessary for Quality Inspections
In order to be able to carry out tests, certain specific information and documents about each
component must be available. Also the necessary arrangements for the inspectors must be provided
by the supplier. These needs are listed in Annex 2 which should become part of the purchasing
contract in case HMC is entrusted with the quality control.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment / 6. SUPPLIERS /
MANUFACTURER'S INSPECTIONS
6. SUPPLIERS / MANUFACTURER'S INSPECTIONS
In most cases the supplier is not or only up to a certain degree the manufacturer. He plans his order to
a sub-supplier, e.g. a foundry, forge, gear maker etc. The manufacturer (sub-supplier) must perform
quality inspections himself at various stages of manufacturing according to contractually agreed
specifications, standards and procedures. He is, together with the supplier, fully responsible for
ensuring that his products meet the specified qualities.
In practice however we experience too often that the manufacturer does not bear sufficiently the
responsibility for the quality of his products. Statistical data collected by "HOLDERBANK" show that
only about 60% of the items inspected were without any shortcomings.
Query:
Out of 40% rejected due to non-conformances, 2% could not be repaired and had to be discarded and
re-fabricated (see Annex 3). If not detected during inspection, many of these cases would have later
caused substantial loss of production due to downtime of the installation.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment / 7. STEPS OF QUALITY
ASSURANCE
7. STEPS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE
In order to avoid the above-mentioned shortcomings and non-conform behavior of
manufacturers/suppliers it is recommended to engage an independent quality inspection company.
This should, whenever possible, take place before signing the purchasing contract, specially when
working with a new supplier.
The consultant can help to define and verify the expected quality level of the products as well as the
inspection methods / procedures to be applied. The various steps of the proposed proceedings are
shown in Annex 4.1 and 4.2.
If the inspection company is contracted late, the purchaser will not get the full profit of their experience.
Also the work for the company becomes much more difficult, since the manufacturer will not accept
any directions from them towards better quality. Especially if it would cause additional work for
fabrication or testing and if such activities will add cost (reduce his margin).
In the worst cases experienced, at the time of involvement of the inspection company, fabrication had
progressed so far that only a final inspection was possible. If there are any mayor deficiencies detected
then, they can not be corrected anymore or only with a substantial loss of time and money. Both
endanger the delivery and installation schedule of the item.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment / 8. QUALITY INSPECTION
PROGRAM
8. QUALITY INSPECTION PROGRAM
Not all components and machines are in the same way critical for failures or for the time when failures
occur. HMC established a list of the most important items regarding
Highest stress
Influence on the operation reliability
History of similar items
Long delivery
High cost items
The list is presented in Annex 1. For each component mentioned its priority for inspection is also
indicated (1= high priority).
Depending on its type of material, way of fabrication and complexity every component has an individual
inspection program. While some are only checked once at the end of fabrication, others are checked
two or three times at different stages. In Annex 5 a typical inspection program with three inspections is
shown:
After casting and pre-machining (before any welding repairs are carried out)
After construction/repair welding and heat treatment
Query:
Final inspection after completion
Certain tests are performed on a random basis others are full-scale tests. The extent of the
non-destructive test amounts generally to 100%, but can be reduced according to requirements.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment / 9. HMC AS AN
INSPECTION COMPANY BENEFITS
9. HMC AS AN INSPECTION COMPANY BENEFITS
HMC members of the inspection team can look back on a 20 years experience in machine techniques,
maintenance and trouble shooting. Operational problems are therefore not new for them.
HMC is now on the way of establishing their own inspection specifications for the key components.
These can then be used as a "bar" for new suppliers specifications or directly for placing an order.
Whether HMC sends their own or assigned inspector, all of them are highly trained and experienced
inspectors. Training and knowledge exchange is a permanent issue also in the field of quality control.
Once a customer entrusts HMC with the quality assurance and inspection of their purchases, an
independent party will watch his interests as if they were their own.
Some specific benefits are:
The risk of unexpected sudden and premature failure is generally largely reduced. Such a failure could incur a
downtime for carrying out of a (temporary) repair up to 3 weeks, resulting in a great loss of production with
corresponding high monetary loss.
If the quality inspection reveals shortcomings or deficiencies, action can be taken in time to avoid or shorten a
delay in the delivery schedule of the item.
Information that is not included in the documentation from the supplier will also be provided to the purchaser.
An item unacceptable from a quality point of view will be disclosed to the client, the supplier will have to
provide a replacement of acceptable quality.
Due to the long time we have been in this business, we know most of the respective suppliers and their
products very well; all the particularities and specialties, but, most of all, also their weak points. This allows for
more effective inspections.
Due to the well-structured documentation and the valuable hints given, lower maintenance cost can be
expected and the lifetime of the parts may be increased.
Based on their knowledge, our inspectors can decide on the spot about the impact of any such
problem. Furthermore, they have the full back-up support of our department. Additionally, we are
always able to call in specialists within our organization for process matters. This makes the
inspections very efficient and effective, i.e. less time (and money ) is needed.
All this will help that erection, commissioning and operation will be more efficient and economic.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment / 10. CONCLUDING
REMARKS
10. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Quality inspections are not only a matter of costs but also an investment for the lifetime of new
products and will be paid back by lower operation costs (reliability, lifetime). Besides the assurance of
greater reliability in operation they also provide valuable information on the product. Therefore
Query:
purchasers should look at it in the same manner as at an investment for a new line or an upgrade of a
plant. However, no quality can completely exclude all risks.
The quality requirements have to be determined together with the supplier and set down in the
acceptance specification before signing the contract. They should actually form an integral part of the
purchase contract or order.
In the long run the collaboration between the customer (plant) and the manufacturer/supplier has to
become closer, so that only good quality items are delivered, even if there is no third party carrying out
additional inspections. Unfortunately we are still far away from that point.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C03 - Maintenance / Quality Inspections for Cement Plant Equipment / 11. ANNEXES
11. ANNEXES
Annex 1
Recommended item to be inspected
No. of Inspections Inspection Priority
Kiln
Kiln Roller 2 1
Kiln Roller Axle 1 1
Thrust Roller 1 2
Tyre 2-3 1
Tyre Shell Section 1 1
Shell Section (10 pieces) 1 2
Planetary Carrier 1 2
Tube Mill
Mill End 2-3 1
Mill Flange 1-2 1
Mill Body 2 1
Mill Shell Section 1 1
Mill Shell with Tyre 2-3 1
Tube Mill Tyre (Bandage) 2 1
Slide Shoe 1 2
Vertical Mill
Grinding Table 2 1
Roller Yoke (Polysius) 2 1
Roller Carrier (FLS, Pfeiffer, etc.) 1 1
Rocker Arm (Loesche, Onoda) 1 2
Fork (Loesche, Onoda) 1 2
Roller Body [if GGG] 1-2 2
Roller Shaft 1 2
Table Liner (Segment) 1 2
Roller Wear Segment/Tyre 1 2
Roller press
Roller Body (Studded/ Welded Design) 1 1
Roller Segments 2 1
Roller Shaft 1 1
Bearing Block 1 2
Roller Press Frame 1 2
Query:
Roller Press Frame 1 2
Drives
Girth Gear (Cast) 3 1
Girth Gear (Welded) 2 1
Pinion 1 1
Pinion Shaft 1 1
Mill Gear Drive 2 1
Mill Gear Planetary Carrier 1 1
Kiln Gear Drive (Mechanic Standard) 1 2
Kiln Gear Drive (Mechanic Direct) 1 2
Kiln Gear Drive (Hydrostatic) 1 2
Roller Press Drive 1 1
Various
Hammer Crusher Shaft 1 1
Main Process Fan 1 2
Reclaimer Chain 1 2
Annex 2
Documents and Arrangements necessary for Quality Inspections
The following documents are to be provided to "Holderbank" at least one month before
inspections:
Fabrication program
Inspection program of supplier
Manufacturer for each item to be inspected (company address, telex, fax, telephone-No.,
responsible person for quality inspection, place of fabrication)
Acceptance specifications for each item to be inspected (acceptance criteria, state of item when
inspections take place, scope, etc.)
Applied standards for non-destructive testing and other inspections
Drawings (fabrication and assembly if available)
Guarantee clauses of contract for items to be inspected
Documents and certificates to be provided to "Holderbank" during inspections or latest at the
final inspection (two sets):
Non-destructive testing
Surface quality
Hardness test
Materials (chemical composition, mechanical properties)
Record of dimensions
Heat treatment (indicating temperatures, heating, holding and cooling time)
Welding (indicating properties of electrodes, preheating and post heating procedures, type of
welding, welder legitimation)
Query:
Map of defects of repair welds (indicating place and size of defects/repair welds)
All the above mentioned documents have to be delivered in the language specified in the contract. This
also applies to documents from sub-suppliers.
Arrangements of Inspection
The HMC's inspectors and additional inspectors from the client must be given access to manufacture
at any time (time to be co-ordinated in advance).
The HMC's inspector must be given due notice (at least 5 working days in advance) of the individual
inspection stages by the supplier. Provision should be made by the supplier to allow the examination of
several items at the same time (if possible) to minimize traveling expenses.
All inspections will be carried out together with the supplier whereby all tests and measurements are to
be performed by the manufacturers' personal using their own instruments and equipment.
In case of suspect results of inspections the HMC inspector has the right to demand additional suitable
inspections.
Annex 3

Annex 4.1
Quality Control of New Equipment
Query:
Annex 4.2
Quality Control of Individual Spare Parts
Annex 5
GIRTH GEAR (CAST)
INSPECTION PROGRAM
For the quality assessment of a cast girth gear three inspections are to be carried out at different
stages of the manufacturing.
First Inspection
After casting and pre-machining (before any welding repairs are carried out)
Visual inspection
Ultrasonic test of the internal material homogeneity (100%)
Magnetic particle test of the surface in general and the areas of casting defects (100%)
Dimensions
Review of repair welding and heat treatment procedure
Second Inspection
After repair welding and heat treatment
Visual inspection
Query:
Magnetic particle test of repaired areas
Ultrasonic test of the repaired areas
Witness of material strength test (tensile and yield strength, elongation and reduction of area,
impact work)
Hardness test across repair welds and at gear rim
Dimensions
The second inspection can be dispensed if only minor repair welding is necessary. In this case the
material strength test would be carried out either during the first or the last inspection.
Third Inspection
Final inspection after completion. The two gear halves must be assembled.
Visual inspection
Magnetic particle test of tooth (100%) and remaining areas
Hardness test of tooth flanks
Surface roughness test of teeth
Tooth rectilinearity (if straight teeth)
Tooth contact of pinion with girth gear (if possible)
Dimensions in general and of toothing in particular
Review of documents and certificates
The extent of the Non Destructive Tests amounts generally to 100%. It can be reduced on the HMC
inspector's decision.
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C04 - Gas Analysing Systems
C04 - Gas Analysing Systems
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C04 - Gas Analysing Systems / PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS IN CEMENT WORKS
PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS IN CEMENT WORKS
H. Nyffenegger
PT 98/14340/E (substitute for 93/4080/D)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PURPOSE
3. DEFINITIONS
4. MEASURING METHODS
4.1 In-situ measurement
4.2 Extractive measurement
4.3 Measuring points
5. GAS SAMPLING
5.1 Kiln inlet (measuring point A)
5.1.1 Preheater kilns (cyclone preheater and grate preheater kilns)
5.1.2 Wet kilns and long dry kilns
5.1.3 Special instructions for gas sampling at the kiln inlet
5.2 Other measuring points (B to G)
5.2.1 Kiln inlet chamber and riser duct (measuring point B)
5.2.2 Lower cyclone stages (measuring point C)
5.2.3 Upper cyclone stages (measuring point D)
5.2.4 Downstream of cyclone or grate preheaters (measuring point E)
5.2.5 Downstream of electrostatic filter (measuring points F, G)
5.2.6 Coal pulverising mill
6. GAS SAMPLING PROBES
6.1 Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500C
6.1.1 Siemens type FLK
6.1.2 Harman & Braun type 60S (formerly type 13)
6.1.3 Hartmann & Braun type H (Holderbank probe)
6.3 Sampling probes in the temperature range below 500C
7. SAMPLE GAS PREPARATION
Query:
7.1 Sample gas pipe
7.2 Sample gas coolers
7.2.1 Specifications of a suitable sample gas cooler
7.3 Sample gas pump
7.4 Flow control and distribution
7.4.1 Simple gas control
7.4.2 Electronic gas volume control
7.5 Sample gas filters
7.5.1 Coarse filters
7.5.2 Fine filters
7.5.3 Valves
7.5.4 Pressure control valve
7.6 Adjustment
7.7 Further information on sample gas preparation
7.7.1 Sample gas discharge
7.7.2 Tightness test
7.7.3 Filter condition monitoring
7.7.4 Analyser room
7.8 Space requirement
7.9 Location
7.10 Climatic conditions
8. ANALYSERS
8.1 Infrared absorption
8.1.1 Space case, sulphur dioxide (SO
2
)
8.2 Ultra-violet absorption
8.3 Paramagnetism
8.3.1 Oxygen analysers
8.4 Flame ionisation (FID)
8.5 Solid-state electrolytic systems
8.5.1 Zirconium dioxide
8.5.2 Other electrochemical measuring methods
8.6 Multi-component measuring systems
8.6.1 Sick GM 31
Query:
8.6.2 OPSIS AR 620; ER 650
8.6.3 LDS 3000 diode laser of AltOptronic (Sweden)
8.6.4 Advance Cemas FTRI of Hartmann & Braun
9. RECORDING AND EVALUATION
9.1 Trend curves, recorders
9.2 Averaging computers
9.3 Data logging
9.4 Emission computers
10. MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
10.1 Visual checks
10.2 Adjustment checks, cleaning
10.2.1 Tightness checks
10.3 Replacement of wearing parts
10.3.1 Sample gas pump
10.3.2 Cleaning sintered metal and ceramic filters
10.3.3 Fine filters
10.3.4 Gas analysers
10.4 Function test
10.5 Test gases
10.5.1 Mixing test gases
10.6 Fault signals
10.7 Automated maintenance equipment
11. MEASURING ERRORS
11.1 Sample gas sampling
11.2 Sample gas preparation
11.2.1 Sorption and chemical reaction
11.2.2 CO reduction
11.2.3 NO
2
formation in the probe and sample gas preparation system
11.2.4 SO
2
reduction in the probe and sample gas pipe
11.2.5 SO
2
reduction of the filter dust of the sampling probe
11.2.6 Interaction with a liquid
11.3 Volumetric errors due to the solubility of accompanying components
11.4 Gas analysers
Query:
12. SPECIAL FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS
12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter
12.1.1 Basic concept of filter shutdown
12.1.2 Optimisation of CO measurement
12.1.3 Specifications
12.1.4 Shutdown procedure
12.1.5 Special devices
12.1.6 Laser analysers
12.2 Monitoring of coal pulverising mills
12.2.1 Limiting values
13. CONVERSION FACTORS
14. LITERATURE
Query:
SUMMARY
The measurement of individual process gas components in connection with emissions and for the
purpose of process optimisation is increasingly becoming one of the most important procedures in
cement works. Measuring techniques have advanced to the extent that there is now virtually no such
thing as a problem that cannot be solved technically with the necessary specialised knowledge and
means.
In principle, distinction is to be made between analysers that measure (in-situ) directly in the measuring
channel (process gas flow) and extractive measuring instruments. Extractive measuring instruments
measure in a partial gas flow that is prepared prior to entering the analysers according to specifications
(sampling). Extractive measuring instruments are mainly used in process measurement, as the
conditions with respect to temperature and dust loading does not permit the use of the in-situ
technique.
The point at which measurements are carried out is mainly a question of the measuring problem
involved. The extent of sampling increases with increasing process temperature at the sampling point.
For gas sampling at the kiln inlet and up to gas temperatures in excess of 500C, cooling and an
emergency cooling or withdrawal system is required. Withdrawal devices with compressed-air drives
are more reliable for emergency use, so that preference is given to electric drives.
The separation of dust from the sample gas preferably takes place as close as possible to the entrance
of the sampling probe. Sintered metal filters (alloyed steel) clog less quickly than the usual ceramic
filters. Compared to the filters outside the sampling probe, internal filters require less maintenance and
are smaller in volume. Wet sampling probes are considered out-dated.
Three systems for gas sampling at the kiln inlet are described here in brief: Siemens type FLK,
Hartmann & Braun type 60 and type H (Holderbank probe). The latter has proved highly reliable in use
worldwide. For gas sampling below 500C, in addition to standard products, proposals are submitted
for the specific construction of sampling probes.
The purpose of sample gas preparation is to supply the analysers with qualitatively and quantitatively
specified sample gas. The apparatus used for this purpose must be generously dimensioned and
equipped. This requirement applies in particular to the sample gas pump, sample gas cooler and
sample gas distribution. The temperature in the measuring cabinet should be between 15and 25C. A
monitoring system must inform the control system of any irregularities such as insufficient sample
gas, system being adjusted, etc.
The analyser room must provide the ambient conditions for the perfect functioning of the instruments,
i.e. free from vibrations, as close to the sampling point as possible, free from dust and between 15
and 25C. As it also serves as a workroom for maintenance personnel, it must offer sufficient space,
good ventilation and a low noise level as possible.
The analysers used for the determination of individual components in the sample gas are based on
different physical effects such as light absorption. Paramagnetism, flame ionisation and solid-state
electrolysis. The instrument functions and theoretical relationships will be dealt with only insofar as they
are of significance for practical application. When choosing analysers, the manufacturing company is
not as important as the specifications and local services offered.
The majority of gas components (CO, NO, SO
2
, CO
2
) can be measured with NDIR (non-dispersive
infrared analysers). They are simple, sturdy, robust, durable and maintenance-friendly. Disturbing
cross-sensitivities to CO
2
and water vapour are appropriately corrected.
When measuring SO
2
with NDIR analysers by the classic method, undefinable quantities of SO
2
are
absorbed in the sample gas cooler. Corrections are possible by acidifying the condensate in the
Query:
sample gas cooler or using hot NDIR analysers. Preference is given to the use of in-situ analysers.
Oxygen cannot be measured with light-sensitive analysers. The most reliable analysers are still
considered to be those that exploit the magnetic properties of oxygen. The life of solid-state electrolytic
systems such as zirconium dioxide probes is limited and depends on the gas composition. Improved
electrochemical measuring cells have been more widely for the past few years and have a useful life of
three years. They are small, lightweight, require a minimum degree of evaluation and are therefore
used more and more in extractive multi-component analysers.
The flame ionisation detector is used for measurement of the total hydrocarbons (VOC = Volatile
Organic Compounds). The increasing requirements for continuous measurement of the VOC - in
connection with alternative fuels - are maintenance-intensive.
Microprocessor technology makes it possible to use well-known and new measuring methods and
therefore to measure several components simultaneously. For the installation or replacement of
measuring instruments, only the use of multi-component analysers is possible.
The GM 31 in-situ analyser of Messrs Sick enables three gas components to be measured
simultaneously. Compared with the earlier GM 21 (SO
2
and dust) and GM 30 (additionally NO) series,
the GM 31 does not offer dust measurement.
The AR 620 and AR 650 series of Opsis are modern emission measuring instruments. Depending on
the type and number of components to be measured, infrared or ultra-violet light used to the two
together. The analyser or analysers are connected to the receiver at the measuring channel via
glass-fibre cable (light conductor). Control, monitoring and evaluation is carried out by a standard PC.
The analysers have been used several times with good experience.
The new gas analysers with lasers are expected to have a promising future. These are in-situ
analysers that offer the benefits of high sensitivity, short response times and high stability. They could
provide the ideal preconditions for CO monitoring, but are (still) relatively expensive.
Of the extractive measuring instruments, good experiences have been made with the CEMAS FTIR
analyser of Hartmann and Braun. The analyser can be programmed with all IR selectable components.
In order not to alter the originality of the sample gas, all gas conducting parts are heated.
Recording the measured values with strip chart recorders should still suffice for a general overview.
However, in the majority of countries, digital evaluation of emissions is required according to specific
criteria. In the field of process optimisation, the measured values are also only useful when available in
the required form, e.g. as mean values, spreadsheet for further evaluation, etc. At the kiln inlet,
averaging or damping for lump fuel (tyres) feeding in precalcining is absolutely necessary. In modern
plants, the measured values can be partly or wholly processed by the process control system.
The reliable functioning of each measuring instrument depends largely on the maintenance provided.
Visual checks and function tests must be carried out according to the age of the measuring
instruments and the specifications of the supplier.
Personnel must be suitably trained. Critical spare parts such as the sample gas pump, filters valves,
seals, etc., must be carried in stock.
The gas analysers must be checked according to the manufacturers instructions and emission
measurements carried out in compliance with the local requirements and corrections made as
necessary. If test gas should (still) be required, this must be obtained in good time. Any fault signalling
devices must be checked for proper functioning.
Theoretically, maintenance can be reduced by appropriate automation. Adjustment via internal
analyser reference devices has proved highly disadvantageous in this respect. However, if solenoid
Query:
valves should be required for the application of test gas, their usefulness is negligible or negative.
Solenoid valves in sample gas are highly susceptible to faults. For this reason, sample gas changeover
from two or more measuring points to the same analyser group is not considered worthwhile.
The accuracy of gas analysis as a whole is often overestimated, whereby the analysers are least to
blame in this respect. Significant errors occur when sampling (representative) due to sorptions and
reactions in sample gas preparation.
Gas analysis also has special monitoring functions for protection against explosions in the electrostatic
filter and coal pulverising mills. Simple monitoring of the CO content is usually not sufficient for the
protection of the electrostatic filter. The consequences are unnecessary shutdowns of the filter. In
addition, reference is made to a new analyser of Messrs Sick, which has been designed specially for
this task.
Finally, a table is provided showing the various conversion factors from ppm to mg/m
3
for the relevant
gas components.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C04 - Gas Analysing Systems / PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS IN CEMENT WORKS / 1.
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Gas analysis is among the most important, but also the most sophisticated methods of measurement in
cement works. This is due to the constantly growing demands in the field of gaseous emissions and
related requirements. Gas analysis fulfils an equally important function in the field of automation, where
the reliable and exact measurement of certain gas components plays an essential role.
Advances in the field of gas analysis have taken place parallel to the trend of demands, so that one
can hardly speak of technically unsolvable problems any longer. If problems should nevertheless
occur, they are mainly due to the following
Incorrect choice of equipment
Lack of specialised knowledge
Underestimation of expenditure involved (investment and/or maintenance expenditure)
The aim of this report is to prevent problems of this kind occurring when renewing and adding gas
analysing apparatus.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C04 - Gas Analysing Systems / PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS IN CEMENT WORKS / 2. PURPOSE
2. PURPOSE
The continuous measurement of the constituents of certain components in the gas flows (gas analysis)
in cement works consists of three areas of activity:
a) Emission measurements (pollutants, e.g. NO, SO
2
, CO, etc.).
b) Safety measuring systems (e.g. CO monitoring in filtering plants, monitoring of coal dust silos,
etc.).
c) Process measuring systems (e.g. O
2
, CO, NO) for optimisation of the combustion process.
Important for all these activities is a high availability of the measuring equipment and sufficient
accuracy of the measured values. The report therefore attaches particular importance to sample gas
sampling and preparation, maintenance and quality assurance as well as possible measuring errors.
Query:
Finally, hints and practical advice are given, based on many years of experience.
DEFINITIONS
3. DEFINITIONS
Indication delay (90% time) of an analyser or a measuring instrument: The time that elapses from a
sudden change in the gas concentration at the entrance of the analyser or probe up to indication of
90% of this change.
Downtime: The time during which faulty conditions of the measuring instrument and their correction
unforeseeably make the generation of measuring or adjusting signals impossible.
Accompanying gas: Sample gas without the gas components to be measured.
Extractive sampling: The sample gas is extracted as a partial gas flow from the process gas prior to
analysis and conditioned.
Gradient monitoring: Monitoring the gas concentration change gradient (e.g. control of CO cut-off).
In-situ: The measuring instrument is located in or on the process gas duct; analysis is carried out in
the process gas (e.g. optical dust content measuring instrument or zirconium oxygen probe).
Adjustment: Setting or adjustment of the gas analyser with test or zero gas with the aim of adjusting
the indication of the gas analyser as close as possible to the gas concentration to be measured in the
sample gas. With newer analysers, this can also take place with built-in gas-filled glass cuvettes.
Calibration: For a given measuring instrument, determination of a valid relationship between the
indicated measured value or the value of the output signal and a reference value that comes closest to
the true measured quantity. Determination of the scale divisions of a measuring instrument with the aid
of a reference measuring method (generally required only for officially specified continuous emission
measurements).
Life zero: A specific quantity (normally mA) prevails in the electric output signal when the analyser
physically measures zero. The advantage of this system is that the output signal is electrically set to
zero only if the electrical measuring circuit fails.
Sample gas: That part of the process gas extracted from the process gas and passed to the analyser
for measurement.
Sample gas preparation: The entire equipment used for the qualitative and quantitative preparation of
the sample gas to ensure that the same conforms to the specifications of the analysers.
Measuring equipment: All devices and instruments required for the measurement of gas component
concentrations.
Measured quantity: Physical quantity, the numerical value of which is to be determined by
measurement.
Measured component: The gas component in sample gas, the concentration of which is to be
measured.
Zero gas: Test gas used for the adjustment or readjustment of the zero of a gas analyser.
On-Line: The measured quantity is coupled directly with the process.
Test gas: Gas with a known composition for adjustment or readjustment of gas analysers. It consists
Query:
of the measured component and one or several accompanying gases (e.g. nitrogen/ carbonic acid +
measuring component).
Cross-sensitivity: Influence of the concentration of a disturbing component on the measuring result of
another gas component under identical measuring conditions.
Representativity: The correspondence of the measured signal with the definition of the measured
quantity, e.g. the composition of the gas at the kiln inlet measured at a point in relation to the average
gas composition over the entire cross-section.
Disturbing component: Component in the sample gas that falsifies the measured value, e.g. if the
gas analyser has a cross-sensitivity or chemical reactions distort measurements.
Dead time of an analyser or measuring instrument: The time that elapses from a sudden change in the
gas concentration at the entrance of the analyser or probe up to the start of the indication of this
change.
Availability: The time during which the measuring instrument generates usable signals.
Supply pressure: The sample gas pressure necessary for supplying the analysers.
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds: Volatile organic hydrocarbons.
Maintenance time: Time required for maintenance of the measuring instrument (planned preventative
maintenance).
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C04 - Gas Analysing Systems / PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS IN CEMENT WORKS / 4. MEASURING
METHODS
4. MEASURING METHODS
METHODS / 4.1 In-situ measurement
4.1 In-situ measurement
In-situ measuring methods mainly offer the following advantages:
No gas sampling
Sampling forms a path in the measuring channel (as opposed to a point in extractive methods)
Undelayed indication
Less maintenance
Good long-term stability
In-situ measuring methods are used increasingly in modern measuring techniques.
Two different measuring principles are in the foreground:
Solid-state electrolytic and
Optical systems
Stabilised zirconium dioxide is a typical solid-state electrolyte with whose properties oxygen can be
measured directly in the process (similar to thermocouples) (see chapter 8.5.1). This measuring
method has proved reliable in the cement industry. In individual cases, the useful life of the zirconium
sensors was unsatisfactory, as their activity was destroyed by certain accompanying gases.
Query:
Optical instruments are flanged directly on to the gas channel to be measured (e.g. chimney). These
consist of a transmitter (normally light) and a receiver or reflector arranged opposite. While passing
through the channel, the light beam emitted from the transmitter (infrared, ultraviolet or laser) is
changed by certain gas components. After appropriate processing, this change results in the measured
quantity (see chapter 8.6).
Optical measuring instruments (8.6.1, 8.6.2, 8.6.3) are used mainly for the measurement of pollutant
emissions, e.g. dust content, SO
2
, NO, etc. The range of instruments available for measuring further
gas components is increasing in line with technological advances. The application of optical measuring
in-situ instruments is restricted by two factors; the dust content and the given length of the measuring
path, which is in direct relation to the sensitivity. For use in the cement works, these restrictions mean
that they only function in pure gas and their application is limited solely to the measurement of
emissions, although good experience has been made in this respect. Thanks to improved
representativity, in-situ measuring methods are technically superior to extractive methods.
Investments in-situ instruments are generally higher compared with extractive measuring instruments.
As will be shown later, additional investments in in-situ measuring methods are justified under certain
conditions. The level of maintenance is normally less, but partly more sophisticated than extractive
measuring instruments, from a technical point of view.
The measured values of in-situ instruments are always based on gas in an operational condition.
However, values in a standard condition are usually required, .i.e. at 0C, 1013mbar, dry. For
conversion to the standard condition, the parameters pressure, temperature and moisture must be
known or additionally measured.
METHODS / 4.2 Extractive measurement
4.2 Extractive measurement
The measuring procedure is subdivided into different stages:
Sample gas sampling
Sample gas supply
Sample gas preparation
Analysers
With the exception of the dust content, the majority of components can be measured by the extractive
method. In-situ measuring instruments offer the following advantages:
Several analysers can be connected to the same sample gas preparation apparatus.
The positioning of dust and heat-sensitive analysers is more flexible.
Adjustment and calibration is simpler (with built-in reference cuvettes or test gas).
Drying the gases during gas preparation by means of cooling to a dew point of about 3C can be
disturbing for certain components. These are logically water vapour (H
2
O) sulphur dioxide (SO
2
) and
certain hydrocarbon compounds (VOC) (see chapter 8.4).
To exclude disturbing influences during sample gas drying, there are instruments with operating
temperatures that are far above the dew point (up to 250C). The components of these instruments are
subject to increased load when exposed to these temperatures, which inevitably leads to an increased
susceptibility to faults. Experiences made with an instrument of this type are described in chapter 8.6.4.
Query:
The multiple advantages of extractive measuring instruments, compared with in-situ measuring
methods, are confronted with a slightly higher level of maintenance, although the maintenance
necessary for the extractive measuring method is less demanding than that required for in-situ
measuring instruments.
METHODS / 4.3 Measuring points
4.3 Measuring points
Figures 1 to 3 show the typical measuring points at various kiln systems (cyclone preheaters, grate
preheaters and wet kilns). The associated tables show the usually measured components as well as
the purpose of their measurement. The choice of measuring point at the kiln system at which
measurements are to be made, depends primarily on the purpose of measurement.
Figure 1: Measuring Points at Cyclone Preheater Kilns
Figure 2: Measuring points at the grate preheater kilns
Figure 3: Measuring points at wet kilns and long dry kilns
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C04 - Gas Analysing Systems / PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS IN CEMENT WORKS / 5. GAS
SAMPLING
5. GAS SAMPLING
SAMPLING / 5.1 Kiln inlet (measuring point A)
5.1 Kiln inlet (measuring point A)
At the rotary kiln itself, only the measuring point at the feed end of the kiln is realisable with reasonable
effort. The components normally measured there are needed as reference quantities for an optimal
combustion process (usually O
2
, CO, NO).
To prevent distortion of the measured signals due to false air from the kiln inlet seal, the probe tip must
be located distinctly within the rotating part. The sampling conditions at the kiln inlet vary considerably,
depending on the type of kiln (preheater kilns, long dry kilns and wet kilns).
SAMPLING / 5.1 Kiln inlet (measuring point A) / 5.1.1 Preheater kilns (cyclone preheater and grate preheater kilns)
5.1.1 Preheater kilns (cyclone preheater and grate preheater kilns)
Process conditions at the sampling point
Gas temperature 1000 to 1300C
Dust content
>100g/m
3
(cyclone preheater)
Dust content
>5/g/m
3
(grate preheater)
Dew point temperature 35 to 40C
The process gas contains large proportions of alkalis, chlorides and sulphates that are subject to high
local and time variations. Depending on the process and raw material situation, the alkali compounds
combine with the dust to form strongly adherent deposits. To counteract their effects to make gas
Query:
sampling possible at all, elaborate measures are necessary from a measuring point of view.
Owing to the high temperatures, the provision of external cooling is necessary for all types of sampling
probes in the area of the kiln inlet.
Mounting sampling probes
The principle mounting arrangement is shown in Figure 4. Owing to the wide range of kiln systems
available, it is impossible to define an exact mounting point for all types of kilns in advance. The
following criteria play a dominant role:
Available space
Accessibility
Direction of rotation of the kiln
Internals in the kiln inlet chamber
According to experience, the gas composition at the kiln inlet is not homogeneous. In consequence,
the sample is only representative of the average gas composition to a limited degree, irrespective of
where the probe is positioned. The measuring point or sampling point in the rotating part of the kiln, as
will be shown later, cannot be determined primarily on the basis of measuring criteria. An individually
adapted interpretation of the measured values (averaging), correlation with disturbance variables, etc.)
is far more important here than the position of the probe (see chapter 9).
The mounting position shown in Figure 4 is for reference only. Positions and dimensions can vary
considerably from plant to plant. The undisturbed, reliable function of the probe and the warranty that
no false air will be drawn in from the kiln inlet seal always has the highest priority.
The probe must be easily accessible. If necessary, special platforms must be erected. A lifting device
placed above the probe will considerably facilitate maintenance. The minimum distance between the
platform railing and probe axis should be about 1.3m (at least on one side).
As the probe consists of relatively long sections, the access way must not be too narrow. The mounting
position should be accessible via steps not ladders.
Pokeholes, which must be operated regularly, are located in the immediate vicinity of the probe. It must
be ensured that the sampling probe does not interfere with the working space provided for
maintenance personnel.
In principle, the probe must be mounted on the side where the direction of rotation of the kiln shell is
directed downwards. If conditions do not permit, the other side can also be selected, provided the
probe can be positioned at a sufficient distance to the material bed.
Meal inlet pipes, pokeholes, measuring connections, etc., mostly restrict free selection of the mounting
position, the main aim is to minimise hindrance of maintenance personnel.
The inevitably cooled probe surfaces encourage the formation of deposits in the kiln inlet chamber.
These deposits not only hinder subsequent removal of a probe, they can negatively influence the
geometry of the kiln inlet chamber and also cause pressure loss. To prevent this happening, it is
recommended to regularly blow-out the gap between the pipe and probe by means of a mounted air
cannon. The pipe must be dimensioned, so that a gap of about 25mm is produced between the probe
and inner pipe wall.
Figure 4: Mounting of the gas sampling probe at kiln inlet
Query:
SAMPLING / 5.1 Kiln inlet (measuring point A) / 5.1.2 Wet kilns and long dry kilns
5.1.2 Wet kilns and long dry kilns
Process conditions at the sampling point:
Temperature wet kilns 150 to 200C
Temperature long dry kilns 250 to 500C
Dust content wet kilns
about 40g/Nm
3
Dust content long dry kilns
about 300g/Nm
3
Dew point temperature long dry kilns 35 to 40C
Under these conditions, gas sampling is much simpler than for kilns with preheaters. No cooling of the
probe is necessary and the measured signal has improved representativity, as better intermixture of
the gases takes place due to the internals (chains, crosses). With regard to positioning, mounting
conditions, etc. roughly the same conditions apply as for kilns with preheaters.
SAMPLING / 5.1 Kiln inlet (measuring point A) / 5.1.3 Special instructions for gas sampling at the kiln inlet
5.1.3 Special instructions for gas sampling at the kiln inlet
Cyclone and grate preheater kilns
The above process conditions show that gas sampling from this difficult environment requires particular
measures:
Owing to the high temperature, the sampling probe must be cooled.
A filter system must ensure that the large amounts of diversely structured dust is removed prior to
sample gas preparation
Very often, deposits build up at the sampling system and clog the probe entrance, so that
measures must be taken for their prevention.
Query:
Probe cooling
Liquid cooling is used for all known probes. The cooling medium, which is usually water, transfers the
heat in a closed system to water-air or water-water heat exchanger to prevent calcareous deposits.
The energy produced varies considerably. Depending on the condition of the probe surface, a large
amount (clean surface) or small amount (dust or deposits on the probe) must be removed. Based on
experience, an energy flow of maximum 30kW per probe meter must be removed within the kiln (probe
with 10cm outside diameter). In extreme cases, the energy flow varies between 1kW and 30kW per
probe meter.
According to experience, the risk of deposit formation increases with reducing probe or cooling circuit
temperature. As a countermeasure, some probes are operated at higher temperatures. This takes
place by controlling the cooling circuit or by internally heating the probe.
If a water-air heat exchanger is used, it must be taken into account in dimensioning that the maximum
cooling capacity is still sufficient even with heavy clogging of the heat exchanger surfaces. It is also
recommended to add an anti-freeze to the water in cold regions.
In order to better control incrustations and deposit build-up in and on the probes, cooling systems were
developed which enable the probes to be operated at higher temperatures. An example is the steam
jacket probe. This probe functions as a heat conducting tube, whereby the heat of evaporation of water
is used as a heat carrier to the directly flanged-on heat exchanger (condenser).
The probe temperature is 120 to 150C, the internal pressure is 1.5 to 5 bar. The probe only functions
properly if it can be mounted almost vertically (less than 30from the vertical axis). This requirement
virtually excludes the mounting method shown in Figure 4 in an almost horizontal position, so that its
possible applications are very restricted.
If a synthetic heat carrying liquid is used instead of water, the probes can be operated at even higher
temperatures (up to 200C) (see chapter 6.1.1).
Safety and maintenance equipment
In the event of failure of the cooling system, the probe would be damaged within a few minutes.
Countermeasures are essential. For emergency cooling purposes, water supplied from storage tanks
can be used and feed directly into the probe circuit if required. Emergency cooling systems of this kind
must also function in the event of a total power failure. Pneumatically operated withdrawal devices
have proved more reliable than emergency cooling systems (see Figure 5). Since compressed air can
be stored without problems, pneumatic operation has the advantage that the probe can be withdrawn
from the danger, zone even in the event of a total power failure, within a reasonable time. The
automatic insertion and withdrawal device also has further significant advantages:
Regular insertion and withdrawal prevents the formation of deposits on the probe and their
build-up.
Maintenance is considerably facilitated.
All connections to the probe (hoses, cables, etc.) must be flexible.
Dust filtration in the probes
With dry filtration, the sample gas is withdrawn from the process by suction in an unpurified condition.
Dust separation takes place inside the probe or at its outer end. The produced dust must be removed
from the filter from time to time. Whether this takes place manually by replacing the filter element or
automatically by blowing back into the sampling space, the sample gas flow is always interrupted. This
interruption has a negative effect on the availability of the measuring instrument. To prevent
condensation of any kind, the filter must have a minimum operating temperature of 150C.
Query:
Figure 5: Probe extraction device
With wet filtration, the sample gas flows through a water curtain at the probe tip. This produces a slurry
of water and dust, which together with the sample gas discharges through the wet probe, which in
contrast to the dry probe is inclined outwards. The slurry discharges, the gas is dried and passed to the
analysers.
Wet filtration has the disadvantage that various gas components are also dissolved in water. SO
2
is
completely washed out and the CO
2
concentration reduces to an uncontrollable degree. As a result of
this change in the total composition, the relative contents of the other gas components increase, so
that the composition of the sample gas is no longer correct. If the injector water circulates in a closed
system, the circulated water becomes acidic and behaves virtually inert towards CO
2
. However,
susceptibility to corrosion of all parts coming into contact with the water must be observed.
The level of maintenance necessary with wet filtration is slightly less and above all technically less
demanding than with dry filtration. However, in view of the distortion of measured values and the
reliable dry systems that are currently available, its application is no longer recommended.
Filter cleaning
The dust separated in the dry filter must be removed from time to time. The degree of clogging of the
filter, including the gas sampling probe, can be determined by means of a vacuum gauge arranged
between the filter and sample gas pump. The maximum permissible value for cleaning differs from
plant to plant and must be individually determined.
Compressed air is normally used for cleaning and removing the dust from the filter. If the filter is
arranged at the outer end of the probe, cleaning should take place in two stages.
1) Loosening the dust via the sample gas pipe.
2) Blowing out the dust via a separate compressed-air pipe.
The compressed air must be free from oil and water. Oil in the purging air produces incorrect CO in the
filter and excessive moisture encourages encrustation of the filter.
With regard to gas sampling, the conditions for the wet kiln and long dry kiln are considerably simpler
than for preheater kilns. The lower temperatures usually obviate the need of probe cooling. The lower
dust load enables the use of simpler filter systems without special cleaning, as used following the heat
exchanger in the case of dry kilns (see chapter 6.3).
SAMPLING / 5.2 Other measuring points (B to G)
Query:
5.2 Other measuring points (B to G)
SAMPLING / 5.2 Other measuring points (B to G) / 5.2.1 Kiln inlet chamber and riser duct (measuring point B)
5.2.1 Kiln inlet chamber and riser duct (measuring point B)
Dust content
200 to 1200g/m
3
(N.tr.)
In the kiln inlet chamber and riser duct, as at the rotary kiln inlet, local and time-related concentration
differences can be expected. Above the meal inlet of the lowest cyclone, there is no longer any danger
of a deposit build-up through circulated materials. However, the gas composition no longer
corresponds at this point with the gas composition in the rotary kiln inlet. It is distorted by the reduction
of CO in the riser duct and through dilution with false air and CO
2
from deacidification of the burned
product.
When burning secondary fuel, the measuring point must be arranged below the secondary fuel inlet.
With regard to gas sampling, virtually the same conditions apply as at the kiln inlet. This applies
similarly to a large extent to sampling from the calcining chambers of grate preheater kilns.
SAMPLING / 5.2 Other measuring points (B to G) / 5.2.2 Lower cyclone stages (measuring point C)
5.2.2 Lower cyclone stages (measuring point C)
From a measurement point of view, gas analysis in this area is virtually pointless, particularly in plants
with pre-calcining. However, if measurements are still carried on a frequent basis, these are not for
measurement reasons, but the more favourable conditions with regard to sampling (deposit formation
and temperature) than further below, e.g. in the rotary kiln inlet. A cooling system is necessary in any
event.
SAMPLING / 5.2 Other measuring points (B to G) / 5.2.3 Upper cyclone stages (measuring point D)
5.2.3 Upper cyclone stages (measuring point D)
Dust content
200 to 1200g/m
3
(N.tr.)
Query:
Protection of the electrostatic filter against explosions due to impermissible CO concentrations,
presupposes a rapid reaction of the gas analysis (see chapter 12.1). For this task, gas sampling below
the uppermost cyclone stage is preferable, as the residence time of the main gas flow in the uppermost
cyclone stage prolongs the reaction time of the monitoring device. Two-section preheater systems
should always be provided with two complete measuring instruments (one for each section).
The sampling conditions are relatively simple. No cooling is necessary. In order to achieve rapid
reaction times, the maximum amount of gas must be drawn in (60 to 300 l/h). However, as the amount
of gas increases, so too does the dust content in the sampling system, so that, depending on the
particular system, it must be separated by the filter and blown back again. More suitable for this
purpose are probes whose filters are located directly in the gas flow (internal filter probes) than those
with external filters (see chapter 6.3).
SAMPLING / 5.2 Other measuring points (B to G) / 5.2.4 Downstream of cyclone or grate preheaters (measuring point E)
5.2.4 Downstream of cyclone or grate preheaters (measuring point E)
Gas temperature for rotary kilns with cyclone preheaters 300 to 400C
Gas temperature for rotary kilns with grate preheaters 100 to 150C
Dust content for rotary kilns with cyclone preheaters
20 to 70gm/
3
(N.tr.)
Dust content for rotary kilns with grate preheaters
2 to 10g/m
3
(N.tr.)
Dew point temperature for rotary kilns with cyclone preheaters 35 to 45C
Dew point temperature for rotary kilns with grate preheaters 50 to 65C
At the point, similar conditions prevail for gas sampling as in the riser duct (measuring point D). In the
case of grate preheaters, this point approximately corresponds with the conditions downstream of the
grate, but less dust loading. To be taken into account for CO monitoring in grate preheater kilns is the
fact that no cooling tower is usually available to delay the residence time of the gases in a positive
sense. For this, the gas quantity can be increased on account of the low dust loading.
SAMPLING / 5.2 Other measuring points (B to G) / 5.2.5 Downstream of electrostatic filter (measuring points F, G)
5.2.5 Downstream of electrostatic filter (measuring points F, G)
Dust content
>50mg/m
3
(N.tr.)
Query:
In the majority of cases, the components relevant for emission are measured. Preference must be
given to the point downstream of the fan, as the gas composition is no longer subject to change before
the exhaust gas discharges from the stack. Owing to the turbulence of the process gas in the plant
sections and fans, it can generally be assumed that the process gas is well intermixed.
Owing to the probability of filter shutdowns, gas sampling requires a dust filter as provided at the
measuring points in the raw gas flow. The high dew point makes it necessary for the probe to be
heated at the critical points. No differences exist with regard to the type of kiln (cyclones, grate
preheaters or wet kilns).
SAMPLING / 5.2 Other measuring points (B to G) / 5.2.6 Coal pulverising mill
5.2.6 Coal pulverising mill
Gas analysis in the area of the coal pulverising mill serves solely for the purpose of quickly detecting
smouldering fires and/or potentially explosive gas concentrations. The possible measuring points are
shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Measuring points at the coal grinding plant
Upstream of coal pulverising mill (measuring point H)
Dust content
20 to 70g/m
3
(N.tr.)
In filter (measuring point I)
Query:
Dust content
>50mg/m
3
(N.tr.)
The measuring point in the filter serves especially for monitoring glow nests when the coal pulverising
mill is stationary. Owing to the large filter volume, glow nests can only be detected quickly enough with
sufficient circulation of the process gas. For this reason, 200-300m
3
/h process gas should be drawn
out by suction via a separate gas pipe and fed back again at the filter inlet when the coal pulverising
mill is stationary. The gas sampling probe is then arranged in the gas pipe. When the coal pulverising
mill is in operation, the gas pipe is closed via a valve.
Downstream of coal pulverising mill fan (measuring point E)
Dust content
>50mg/m
3
(N.tr.)
Coal dust silo (measuring point L)
Gas temperature >60C
Dust content
1 to 1000g/m
3
(N.tr.)
Dew point temperature >35C
The gas sample is preferably positioned in the silo roof.
SAMPLING PROBES
6. GAS SAMPLING PROBES
In principle, gas sampling probes can be divided into three categories according to temperature range:
Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500C
Sampling probes in the temperature range 500 to 900C
Query:
Sampling probes in the temperature range up to 500C
The following assessment of various gas sampling probes is based on the manufacturers documents
as well as our own experience and information from the works, if available.
SAMPLING PROBES / 6.1 Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500C
This category includes gas sampling at the inlet of preheater kilns with and without pre-calcining.
SAMPLING PROBES / 6.1 Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500C / 6.1.1 Siemens type FLK
6.1.1 Siemens type FLK
Brief description
Compact gas sampling system with special cooling fluid permitting probe operating temperatures up to
230C. The condensation of alkali vapours and in turn the danger of incrustations is drastically
reduced. The suction opening is arranged on the side of the probe tube and should be located in the
flow slipstream. This arrangement offers selective dust separation. An electrically or pneumatically
operated insertion / withdrawal device is an integral part of the probe.
Design: Extremely compact and professional design. Oval stainless
steel sampling tube.
Suction opening: Lateral, about 30mm in diameter
Mounting tube: 325mm diameter (relatively large)
Dust removal filter: External, heated, blow-back with compressed air, large volume
Maximum probe length: 3200mm
Comment
Despite effective measures, stubborn blockages can occur, particularly when kiln operation is loaded
by high alkali circuits. Owing to the lateral arrangement of the suction opening, the gases within the
probe tube flow through an elbow. The removal of incrusted deposits from this elbow is far more
difficult due to poor access than if the gases were drawn out by suction at the end of the stem and
through a straight tube. In view of the turbulent flow conditions at the sampling point, it is doubtful
whether lateral suction results in selective dust separation.
The large overall volume of the dust filter permits a relatively large gas throughput. The resulting delay
and damping of the indication is of little significance from a measurement point of view.
Available for the drive of the withdrawal device is either an electric motor or compressed-air drive. As
compressed air can be stored without problems, the compressed-air drive offers more reliability than
an electric motor in the event of a power failure. Emergency operation with crank handle is also
provided.
With difficult kiln operation, alkali condensation can occur and block the entrance of the probe, as
already mentioned, despite increased operating temperature.
SAMPLING PROBES / 6.1 Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500C / 6.1.2 Harman & Braun type 60S (formerly type
Query:
13)
6.1.2 Harman & Braun type 60S (formerly type 13)
Brief description
Gas sampling probe with closed cooling system (cooling medium water) and temperature control.
Integrated emergency cooling system with fresh water. Lateral arrangement of two suction openings
(Figure 7).
Comment
Widely used. Functions well in non-extreme alkali conditions. The same remarks apply here with
regard to the lateral arrangement of the suction openings as for the Siemens system.
With large amounts of dust, the filter must be blown-out at brief intervals, The resulting loss of signal
can have a critical effect on the availability of the measuring signal.
The operating temperature is too low to completely prevent alkali condensation. An automatic insertion
and withdrawal device is optionally available.
Figure 7:
SAMPLING PROBES / 6.1 Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500C / 6.1.3 Hartmann & Braun type H (Holderbank
probe)
6.1.3 Hartmann & Braun type H (Holderbank probe)
Brief description
The main features of this probe are the automatically functioning mechanical removal of any
incrustations at the probe inlet as well as a new type of filter system (see Figure 8). Cooling takes
place in a closed system (cooling medium water) with temperature controller.
About 20 probes of this type are in use worldwide and are functioning efficiently. Marketing takes place
via Messrs ELSAG BAILEY Hartmann & Braun in Frankfurt under the designation type H.
Design: Probe body of alloyed steel
Suction opening: At end of stem, about 40mm in diameter
Probe temperature: External, 30 to 85C, internal up to 250C
Query:
Probe temperature: External, 30 to 85C, internal up to 250C
Mounting tube: 150mm in diameter
Dust removal filter: Internal, heated filter of sintered metal, cleaning with
compressed air
Maximum probe length: 3000mm
Thanks to its modular concept, the probe can be provided with the same insertion and withdrawal
device as type 60.
Figure 8:
Comment
This sampling system has proved highly reliable in practical use, even under difficult conditions. The
availability satisfies the high requirements of high-level control systems. The maintenance costs are
low thanks to the simple and maintenance-friendly design of the system.
SAMPLING PROBES / 6.2 Sampling probes in the temperature range 500 to 900C
With regard to the sampling probes, similar conditions prevail in this temperature as at higher
temperatures (e.g. at the kiln inlet of preheater kilns).
However, the danger of incrustations is lower. Cooling of the probes is essential down to 500C, so
that in principle, the same sampling probes can be used as in the higher temperature range.
Temperatures between 500 and 900C are typical for cyclone preheater kilns in the area of the lower
cyclone stages (measuring point C). As already noted, measurements there are almost pointless,
particularly in plants with precalcining. If measurements are still to be carried out despite this, steam
jack probes are considered ideal for this purpose when mounted vertically in the cyclone roof.
SAMPLING PROBES / 6.3 Sampling probes in the temperature range below 500C
6.3 Sampling probes in the temperature range below 500C
Typical for the application of such probes are the measuring points downstream of the heat exchanger
or grate preheater, upstream or downstream of the electrostatic filter as well as at the kiln inlet of wet
Query:
or long dry kilns. Cooling is unnecessary. With regard to the place of use or purpose of measurement,
there are certain differences in the design of the probes (e.g. mounting length). Decisive for the quality
of these probes is the dust filtration. The discovery of fine-pore filter tubes of sintered stainless steel
brought about great advances. The level of maintenance is low, a block-back device is unnecessary.
The sample gas is clean and available for weeks to months without interruption. Probes with such
filters are not available from established suppliers. They still use fine ceramic filters that enable a
comparatively long useful life. However, it must be ensured that the gas conducting tube is heated at
the penetration point (Figure 9).
The optimal porosity of sintered metal filters is only 0.5m. As the main proportion of the dust particles is
larger, the pores clog at a correspondingly slow rate. According to experience, they have a useful life of
four weeks to several months, depending on the properties of the dust. If the pressure drop becomes
excessive due to clogging, the filter tubes can be cleaned with acid.
With wet kilns and long dry kilns, the probes must be lengthened, depending on the size of the smoke
chamber. In order to ensure the necessary mechanical strength, supporting tube of a larger diameter
must be mounted, into which the probe is inserted.
A further important element is the heating in the penetration zone from the measuring channel to the
outside. In order to prevent any kind of condensation, the temperature must not fall below 100C at any
point.
For all gas conducting parts, stainless steel, e.g. No. 1.4541 or 1.4571 must be used.
Figure 9: Gas sampling probe, up to 500C
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C04 - Gas Analysing Systems / PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS IN CEMENT WORKS / 7. SAMPLE
GAS PREPARATION
7. SAMPLE GAS PREPARATION
The purpose of sample gas preparation is to supply the downstream gas analysers with sample gas,
so that it conforms qualitatively and quantitatively with the specifications of the analysers. Such an
arrangement normally consists of the following elements:
Supply > Sample gas pipe
Drying > Sample gas cooler
Delivery > Sample gas pump
Dosage > Controller
Query:
Dosage > Controller
Distribution > Pressure control valve
Calibrating option > Manual or automatic
Experience has shown that the availability of a measuring instrument depends essentially on a properly
functioning sample gas sampling and preparation. Insufficient sample gas preparation leads to fouling
in the gas analysers and not infrequently to expensive damage.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.1 Sample gas pipe
7.1 Sample gas pipe
The probe itself as well as the sample gas pipe between the sampling probe and sample gas cooler
should be heated to between 100 and 150C (for measurements with FID devices up to 200C). This
heating has the following purpose:
To prevent condensation and freezing of the condensate at low temperatures, because:
Condensation in the sample gas pipe can distort certain measured values.
Incrustations and blockage of the sample gas pipe are accelerated by the formation of
condensate.
To delay the conversion of NO into NO
2
during emission measurement.
Heated sample gas pipes are available in various qualities:
Low price pipes with a self-regulating heating band and
Pipes with resistance heating and separate temperature controller
For selection purposes, it should be noted that with heating band controlled pipes, the temperature is
limited to a maximum of 105C. This temperature does not normally suffice for process measurements
but for emission measurements. The following specifications must be observed:
Inner tube material: Teflon
Inner tube dimensions: Outside diameter 6mm
Inside diameter 4mm
Connection ends: Clamping ring tube fittings
Control: Thermocouple with controller
Protective sleeve: PVC or metal
Heated pipes are relatively expensive. When planning a measuring system, the sample gas pipes must
therefore be as short as possible. The following points must be observed:
a) If only O
2
, CO or NO is measured, heating can be dispensed with if the sample gas pipe (several
metres) is short and can be laid with uninterrupted gradient from the sampling point to the ample
gas cooler (no siphons).
Query:
b) Possible installation of the sample gas cooler in the vicinity of the sampling point.
For automatic compressed-air cleaning via the sample gas pipe, it must be ensured that this has
sufficient pressure resistance.
For connections, high-quality stainless steel clamping ring fittings, e.g. Swagelok, Serto or similar,
must generally be used.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.2 Sample gas coolers
7.2 Sample gas coolers
Sample gas coolers serve to remove most of the water vapour from the sample gas at temperatures of
about 3C and keep the residual content at a constant value. The latter is important particularly for
emission measurement. The temperature indication of the sample gas cooler normally shows the
operating temperature of the cooling medium. If the sample gas cooler is subject to excessive load or
ambient temperature, the sample gas temperature at the cooler outlet can be considerably higher than
the indication. The dew point temperature then no longer corresponds with the cooling medium
indication.
The sample gas cooler is usually accommodated in a cabinet together with the analysers and the
remaining sample gas preparation apparatus. Instead of using long heated sample gas pipes, it may
be advantageous to install the sample gas cooler immediately downstream of the sample gas probe in
a separate equipment cabinet.
Condensate collecting tanks have the disadvantage that indication of the measured values is greatly
delayed due to the additional volume. The produced condensate should therefore be pumped out using
automatic hose pumps or diaphragm liquid pumps.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.2 Sample gas coolers / 7.2.1 Specifications of a suitable sample gas cooler
7.2.1 Specifications of a suitable sample gas cooler
Dew point at outlet +5C (1C)
Dew point stability 0.25C
Temperature at sample gas inlet max. 180C
Dew point at sample gas inlet max. 80C
Gas flow max 100l/h
Ambient temperature +5 to +45C
Cooling capacity 860kJ/h, 25C
Material of gas conducting parts Teflon, PVDF
Permissible gas pressure min. 3 bar
Volume
max. 100cm
3
Sample gas connections 6mm or 1/4
Time until ready for measurement max. 30 minutes
Query:
Also available for the majority of sample gas coolers are moisture monitoring devices at the sample
gas outlet. Such devices are urgently recommended.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.3 Sample gas pump
7.3 Sample gas pump
Mainly diaphragm and compressor pumps are used. The sample gas volume necessary for the gas
analysers is between 30 and 100l/h. In order to keep indication delays to a minimum, a larger sample
gas volume is often extracted from the process gas. The excess sample gas can be diverted via a
bypass shortly upstream of the analyser. If possible, a large part of the measuring instrument should
be operated under pressure, as false air can infiltrate during suction phase.
Sample gas pumps installed upstream of the sample gas cooler must be heated. This arrangement
has the advantage that no false air is sucked in the event of leaks in the sample gas cooler. However,
according to experience, heated pumps are more susceptible to faults than cold operated pumps, so
that arrangement downstream of the sample gas cooler is still more advantageous.
The pump capacity should be generously dimensioned in respect of the suction pressure. The flow rate
must be dimensioned, so that the available gas flow about 1.5 to 2 times higher than that required by
the analysers according to specifications. Throttling of the flow preferably takes place on the
low-pressure side.
With throttling on the pressure side, a pressure control valve must ensure that the pressure
downstream of the pump does not increase to an unnecessary degree. Significant pressure drops in
the sample gas encourages the formation of powdery salts (white powder). The following diagram
shows the characteristics of a suitable sample gas pump.
Vacuum
Excess pressure
Gas flow [l/min] at 20C
Figure 10:
GAS PREPARATION / 7.4 Flow control and distribution
7.4 Flow control and distribution
Query:
The arrangement for control and distribution of the sample gas depends on the number and
specifications of the analysers to be supplied. Multi-component analysers with only connection solve
the problem of gas distribution internally. However, as soon as two or more analysers have to be
supplied with gas, the inlet pressure must be taken into account in distribution. At a low supply
pressure, the analysers can be connected in series. If analysers have to be connected with varying
supply pressure, they must be connected in parallel via appropriate gas distribution.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.4 Flow control and distribution / 7.4.1 Simple gas control
7.4.1 Simple gas control
Figure 11:
The flowmeter monitors and controls the set sample and test gas volume. Rotameters fitted with
variable limit transmitters are normally used for setting the flow rate. The signal transmitters should
signal especially when the necessary flow is not reached. This is particularly important for gas
analysers with safety functions.
As already mentioned, not all gas analysers have the same conditions with respect to supply
pressures. Optical analysers normally require less pressure than oxygen analysers, for example, which
use the paramagnetic measuring principle. However, special attention must be given to the supply
pressure of the analysers when dimensioning the sample gas preparation apparatus. As soon as
several analysers have to be operated, parallel connection is recommended, despite the additional
work involved. For this purpose, the sample gas flow must be divided appropriate to the number of gas
analysers to be supplied. The following flow diagram shows how this division can take place. The
sample gas pump supplies a common supply pipe, which is under increased sample gas pressure. A
spring-loaded pressure control valve controls the pressure in this pipe. The excess sample gas is
diverted. A further, slightly more elaborate option, is to use a separate sample gas pump for each
analyser.
Parallel connection with pressure control valve
Figure 12:
Query:
GAS PREPARATION / 7.4 Flow control and distribution / 7.4.2 Electronic gas volume control
7.4.2 Electronic gas volume control
The available electronic flowmeters are reliable and should be used to an increasing extent for
automatic gas volume control purposes.
These are flowmeters whose measuring principle is based on a thermal measuring bridge, whereby the
transported heat of a flowing substance is used as an indicator. The calibrated reference quantity is
normally air. For other gas compositions, appropriate correction values (e.g. CO
2
) must be used for
conversion.
Figure 13:
Tests with automatic control have confirmed that the reliability of the gas supply can be considerably
improved with this system. It offers decisive functional advantages compared with rotameters and is
less susceptible to faults. A constant gas flow positively affects overall gas analysis in every respect.
Since the controllers have a throttling effect on the gas flow, they are preferably arranged on the
suction side of the pump. For flow indication purposes, a volume-proportional signal is available. This
enables ideal monitoring via the control system. In addition, a rotameter (without needle valve) can still
be used for monitoring locally.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.5 Sample gas filters
Query:
7.5 Sample gas filters
GAS PREPARATION / 7.5 Sample gas filters / 7.5.1 Coarse filters
7.5.1 Coarse filters
Coarse filters are normally installed inside or downstream of the probe, so that a large proportion of the
dust is already separated before the sample gas enters the sample gas preparation apparatus. If
sintered metal filters with a porosity of <0.5m are already used in the probe, the sample would be
sufficiently clean. Nonetheless, fine afterfiltration directly upstream of the analysers is recommended,
as impurities can also infiltrate the system downstream of the probe. Ceramic filters of silicon carbide,
mineral fibres or filter casings of borosilicate glass fibres are also frequently used. Silicone carbide
composites have a high separation efficiency of about 99.9% at an average grain diameter of 1.2m and
are temperature resistant up to 660C.
The disadvantage of all these filters compared to sintered metal filters, apart from their lower
separation efficiency is that they have to be cleaned and blown out or replaced at shorter intervals
GAS PREPARATION / 7.5 Sample gas filters / 7.5.2 Fine filters
7.5.2 Fine filters
For separation of the dust particles and sublimated salts left behind in the sample gas, membrane
filter, e.g. of glass fibres or PTFE should be provided.
Recommended is a combination of membrane filter and condensate monitor. The condensate monitor
measures a change in the electrical conductivity between two electrodes. If a limiting value is
exceeded, the sample gas pump is stopped and the fault is indicated in the control room.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.5 Sample gas filters / 7.5.3 Valves
7.5.3 Valves
Changeover valves
If automatic blowing out of the filter and/or probes is required, the gas path must be able to be diverted
automatically. For this purpose, stainless steel solenoid valves or mechanically/ pneumatically operated
ball sliding valves of Teflon (housing) and stainless steel (ball) are used.
Valves installed in moist sample gas (upstream of the sample gas cooler) must be mounted on a
temperature-controlled valve plate in order to prevent corrosion as a consequence of the dew point not
being reached.
Valves, particularly solenoid valves, have the tendency to leak, even when slightly fouled. They enable
a high degree of automation of the measuring instrument, e.g. automatic calibration, however,
experience has shown that their susceptibility to faults almost cancels out the convenience they are
expected to provide (see chapter 11.7).
GAS PREPARATION / 7.5 Sample gas filters / 7.5.4 Pressure control valve
7.5.4 Pressure control valve
The purpose of the pressure control valve is to ensure that the supply pressure of the analysers
Query:
remains fairly constant. The excess gas delivered by the pump discharges via a spring-loaded body.
The nominal pressure of the valve must be slightly higher than the highest specified supply pressure of
all parallel connected analysers.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.6 Adjustment
7.6 Adjustment
The necessity of regular adjustments depends on the purpose of the analysis and the stability of the
analysers. For emission measurements, a rotation of one to two weeks is sufficient, provided the
regulations in the country concerned do not contain any tighter requirements. During adjustment, a
preferably manually-operated two-way directional control valve switches the gas supply to a bottle
containing test gas. Newer gas analysers are normally provided with an automatic adjusting device. By
means of an internal or external command a glass cuvette filled with the respective gas is inserted into
the sensor and the analyser is automatically readjusted. During this time, the last measured value
remains indicated, so that the subsequent signal processing system is not disturbed by the procedure.
With older analysers that do not have this type of automatic device, operating personnel or the process
control system must be informed of the adjustment. With CO monitoring systems, activation of the
automatic filter shutdown system must be prevented.
Analysers with so-called calibrating cuvettes have the big advantage that no more test gas is
necessary. Manufacturers and most nationally customary regulations accept this type of adjustment
over a period of 2...3 years. After this time, the analysers must be overhauled and inspected and
readjusted by an appropriately licensed institute.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.7 Further information on sample gas preparation
7.7 Further information on sample gas preparation
GAS PREPARATION / 7.7 Further information on sample gas preparation / 7.7.1 Sample gas discharge
7.7.1 Sample gas discharge
No sample gas must discharge into the analyser room. Every gas outlet must be connected to a pipe
and discharged to the atmosphere or returned to the main gas flow. Pipes with large cross-sections
must be used in order to prevent any back pressure.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.7 Further information on sample gas preparation / 7.7.2 Tightness test
7.7.2 Tightness test
An option should be provided to easily connect the sample gas pipe gas-tight to a nitrogen bottle
directly downstream of the sampling probe.
The complete measuring apparatus is purged with nitrogen with the gas preparation apparatus
operating normally. The oxygen analyser shows zero indication soon afterwards. After several
minutes, the nitrogen supply is interrupted, so that a vacuum is produced in the system. Caution! The
regulating valves on the test bottles are often not vacuum-tight. If the measured value of the oxygen
analyser should increase again within a space of about 20 seconds, this means that there is a leak in
the system. An increase of several per cent within several minutes is considered normal.
Query:
GAS PREPARATION / 7.7 Further information on sample gas preparation / 7.7.3 Filter condition monitoring
7.7.3 Filter condition monitoring
The suction pressure is a good indicator of the condition of the filter or filters between the probe and
sample gas pump. By measuring this pressure with a pressure transmitter or contact pressure gauge,
the automatic cleaning process can be initiated when a certain level is reached. As a result of this
optimising measure, the measured signal is not interrupted unnecessarily and the filters are cleaned or
blown back before being irreversibly clogged.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.7 Further information on sample gas preparation / 7.7.4 Analyser room
7.7.4 Analyser room
The accuracy and reliability of gas analysis essentially depends on temperature variations, vibrations,
draughts, dust, moisture and electrical interference fields being avoided. For this reason, the gas
analysers including sample gas preparation apparatus should be installed in a closed room or
equipment cabinet that can be locked to prevent unauthorised access. In the analyser room, the
individual instruments and apparatus must be arranged with an emphasis on clarity and easy
accessibility, so that rational operation and maintenance of the measuring equipment is ensured.
Figure 14:
GAS PREPARATION / 7.8 Space requirement
7.8 Space requirement
For the analysers and sample gas preparation apparatus, a double 19 equipment cabinet with one
field respectively for the gas preparation apparatus and analysers is normally sufficient. However, other
equipment is often installed in this clean, air-conditioned analyser room. In such cases, it must be
ensured that sufficient room is provided to enable maintenance personnel to move freely and that there
is adequate room for material (e.g. test gas bottles, tools, etc.) and additional space.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.9 Location
7.9 Location
In principle, the analyser room should be located as close as possible to the measuring point. This
aspect is particularly important for CO monitoring, where fast indication is necessary. Unheated sample
Query:
gas pipes must be laid descending to the sample gas cooler. It is therefore advantageous when the
analyser room is located one floor below the sampling point.
If space is available at a suitable location that is not exposed to excessive dust, heat radiation and
noise, a switchgear cabinet is sufficient for accommodating the measuring equipment. A separate,
closed room is unnecessary under such conditions. The volume to be air-conditioned can be
considerably reduced as a result.
GAS PREPARATION / 7.10 Climatic conditions
7.10 Climatic conditions
The temperature in the analyser room or cabinet should be able to be regulated between 15 and 25C.
For this purpose, heating and ventilation is necessary; a cooling unit must be provided to counteract
heat radiation. The ventilation fans must be provided with efficient dust filters. All filters produced
during gas analysis must be discharged to the atmosphere.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C04 - Gas Analysing Systems / PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS IN CEMENT WORKS / 8. ANALYSERS
8. ANALYSERS
The determination of individual components in the sample gas is based on various physical basic
principles, such as:
Light absorption
Paramagnetism
Flame ionisation and
Solid-state electrolytic systems
All newer analysers process the analogue signals output by the sensors digitally. Digitalisation has
provided the following advantages:
Increased operating convenience (menu guidance)
Multi-channel technology
Automatic adjustment
More compact design
Increased stability
Remote monitoring and control via modem and/or data bus
The internal functions of the analysers will not be dealt with here. Sufficient information in this respect
is provided in the manufacturers documents and technical literature. Important for practical application
is knowing how to use the various measuring methods effectively.
The manufacturer plays a secondary role in analyser selection from a qualitative point of view.
Measuring equipment faults are rarely attributed to faulty analysers. It goes without saying that only
types designed for industrial purposes are suitable for use in cement works and certainly no laboratory
equipment. Suitability for industrial purposes means, for example:
Solid, totally enclosed housing (degree of protection IP 65 or IP 54)
Insensitivity to vibrations
Query:
Minimum temperature application range 15 to 35C
Insensitivity to system disturbances
Isolated (floating) output signals
The majority of established manufacturers are in a position to meet these specifications. Service and
spare parts availability are therefore more important than the purchase price. If measuring equipment
is already available and the above criteria are met, there is no reason to change manufacturers when
purchasing new equipment or additions.
/ 8.1 Infrared absorption
8.1 Infrared absorption
With the exception of oxygen, the majority of interesting gas components can be measured by infrared
absorption. Available are analysers for extractive and in-situ application. In the main, infrared is used
for the extractive method. The following advantages are offered by these NDIR (non-dispersive
infrared) analysers:
Broad application spectrum
Relatively simple method, favourable price
Robustness
Low wear, long useful life
Good stability
The not particularly high sensitivity of the NDIR analysers does not normally pose a problem in the
cement industry. The smallest measuring range, e.g. for CO is about 100ppm, for NO about 500ppm
and for CO
2
about 20%. Cross-sensitivities to water vapour and CO
2
are present. Water vapour as a
disturbing component plays a secondary role when the gases in the sample gas cooler are dried with
sufficient stability. The cross-sensitivity of CO
2
is usually within the tolerance when compensated in the
analyser. The influence can be further reduced when an amount of CO
2
corresponding to the average
value of the sample gas is mixed with the test gas. As the CO
2
content in the cement process is
extremely high, unestablished analysers should be tested in this respect prior to their use.
The most well known manufacturers today produce multi-channel NDIR analysers, enabling the prices
per measured component to be distinctly reduced. The majority of manufacturers also offer analysers
in different quality classes (low-cost analysers). As a rule, the low-cost analysers are not
temperature-stabilised, but temperature-compensated and are therefore not as stable as the analysers
at the top end of the price scale. However, if external fluctuations are kept to a minimum, the
temperature-compensated analysers meet the requirements in the majority of cases.
/ 8.1 Infrared absorption / 8.1.1 Space case, sulphur dioxide (SO2)
8.1.1 Space case, sulphur dioxide (SO
2
)
In principle, NDIR analysers are suitable for the measurement of SO
2
. However, tests on kiln systems
with cyclone preheaters have shown that insufficient SO
2
is measured with extractive sample gas
sampling and preparation (in accordance with DIN 2462, page 4). The magnitude of the deficiency can
vary considerably and can therefore not be calibrated. These measuring errors are attributed to
chemical reactions of the SO
2
with NH
3
(ammonia) in the sample gas cooler (see chapter 11.2). The
Query:
following options are available to eliminate these errors:
Acidification of the condensate by addition of phosphoric acid in the sample gas cooler (TV)
tested method developed by and available from Hartmann & Braun).
Use of a hot analyser (measurement with moist sample gas).
In-situ measuring method
With the addition of about 8 to 12ml phosphoric acid (5%) in the sample gas cooler, the pH of the
condensate reduces to a value below 1.5. The reaction of the SO
2
with ammonia is accordingly
prevented.
It is obvious that hot analysers, whose entire measuring system must function at temperatures
between 150C and 250C, are more susceptible than cold analysers. According to experience, the
heated sample gas pump causes the greatest problems.
With in-situ measuring instruments, no distortion through chemical reaction is noticeable. As part of
comparative tests, they showed to be more reliable than measuring instruments with extractive
sampling and sample gas cooler. However, absolute measured values in mg/Nm
3
are initially available
after calibration using a reference measuring procedure. In addition, if dry standard values are
required, the correction must be corrected with the moisture and temperature of the sample gas.
/ 8.2 Ultra-violet absorption
8.2 Ultra-violet absorption
The difference of the NDUV analysers compared with NDIR is mainly that they are less cross-sensitive
to water vapour and CO
2
and higher sensitivities can be achieved. In the cement industry, NDUV
analysers were initially used for the measurement of NO components. Meanwhile, the less expensive
NDIR analysers are being more widely used for NO and have proved reliable.
/ 8.3 Paramagnetism
8.3 Paramagnetism
Oxygen does not have a usable spectrum either in IR or UV light. In future, laser analysers /chapter
8.6.3) will be the first to be able to measure oxygen with light in addition to other components. The
paramagnetic properties of oxygen (oxygen molecules are strongly attracted in a magnetic field) are
still used for oxygen measurement, however with a declining trend. In practice, two methods are widely
used:
The magnetic torsion balance
Thermomagnetic oxygen measurement
/ 8.3 Paramagnetism / 8.3.1 Oxygen analysers
8.3.1 Oxygen analysers
In recent years, analysers operating on the torsion balance or also dumb bell principle have become
increasingly popular.
The measuring effect is based solely on the magnetic forces of the oxygen molecule and is therefore
comparatively less cross-sensitive to other gas components. However, the measuring chamber reacts
Query:
sensitively to dirt and condensate.
The paramagnetism of oxygen reduces with increasing temperature. This thermomagnetic effect is
used in so-called annual chamber or hot wire analysers for O
2
measurement. The advantage of these
analysers is that the measuring chambers contain no sensitive internals, so that they are less sensitive
to dirt and are also easier to clean than analysers that operate on the torsion balance principle.
However, the measuring method is cross-sensitive to other gases and only functions accurately with a
known or more constant accompanying gas composition.
/ 8.4 Flame ionisation (FID)
8.4 Flame ionisation (FID)
This measuring method is used for measurement of the volatile content of unburnt hydrocarbons
(VOC) (Volatile Organic Compounds). Organic carbon compounds contained in the sample gas are
ionised in a hydrogen flame. The ion quantity is almost proportional to the number of carbon atoms
involved in combustion. The ionic voltage is detected with the aid of an electrode and brought to
indication via a high-resistance amplifier. Propane gas in nitrogen is normally used for calibration
purposes.
Continuous measurements with the flame ionisation detector (FID) are increasingly prescribed, as soon
as alternative fuels are burned. FID analysers are unfortunately susceptible to faults and require
considerable maintenance by suitably trained personnel.
The entire sample gas preparation system must not fall at any point below the sample gas
temperature, i.e. the sampler, sample gas pipe and pump must be heated. The temperature in the
ionisation chamber of the FID analyser is normally about 200C.
Modern multi-component systems such as OPSIS are capable of measuring the majority of interesting
VOC compounds as individual components. Programs for direct measurement of the volatile
hydrocarbons (VOC) have also been developed. Initial tests have shown almost one hundred per cent
correlation with FID values. This means that in countries where non-explicit FID measurements are
required, an OPSIS or perhaps also some other type of multi-component analyser will preferably be
used at a later time.
/ 8.5 Solid-state electrolytic systems
8.5 Solid-state electrolytic systems
/ 8.5 Solid-state electrolytic systems / 8.5.1 Zirconium dioxide
8.5.1 Zirconium dioxide
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO
2
) has the characteristic of building up a differential voltage at varying partial
pressures and temperatures between 500 and 1000C due to the flow of oxygen ions. This effect is
used for the purpose of oxygen measurement by exposing both sides of a ZrO
2
membrane heated to
about 800C to varying oxygen concentrations (sample gas and reference gas). The supplied voltage
is tapped and measured on the two surfaces of the membrane with thin, porous platinum electrodes.
The measured potential difference increases exponentially with the oxygen concentration difference.
To be noted is that the indicated measured values are based on gas in a moist condition.
In addition to the advantageous zirconium dioxide based in-situ measuring instruments, there are also
extractive types that are hardly worth mentioning.
Query:
/ 8.5 Solid-state electrolytic systems / 8.5.2 Other electrochemical measuring methods
8.5.2 Other electrochemical measuring methods
Electrochemical measuring cells (EC cells) have the characteristic of supplying a voltage in the
presence of certain components proportional to the concentration. As they are small and lightweight
and require only a small number of peripheral devices, they are used mainly for portable measuring
equipment (e.g. flue gas controls), although they had proved unsuitable for use in the cement industry
in the past. However, in recent years, suitable EC cells have been developed that offer advantages
mainly for oxygen measurement. The oxygen sensor may not be used when the accompanying gas
contains H
2
S, chlorine or fluorine containing compounds, as well as heavy metals and aerosols. The
guaranteed useful life is three years. The many years of good experience prompted the majority of
manufacturers to complement the NDIR analysers with EC cells for oxygen measurement.
/ 8.6 Multi-component measuring systems
8.6 Multi-component measuring systems
Development in the field of analysis has witnessed significant advances. Thanks to modern
microprocessor technology, large computer capacities and high speeds, measuring methods are
employed that enable disturbing secondary effects to be compensated by calculation and new
techniques to be used, for example:
Gas filter correlation technique (GFC)
Fastfourier transformation technique (FTIR, FTUV) Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy
(DOAS)
Laser Diode Spectrometer (LDS), etc.
Without going into details about the individual techniques, the following points are of importance:
Multi-component analysers are less expensive for simple measuring tasks with more than one
component than individual analysers in all respects.
When using alternative fuels, the necessity may arise that new, particularly critical pollutant
components have to be measured. This aspect justifies the use of flexible, programmable
measuring instruments.
The suitability of multi-component measuring instruments in the cement industry has been
demonstrated by many years of reliable use. In the following, three instruments will be presented that
have proved reliable and are state of the art. These are both extractive and in-situ measuring
instruments.
/ 8.6 Multi-component measuring systems / 8.6.1 Sick GM 31
8.6.1 Sick GM 31
Sick, Waldkirch (D), is a pioneer of the design and construction of in-situ measuring systems. The
instruments GM 21 for dust, and later, the GM 30 for NO SO
2
and dust, have been used successfully
for more than ten years. The successor instrument, GM 31, differs considerably from its predecessors
in two ways:
Dust can no longer be measured with this instrument.
Query:
The flanged design as a so-called lance instrument does not measure the whole channel
cross-section.
The GM 31 is designed for the components SO
2
, NO, NH
3
and NO. A maximum of three of these
components can also be measured simultaneously. Despite the lack of the benefit of dust
measurement, the GM 31 is a low-cost emission measuring instrument, which complemented with a
dust measuring instrument for systems not subject to particular requirements, meets all specific
requirements.
/ 8.6 Multi-component measuring systems / 8.6.2 OPSIS AR 620; ER 650
8.6.2 OPSIS AR 620; ER 650
Within the Opsis measuring system, a light beam is projected on to a receiver and then passed
through a glass fibre cable to the Opsis analyser.
In emission measurement, the light beam or measuring path continues through the interior of a stack
or exhaust gas duct. Every gas absorbs light in known spectral regions of the total light spectrum, in a
manner that is characteristic of the respective gas. This enables the analyser to detect and measure
gases defined by the user. The results can be indicated in real-time or used for statistical and further
processing purposes.
Opsis uses a scientifically researched principle for the identification and measurement of
concentrations of various gases: Differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) which is based
on the Lambert-Beer Law. It describes the correlation between the absorbed quantity of light and the
number of molecules in the light path..
As every gas has its own unmistakable absorption spectrum, the so-called finger print, the
concentrations of several different gases can be determined simultaneously in the light path. With the
DOAS method, a light beam is sent from a special light source - a Xenon high-pressure lamp - over a
specific path; by means of complex, computer-aided calculations, the light losses through molecular
absorption along the path are evaluated and analysed. The light of the Xenon lamp contains both the
visible spectrum as well as the ultra-violet and infrared wavelengths. The light is detected by a receiver
and passed on via a fibre optic cable to the analyser. This fibre optic cable makes it possible to install
the analyser at a sufficient distance from any harmful environmental influences at the measuring point.
The analyser consists, among other things, of a high-performance spectrometer, a computer and the
associated control unit. The spectrometer breaks down the light with the aid of an optical grid in narrow
wavelength bands. This optical grid can be adjusted for examining an optimal wavelength region.
The light is converted into electrical signals. A narrow slot moves at high speed across the detector;
this combines a large number of instantaneous values that provide an image of the spectrum in the
relevant wavelength region This scanning procedure is repeated a hundred times per second; the
recorded spectrums are added up in the multi-channel memory of the evaluation unit until their
evaluation.
Evaluation is carried out individually for each wavelength region and is based on the comparison of
absorption curves. The respectively last recorded absorption spectrum is compared with a computer
calculated spectrum. The calculated spectrum consists of a summation of the reference spectrums for
the respective evaluation. The computer alters the size factors for each reference spectrum until
optimal correspondence is achieved, so that the various gas concentrations can be calculated with high
accuracy.
In order to be able to measure a diverse range of gas components as possible, the light spectrums
Query:
must be divided into IR and UV. Measurement is similarly divided into a UV spectrometer and an IR
interferometer. Depending on the components to be measured, both or one of the two instruments is
used. Both instruments are usually necessary for comprehensive measurement of cement kiln exhaust
gases.
The system is approved as a recognised emission measuring instrument worldwide.
For calibration: In principle, each component must be calibrated at last once (as part of the
commissioning procedure). This takes place either via a convention method or by inserting cuvettes
circulated by test gas in the light path. In this simple way, the work involved in the normally usual
convention method is avoided. In two works of the ChB, these measuring instruments have proved
highly reliable and may be referred to as standard-setting technology.
/ 8.6 Multi-component measuring systems / 8.6.3 LDS 3000 diode laser of AltOptronic (Sweden)
8.6.3 LDS 3000 diode laser of AltOptronic (Sweden)
The design is basically comparable with OPSIS. However, as a light source, a semiconductor laser is
used. The LDS 3000 enables measurements to also be carried out in aggressive atmospheres with a
high dust content; this takes place in a way that the special features of the diode laser are utilised in
conjunction with a patented signal evaluation method. The instrument can distinguish whether a
change in transmission is due to dust or a change in the gases to be measured.
The LDS 300 can be used for measurements in atmospheres with a varying dust content up to 50g/m3,
depending on the size of the dust particles.
The light spectrum of the semiconductor laser can be adjusted to the absorption lines of the gas
component to be measured via temperature and current. This ensures that measurement can only take
place on a selected absorption line of the respective gas. The absorption lines of the remaining gas
components are on other wavelengths and do not influence measurement.
In the three years in which the LDS has been used, continuous tests were carried out in order to
determine the stability of the system. It emerged that no recalibration of either the zero or measuring
range were necessary.
The diode laser is located in the main unit, from where the laser beam is passed via an optical fibre to
the sensors at the measuring points. The distance between the instrument and the measuring point
can be up to 1000m. In the main unit, the laser beam is scattered in an optical distributor and so
enables simultaneous measurements on three different process measuring levels.
The short measuring time of the LDS 3000 provides direct information (t
90
<1 sec). This is made
possible by in-situ measurement, the high efficiency of the diode laser and appropriate signal
evaluation. The short resonance time depends on the number of measuring points, as the laser light is
scattered in a fibre-optic distributor and passed on to all measuring points simultaneously. Each
measuring point can therefore function independently of the other measuring channels.
Thanks to its unusually short reaction time, this measuring system was to be able to considerably
improve the CO monitoring of electrostatic filters. Measurement directly following WT would perhaps
be possible, since the manufacturer mentions that up to 50g/m
3
dust has no influence. Unfortunately,
the measuring distance this value applies to is unavailable.
The following gases can be measured at the present time:
Gas ppm, at 1m mg/m3, at 1m
NH
3
0.6 0.4
Query:
NH
3
O
2
200 260
H
2
O/NH
3
200/1 150/0.7
H
2
O 0.3 0.2
Hcl 0.3 0.4
HF 0.3 0.4
Also other gas components can be measured on request.
The LDS 300 is one of the first laser analysers to appear on the market. At present, the price is (still)
relatively high. Development is absolutely in line with the trend and could also be used advantageously
in the cement industry in the near future.
/ 8.6 Multi-component measuring systems / 8.6.4 Advance Cemas FTRI of Hartmann & Braun
8.6.4 Advance Cemas FTRI of Hartmann & Braun
Development has also continued with extractive measuring instruments. Hartmann and Braun builds in
addition to the maximum four-component measuring NDIR systems a modern FTIR (Fastfourier
Transformation Infrared) spectrometer, which has identical functions to those of the OPSIS, but is
designed as an extractive measuring instrument. It offers high selectivity as well as easy upgrading to
additional infrared components. Based on the measuring principle and automatic zero correction,
calibration is only necessary twice a year to maintain the smallest measuring ranges. All parts coming
into contact with the sample gas: Sampling system, sample gas preparation system and measuring
cuvette are heated to 100C. The instrument features a self-diagnosis system and, as with all modern
instruments of this type, can be monitored by H & B Service and faults diagnosed via an integrated
modem.
A German cement works has had good experience over a two-year operating period. The instrument is
overhauled twice a year as part of a maintenance contract. The weak point, the hot gas pump, is
changed each time or the diaphragms replaced as a precautionary measure.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C04 - Gas Analysing Systems / PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS IN CEMENT WORKS / 9. RECORDING
AND EVALUATION
9. RECORDING AND EVALUATION
Following the measured values on the basis of recording strip charts is advantageous for the general
assessment of a process sequence. In the area of emissions, the majority of countries require that
measured values are prepared according to certain, adapted criteria; hourly and daily average value,
criteria relating to the observance or non-observance of limiting values, etc. In such cases, digital
processing of the measured values is unavoidable.
AND EVALUATION / 9.1 Trend curves, recorders
9.1 Trend curves, recorders
For the purpose of clarity, not too many components should be recorded simultaneously. Strongly
varying signals must be appropriately dampened. Monitors or line recorders are better suited for this
purpose than dotted-line recorders. Scaling should correspond with the actual physical values. This
Query:
applies particularly to life-zero signals. For strip chart recorders, a paper feed rate of 20mm/h is
standard.
AND EVALUATION / 9.2 Averaging computers
9.2 Averaging computers
When lump fuel (e.g. tyres) is fed into the precalcining zone, the measured values at the kiln inlet are
subject to extreme fluctuations. Without damping of averaging, the signals are difficult to interpret. It
has emerged that sliding, linear averaging is easier to interpret than logarithmic damping, as individual
values are less important in linear averaging. The more favourable intervals for optimal averaging are
between 10 and 15 minutes. Figures 15 and 16 show the behaviour of the signals of a 1500-7/d kiln
with tyre feed without averaging and with various averaging times.
Figure 15:
Query:
Figure 16:
AND EVALUATION / 9.3 Data logging
9.3 Data logging
The interpretation of measured signals on the basis of trend curves is too rudimentary for sophisticated
tasks. Visual comparisons of such curves easily lead to misinterpretations. In connection with
optimisations or in the search for faults in the process, the signals from gas analysis must be
processed with other measured quantities from the system in the PC. A precondition for this is that the
data can be digitally acquired, logged and input into the PC. In plants with modern process control
systems, this precondition is usually met. Where this is not the case or as part of temporary
Query:
measurements, independent data logging systems should be used for data recording purposes.
AND EVALUATION / 9.4 Emission computers
9.4 Emission computers
The form of documentation of the measured emissions is prescribed in more and more countries. In
Europe, there are plants whose emission computers are connected via a data line to the authorities
concerned. The emission computers are normally designed for documentation of the following values:
Half-hourly average values
Hourly average values
Daily average values
Exceeded limiting values
Emission computers primarily meet the officially prescribed evaluation and documentation of emission
values. As the emission data also contains valuable process-relevant information, they are also useful
for the operator. Depending on the regulations of the country concerned, the valuation of emission
values can be taken over from internal process control systems.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
10. MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
Reliable continuous operation of continuous gas analysis is dependent not only on the efficient design
of the measuring equipment, but also on systematic maintenance and repair. The maintenance work to
be carried out can be subdivided into the following categories.
Condition check
Adjustment check, cleaning
Replacement of wearing parts
Function test
Table 4 shows the maintenance intervals of a typical gas analyser. Maintenance must be carried out
daily (D), weekly (W), monthly (M), quarter yearly (QY), half yearly (HY) or yearly (Y). The time cycle of
the individual working procedures depends on the system-specific conditions and essentially on the
age of the measuring equipment. The work undertaken is noted in a logbook for practical purposes.
Table 4: Maintenance Intervals
Function Test
Replacement of worn parts
Adjustments, checks, cleaning works
Visual checks
Query:
Visual checks
Sample gas preparation:
Flow measurement (floating body instrument)
Suction pressure (Manometer)
Humidity in the sample gas pipes
Function check of the wetness monitor
Heated sample gas pipe temperature
Sample gas cooler condensate pump
Sample gas pump check and replace membrane
Tightness check
Cabinet air conditioning
Magnetic valves, function and tightness check
Cabinet cleaning
Probes:
Tightness check
Cooling
Filter change
Cleaning
Analyzers:
Indication plausibility
Adjustement
Filter change
Total overhaul
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
W
M
HY
QY
HY
QY
QY
W
3Y
HY
Y
Y
HY
HY
QY
HY
Y
Y
Y
QY
The operating conditions and type of construction of the equipment used varies considerably.
Instructions for maintenance and repairs must be adapted to local conditions and defined according to
individual experience.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.1 Visual checks
10.1 Visual checks
The term visual check includes visual inspection of the equipment, indicating instruments, signal states
and checking heated parts for a hot or cold condition by trained and experienced personnel.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.2 Adjustment checks, cleaning
10.2 Adjustment checks, cleaning
This category includes adjustments, readjustments, etc., of conditions which can change for different
Query:
reasons.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.2 Adjustment checks, cleaning / 10.2.1 Tightness checks
10.2.1 Tightness checks
Vacuum check
The hose connections at the probe are sealed and the sample gas pump is started. The maximum
vacuum which the pump can produce must be noted when commissioning the measuring equipment.
At maximum vacuum, the part of the pump is closed and the pump stopped. The sample gas
preparation system up to the sample gas pump (suction area) is considered tight when the vacuum
does not change significantly for a period of 5 minutes following temperature equalisation.
Nitrogen check
See Chapter 7.7
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.3 Replacement of wearing parts
10.3 Replacement of wearing parts
When replacing parts, it must be ensured that no leaks occur. According to experience, weak points in
this respect are filter housings and connecting points in the sample gas pipe. Suitable sealing material
must be available at all times, so that any type of seal, union, etc., can be replaced if there is the
slightest suspicion of a leak.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.3 Replacement of wearing parts / 10.3.1 Sample gas pump
10.3.1 Sample gas pump
The sample gas pumps are usually diaphragm pumps, whose diaphragm and valve plates should be
replaced at least once a year.
The ball bearings of the motor and eccentric should be replaced every two years in continuous
operation. Standby sample gas pumps should be available.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.3 Replacement of wearing parts / 10.3.2 Cleaning sintered metal and ceramic filters
10.3.2 Cleaning sintered metal and ceramic filters
Ceramic filters can be cleaned with diluted hydrochloric acid (1 part concentrated hydrochloric acid to
10 parts water). The filters must be placed in the acid for about 2 hours.
The parts must subsequently be flushed with water pressure from the inside to the outside, blown out
with compressed air and dried in a drying cabinet at about 100C.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.3 Replacement of wearing parts / 10.3.3 Fine filters
10.3.3 Fine filters
The filter element should be replaced at regular intervals, e.g. every three months. Fine filters with
condensate monitor are tested by moistening the filter element. The instrument must then respond.
Query:
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.3 Replacement of wearing parts / 10.3.4 Gas analysers
10.3.4 Gas analysers
The gas analysers are tested with test gases or by means of the built-in calibrating cuvettes and
readjusted if necessary. For testing with gases, it must be ensured that the flow rate roughly
corresponds with the operating values. When selecting the test gases, the specifi-cations of the
instrument manufacturer must be observed. The gas analysers should be adjusted at regular intervals,
at least every two weeks. Adjustments must be noted in the maintenance report. If significant
adjustments are required, or the adjustment range limits (greater than 80% or less than 20%) are
reached, the instrument must be tested and inspected if necessary.
Wearing parts are, e.g. emitter, receiver, diaphragm motor.
For zero readjustment, nitrogen is normally used. With the exception of oxygen measurement, air can
also be used as a zero gas if the analysers are not too sensitive.
For sensitivity adjustment, a test gas is used that normally consists of the measuring components and
nitrogen. For compensation of the residual moisture, it is advantageous to feed the test gas upstream
of the sample gas cooler. The test gas concentration for sensitivity adjustment should be 80 to 90% of
the respective measuring range end value.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.4 Function test
10.4 Function test
This term means that certain functions gas analysis are extensively tested, e.g. to ensure that the
detector in the fine filter responds if moisture is present and the sample gas pump is stopped.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.5 Test gases
10.5 Test gases
As initially mentioned, new gas analysers no longer require any test gases. The internal calibrating and
control options ensure that the accuracy is maintained over a long period (normally two years). After
this time, the analysers should be tested by the manufacturers service department and in particular the
internal control devices (calibrating cuvettes) checked. Test gases are available in various accuracy
classes according to particular directives, e.g. VDI 3490, sheet 2. Depending on the manufacturing and
analysis accuracy, distinction is made between three classes. The test gases are delivered with
analysis certificates that contain all essential data, such as:
Measuring component and accompanying gas
Test gas production method
Measuring component concentration
Relative error of this concentration
Pressure of container filling
Minimum application pressure
Minimum and maximum storage temperature and maximum test gas storage time (limit date)
Query:
The concentration specified on the analysis certificate should be written in large and easily readable
letters on the test gas bottle.
The test gases are available in bottles of varying size. A 10 litre bottle (about 1100mm high, preferably
of aluminium) is normally sufficient for a two-year supply. The bottle pressure is between 100 and 200
bar, depending on the gas composition. The main valve must be closed after each use. Test gas
deliveries max take time in certain regions; this should be taken into account when the bottle pressure
starts to get low.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.5 Test gases / 10.5.1 Mixing test gases
10.5.1 Mixing test gases
Certain gas components can be combined as a mixture in a bottle. This possibility considerably
facilitates maintenance (fewer bottle transports and savings on gas bottle hire charges). Caution! New
multi-component gas analysers must only be tested with gas mixtures but not calibrated. Only
individual components in nitrogen are permitted for calibration.
With one exception, all standard components can be mixed together. This exception applies to oxygen
O
2
.
With oxygen analysers, the measuring range should be such that air can be used for calibration.
Nitrogen must always be used as a residual gas.
Example of a test gas mixture:
Component Chemical
symbol
Analyser measuring
range
Concentration
in test gas
Sulphur dioxide SO
2
3000ppm 2800ppm
Carbon monoxide CO 5% 0.45%
Nitrogen monoxide NO 2000ppm 1900ppm
Carbon dioxide CO
2
as accompanying gas 25%
Nitrogen N2 as residual component 74.08%
The accuracy of the test gases reduces the more components are mixed. The number of mixing
components is thus limited.
Further, general information on test gases is provided in the annexed instructions.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.6 Fault signals
10.6 Fault signals
Faults in the measuring instrument should be indicated by status signals, e.g.:
Insufficient pressure in the suction pipe (blockage of the probe or gas path)
Excessive pressure in the suction pipe (possible failure or leakage of a solenoid valve)
Query:
Status signals of the analysers (failure of the analyser or electrical fault)
Operating temperature of the sample gas cooler or failure of the sample gas cooler
Operation of the condensate monitor (can indicate failure of the sample gas cooler or faulty
water-cooled probe
Adjustment/operation changeover valve should automatically inform the control room that the
measuring equipment is being serviced and is therefore not ready for operation
Minimum contact of flowmeter (insufficient sample gas)
Status signals for measuring equipment faults are checked for their plausibility by simulated operating
deviations.
MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE / 10.7 Automated maintenance equipment
10.7 Automated maintenance equipment
Theoretically, numerous maintenance procedures can be automated, e.g. automatic zero and limit
range adjustment, sample gas flow rate control, blowing out of the filter, etc. However, sample gases
are media that can give rise to various difficulties.
They have a corrosive effect, contain dust, must not be adulterated, can be very moist, etc., to mention
but a few of the unpleasant characteristics that make automation difficult.
Practice shows time and again that solenoid valves are the weak point within measuring equipment, so
that only valves of the best quality must be used for evaluation. The number of necessary solenoid
valves increases with an increasing degree of automation; due to their susceptibility to faults, the
failure rate also increases, so that the savings expected from automation are accordingly lost.
The same applies when a group of analysers is switched to two or more measuring points with the
intention of saving on expensive analysers. Apart from the operating difficulties, experience has shown
time and again that the saved investment costs are quickly absorbed by the corresponding
maintenance costs.
MEASURING ERRORS
11. MEASURING ERRORS
The accuracy of gas analysers is often overestimated. The reason for gas analyses being relatively
inaccurate is not because of the analysers, as is often assumed. The following examples explain the
most important influences responsible for this.
MEASURING ERRORS / 11.1 Sample gas sampling
11.1 Sample gas sampling
Significant measuring errors can occur as a result of non-representative sampling. In rotary kiln
systems, these occur particularly at the rotary kiln inlet and kiln inlet chamber measuring points. These
measuring errors occur mainly at the filter measuring points in coal pulverising mills.
MEASURING ERRORS / 11.2 Sample gas preparation
Query:
11.2 Sample gas preparation
MEASURING ERRORS / 11.2 Sample gas preparation / 11.2.1 Sorption and chemical reaction
11.2.1 Sorption and chemical reaction
In the probe and sample gas preparation system, sample gas components can react with each other.
These reactions are reinforced by catalytic effects. Furthermore, reactions with dust or gas conducting
components are possible.
MEASURING ERRORS / 11.2 Sample gas preparation / 11.2.2 CO reduction
11.2.2 CO reduction
At high temperatures (above 600C), CO is reduced to a large degree depending on the residence
time. This effect is the reason why only cooled probes may be used at temperatures above 500C.
MEASURING ERRORS / 11.2 Sample gas preparation / 11.2.3 NO2 formation in the probe and sample gas preparation system
11.2.3 NO
2
formation in the probe and sample gas preparation system
At temperatures of about 100C and a concentration of 900ppm NO, the theoretical formation rate of
NO
2
is about 0.5ppm per second.
At lower temperatures and high gas residence times, this formation takes place more rapidly. The
indication delay of the NO measuring equipment should therefore be as short as possible.
MEASURING ERRORS / 11.2 Sample gas preparation / 11.2.4 SO2 reduction in the probe and sample gas pipe
11.2.4 SO
2
reduction in the probe and sample gas pipe
Rust, dust deposits, non-ferrous metal parts (especially copper) in the gas path of the sample gas can
reduce SO
2
up to 100%. For the sample gas pipes and all other gas conducting parts, Teflon,
high-alloyed steel or steel with special coating (e.g. PTFE) must therefore be used.
MEASURING ERRORS / 11.2 Sample gas preparation / 11.2.5 SO2 reduction of the filter dust of the sampling probe
11.2.5 SO
2
reduction of the filter dust of the sampling probe
SO
2
reacts with the CaCO
3
and CaO contained in the filter dust of the sampling probe with the
formation of CaSO
4
. With high dust contents in the process gas, measuring errors of up to 100% can
occur. SO
2
can therefore only be measured fairly accurately process gas with a low dust content. This
applies in particular to SO
2
measurements in the rotary kiln inlet. Tests have shown that SO
2
is initially
indicated only a short time after cleaning the filter. Within several minutes, the indication falls to zero
again, because the SO
2
is absorbed in the dust building up in the filter.
MEASURING ERRORS / 11.2 Sample gas preparation / 11.2.6 Interaction with a liquid
11.2.6 Interaction with a liquid
Query:
Errors due to the solubility of the measuring component
The solubility of certain measuring components in water must be taken into account for wet sampling
probes. If the injector water of the wet sampling probe is not fed into the circuit, CO
2
, NO
2
and SO
2
can
go into solution, depending on the probe design.
Condensation of the water vapour which is separated as water in the sample gas cooler by the
extractive method, can also distort gas analysis. This is of particular significance for SO
2
emission
measurement when low concentrations are present. The theoretical solubility of SO
2
in water is low
and could be compensated by appropriate calibration. However, tests on cement kiln systems in a
direct operating mode have shown that measuring errors for SO
2
are far above the theoretical
distribution equilibrium when SO
2
reacts with other gas components such as NH
3
. An SO
2
measuring
device can be tested for these errors by the sample gas being transferred from the sampling probe
directly into concentrated sulphuric acid (H
2
SO
4
) as the drying medium and not via the sample gas
cooler. If distinct differences in the measured value indication occur, a chemical reaction is most
probably taking place in the sample gas cooler.
Apart from SO
2
, NO
2
also dissolves in the condensate of the sample gas cooler. However, since the
proportion of NO
2
in the total NO concentration can be disregarded with proper sampling, the resulting
measuring error can normally be disregarded.
MEASURING ERRORS / 11.3 Volumetric errors due to the solubility of accompanying components
11.3 Volumetric errors due to the solubility of accompanying components
If accompanying components, e.g. CO
2
go into solution, the concentration of the other measuring
components increases. The partial absorption of CO
2
in an injector probe, increases, e.g. the O
2
concentration.
MEASURING ERRORS / 11.4 Gas analysers
11.4 Gas analysers
The accuracy of the gas analysers, provided they are in a perfect condition, is not an issue. If a gas
analyser is viewed as a whole, the analyser is the most accurate link in the measuring chain, with a few
exceptions. The analyser manufacturers specifications relating to cross-sensitivities, disturbing
components as well as temperature and pressure influences must be observed.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C04 - Gas Analysing Systems / PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS IN CEMENT WORKS / 12. SPECIAL
FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS
12. SPECIAL FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS
FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS / 12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter
12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter
If, for any reason, combustible gases should develop (ring fractures, faults in fuel dosage, etc.), in the
kiln system, there is a risk of a potentially explosive mixture forming in the electrostatic filter.
High-voltage discharges inside the filter cause sparks, which can lead to explosions in a gas
atmosphere of appropriate composition.
Query:
As a safety measure, the CO component of the gas discharging from the kiln system is measured.
Once a certain level is reached, the high-voltage should be switched off before the gases reach the
electrostatic filter. Measurement can initially take place in precalcining plants following complete
combustion in the auxiliary firing equipment, i.e. in the uppermost cyclone stage of the heat exchanger
at the earliest. The residence time of the gases from this point to the electrostatic filter is relatively
short (several seconds) and varies considerably from plant to plant (with or without cooling tower,
combined/direct operation, etc.).
Filter monitors, whose effect alone depends on an adjustable maximum value, reassure responsible
personnel, however, they are not optimal solutions. On the one hand, unnecessary filter shutdowns are
initiated, on the other hand, it is not ensured that they would operate promptly in an emergency. A tried
and tested possibility of optimising this process is offered by sequential filter shutdown.
FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS / 12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter / 12.1.1 Basic concept of filter shutdown
12.1.1 Basic concept of filter shutdown
Compared with the usual method, filter shutdown is optimised in two essential steps. The first step
consists of shutting down the filter chambers step by step. The second step consists of taking into
account a reducing or increasing CO trend.
The residence time of the gases in the electrostatic filter itself is used in order to further delay
shutdown. The filter chambers are shutdown at approximately five second intervals, depending on the
size and gas flow rate. However, as soon as CO measurement indicates a reducing trend, the
shutdown cycle is stopped.
FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS / 12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter / 12.1.2 Optimisation of CO measurement
12.1.2 Optimisation of CO measurement
The following measures must be taken in order to make CO measurement as efficient as possible:
Short distance between sampling point and analyser
Large sample gas volume (up to 300l/h setting;short delay time)
Small volumes in gas path, particularly in sample gas cooler
Select analyser with fast response time
Use double measuring system for two-section WT systems
Formation of logical signals CO increasing and CO reducing
FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS / 12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter / 12.1.3 Specifications
12.1.3 Specifications
Selection of measuring point according to Figure 1
Gas preparation system appropriately adapted according to Figure 12
NDIR gas analyser, measuring range 0 to 5%, CO with 3 adjustable maximum limiting values
Arrangement of a shutdown procedure
With regard to the CO analyser, it should be noted that the same must have a high measuring range
Query:
for CO monitoring. It cannot be used simultaneously for continuous CO observation, as the normal CO
content is below the detection limit of this analyser. If CO is to be continuously measured, a second
analyser with a much lower measuring range of 5000ppm (0.5%) must be used.
FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS / 12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter / 12.1.4 Shutdown procedure
12.1.4 Shutdown procedure
The procedure for shutdown of the individual filter chambers is shown on the basis of two examples in
Tables 5 and 6. The specified numerical values of the shutdown sequences and the CO level are only
guide values and must be adjusted to the respective plants.
For CO values below 10%, a risk of explosion is virtually excluded. However, the threshold values must
be set far lower, as the measurement reacts with delays despite optimal preconditions (dead time +
indication delay).
Table 5: Switching procedure, for a simple heat exchanger kiln with 3-changer filter
Table 6: Switch-off pocedure, for a two strings heat exchanger kiln with 3-chamber filter
FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS / 12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter / 12.1.5 Special devices
12.1.5 Special devices
Sick GM 950
Query:
Via an in-situ sensor (zirconium dioxide) CO is measured at a high response rate and processed to a
shutdown command if required. As zirconium is fairly instable as a CO indicator, extractive supplied
semiconductor sensors correct any deviations.
The device is new and still in the testing phase. The currently available test results have been positive
up to now. The measuring method is relatively elaborate and the device gives the impression of being
somewhat complex. During the test, no functional disturbance occurred.
FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS / 12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter / 12.1.6 Laser analysers
12.1.6 Laser analysers
In-situ laser analysers offer promising prospects as already mentioned in chapter 8.6.3. It is
conceivable that low-cost options will soon be available, as several measuring points can be served
with the same analyser, e.g. filter monitoring (upstream and downstream of the filter) and various
points in the coal pulverising mill.
FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS / 12.2 Monitoring of coal pulverising mills
12.2 Monitoring of coal pulverising mills
In the safety concept of coal pulverising mills, the monitoring of critical gas components covers only a
small part of the necessary equipment and measures. In addition, coal pulverising mills vary
considerably in their design, so that the application and function of gas analysis is always determined
as part of the entire plant.
FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS / 12.2 Monitoring of coal pulverising mills / 12.2.1 Limiting values
12.2.1 Limiting values
In 1984, the following limiting values were listed by a working group of the Association of German
Cement Works (VDZ):
O
2
content in moist exhaust gas downstream of the filter 14%
Temperature at mill inlet (coal moisture 12%) 400C
Gas temperature downstream of mill upstream of filter 120C
Gas temperature downstream of filter 120C
Gas temperature upstream of filter minimum 30C above dew point about 75C
CO concentrate during filter shutdown 50ppm
Operation with hot gas generator 70ppm
Operation with kiln exhaust gase not practical
Pressure upstream of mill -1.5bar
Coal dust temperature 110C
Air temperature of pneumatic transport 80C
The limiting value for the oxygen concentration applies only to plants with inert gas operation. All other
limiting values are the same for the safe operation of inert and non-inert gas operated plants. For coal
Query:
pulverising mills heated with kiln exhaust gas, CO monitoring is not practical during operation, because
the gases from kiln operation contain up to 10 times more CO than the limiting value of 70ppm permits.
CO shutdowns of the electrostatic filter for the kiln, must be coupled with the filter of the coal
pulverising mill.
This information on the safety equipment of coal pulverising mills only contains the most important
information and is intended to draw attention to the complexity and importance of such plants.
CONVERSION FACTORS
13. CONVERSION FACTORS
Conversion of the gas components from volume to units of weight and vice versa, is often the cause of
errors in adjustment or interpretation. Such errors occur most frequently in connection with NO and
NO
2
. The problem with these NO components is that the instruments measure NO, but the emission
must be converted to NO
2
.
Furthermore, emissions are considered in weight-related units (mg/m
3
), but the instruments and the
test gases are often specified in volume-related units (e.g. ppm or %)
Conversion from [ppm] to mg/m
3
Factor f = M
22.4
Whereby M = Mol mass (kg/kmol) of the gas components
Table 7
Components Converted to Mol mass [M] Factor (f) 1/f
CO CO 28.01 1.25 0.80
NO NO 30.01 1.34 0.75
NO NO
2
46.01 2.85 0.49
NH
3
NH
3
17.03 0.76 1.32
Example
Given:
Test gas with 8.75ppm NO
NO analyser, measuring range 0-2000mg/m
3
NO
Required:
Analyser indication at 875ppm
How much NO
2
in mg/m
3
corresponds to the adjusted value 875ppmNO?
Query:
Solution:
Analyser indication = 875 x 1.34 =
1172mg/m
3
NO
Emission value NO
2
= 875 x 2.05 =
1794mg/m
3
NO
2
or from mg/m
3
NO to mg/m
3
NO
2
1172 x 1.53 =
1794mg/m
3
NO
2
LITERATURE
14. LITERATURE
1) Verein Deutscher Zementwerke (VDZ) (Association of German Cement Works):
2) Continuous Gas Analysis in Cement Works, Notice VT9, June 1990
3) B. Thier: Safe Operation of Coal Pulverising Mills. ZKG 4/1984, page 163
4) M. Ascherfeld and W. Fabinski Multi-component Analyser for Oxygen and Infrared Active Gases.
tm Technisches Messen 59 (1991) Volume 5
5) H.G. Loos, Erlangen: A New Operational Compact Gas Sampling Device for Cement Rotary Kilns.
ZKG NO. 6/1987
6) M. Birrer, H. Nyffenegger: Gas Sampling at the Kiln Inlet with Improved Probe.
7) Holderbank NEWS 6/90
8) K. Utzinger: Reduction of Dust Emissions on Startup and CO Shutdowns of the Electrostatic Filter
at the Rekingen Works. Holderbank NEWS 7/8 (1986)
9) Bronkhurst High-Tech B.V., Ruurlo, Holland: Operating Manual for Mass Flowmeters and
Controllers for Gases
10) KNF Neuberger (Switzerland) AG, CH 8362 Balterswil: Prospectus and Data Sheet for Diaphragm
Compressors and Vacuum Pumps
11) Annette Schrck: Preparation of Decision-making Criteria for Plant Operators for Purchasing an
Emission Measuring Instrument. Thesis SS 1992 (available from Messrs Sick)
1)
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control
C05 - High Level Control
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS
HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS
U. Haberstich
PT 98/14350/E (Revision of PT 94/4191/E)
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EVOLUTION OF HLC SYSTEMS
3. SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OF A HLC SYSTEM
4. PROCESS OPTIMIZATION WITH HLC
5. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
6. BENEFITS AND KEYS OF SUCCESS
7. HOW TO JUSTIFY AN INVESTMENT IN HLC
8. CONCLUSION
9. REFERENCES
10. ANNEX
Query:
Summary
For more than 30 years, the cement industry has been exploring computer-based techniques to control
and optimize the operation of cement kilns. The major reasons behind these endeavours are clinker
uniformity, savings in energy consumption, increase in production, savings in refractory consumption
and NOx reduction. Basically, cement kilns are difficult to control because of their non-linear,
multivariable, behaviour and the poor quality of the available process signals. After several trials to
describe the burning process with mathematical models a new approach in cement kiln control was
investigated in 1980. Operator control strategies were studied, and a detailed record of the operators
behaviour was made while controlling the kiln. These fuzzy rules can imitate multivariable control
actions and can combine information from variables to identify the kiln conditions. Within the
Holderbank group, specific requirements of such a High Level Control (HLC) system was defined to
compare the several suppliers. The system from ABB LINKman is the most powerful real-time expert
system with very advanced features and a high user-friendliness. A standard implementation plan was
made to reach a successful application of the system. The preparatory work in the plant must be
carried out according to the recommendations made during the pre-project study. The identified
process problems have to be solved. To achieve the Best Operator Performance the detailed and
rigorous monitoring of the HLC performance is obviously essential at this stage. The optimization of the
process with respect to product quality and related process factors, on a long-term basis, is the key to
the ultimate level of savings arising from the HLC application. It is this optimization that can give the
plant additional benefits over and above those arising from the average operator to Best Operator
Performance. The experience shows that substantial benefits like higher kiln output, lower heat
consumption, longer refractory life, lower NOx emissions and lower standard deviation of the key
variables can be expected from HLC systems, if they are properly implemented and used. The
experience shows that the payback of 1 to 2 years is realistic, when considering only the investment
costs in the HLC system.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS / 1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
For more than 30 years, the cement industry has been exploring computer-based techniques to control
and optimize the operation of cement kilns. The major reasons behind these endavors are clinker
uniformity, savings in energy consumption, increase in production, savings in refractory consumption,
NOx reduction (Fig. 1+2, Annexes 1+2). The still high energy consumption of the cement
manufacturing process, the stringent requirements on cement quality and the environmental aspects
which are leading the governments to apply severe legislation regarding the emissions.
The classical process automation approach, consisting in defining a mathematical model of the
process, led to only a very few successful kiln control applications. The improvement in the
performance of hardware equipment, combined with the advent of artificial intelligence, is leading to a
major step toward kiln control and optimization.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS / 2. EVOLUTION OF HLC SYSTEMS
2. EVOLUTION OF HLC SYSTEMS
Basically cement kilns are difficult to control because of their non-linear, multivariable, behaviour and
the poor quality of the available process signals. The control is then usually limited to a few secondary
measurement loops, whereas the control of the primary parameters and the operating conditions are
the responsibility of the kiln operators.
Query:
The first applied techniques were based on empirical or mathematical models. Although successful in
simulating the kiln operation, these techniques were generally based on too many assumptions and
used very complex theoretical models. For this reason they were not applicable and could not be
extended to a broad selection of kilns. Other approaches such as the "hill climbing" techniques (Young
et al, 1971) or statistical identification combined with optimal controller design by the state space
method (Otomo et al, 1972) was also used but did not achieve any significant success.
Since the mid-seventies, a new approach based on the analysis of the human decision making in
cement kiln control has been investigated (Umbers and King, 1980). Operator control strategies were
studied, and a detailed record of the operator's behaviour was made while controlling the kiln. Basically
this approach rests upon the concept of fuzzy logic introduced by Prof. L. Zadeh in 1965. The basic
operator control rules were already prescribed by Peray and Waddell (1972). These "fuzzy" rules can
imitate multivariable control actions and can combine information from variables, they work by
identifying the kiln conditions and prescribing suitable corrective actions.
FL Smidth supplied the first commercially available kiln control system based on fuzzy logic in 1980.
The concept of High Level Control was introduced at that time and is used to refer to systems, which
provide not only supervisory control but also optimising control. Since then, many systems have been
developed and are marketed. Some are using the concept of fuzzy logic and are called rule-based
systems or are based on expert system shells. Others are more conventional and apply PID control or
adaptive-predictive controllers. The penetration of HLC in the cement industry has been very intensive
over the last decade, about 300 applications have been reported in kiln control applications.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS / 3. SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OF
A HLC SYSTEM
3. SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OF A HLC SYSTEM
The following basic requirements were specified:
1) The provision of a high degree of user-friendliness; this aspect is extremely important, since kiln
control strategy needs to be adapted when process conditions change. The maintenance of the
application control strategy must be easy for the plant engineers to carry out.
2) The concept of autopilot as used in the previous version of the suppliers HLC system must be
included to make it possible for the operator to switch the system on-line or off-line at any time
without disturbing the process.
3) The use of a toolkit based on the G2 expert system shell which provides advanced features such
as real-time facility, graphical interface and object-oriented programming; the toolkit, which is a
software layer between G2 and the HLC applications, is the support for developing and
implementing control strategies without programming skills.
4) The possibility for having multiple applications on the same system, typically one kiln, one cooler,
mills and the kiln simulator.
5) The provision of a system incorporating tools and facilities allowing for consistent process
optimization.
6) Very helpful for the introduction is the inclusion of a standard interface between the HLC system
and the tailor-made kiln simulator in order to provide a training platform for the operators; this
platform would allow for the simulation of kiln upsets and disturbances. The plant engineer would
thus be able to develop and test new strategies before real implementation in the actual plant
application. Figure 3 (Annex 3) shows a typical configuration.
7) The standardisation of the control strategies, in order to shorten commissioning time and make
Query:
exchange of experience easier between different users. It is important to have a standardised way
of both configuring and maintaining the control strategies.
Within the HOLDERBANK Group LINKman from ABB LINKman Systems Ltd, London, is applied.
LINKman Graphic, the new version of this HLC system, is based on G2, a very powerful real-time
expert system shell from Gensym Corp. LINKman Graphic is particularly user-friendly and offers very
advanced features [4].
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS / 4. PROCESS OPTIMIZATION WITH
HLC
4. PROCESS OPTIMIZATION WITH HLC
As mentioned above, process optimization is the major target to be achieved. There are typically three
phases associated with our concept of successful application. See also [3]. These phases are outlined
below.
Phase 1: Plant Preparation
The preparatory work in the plant must be carried out according to the recommendations made during
the pre-project study.
Phase 2: Achievement of Best Operator Performance
Very often bottlenecks are detected, process problems are identified and experience is gained in the
period immediately following HLC implementation. Detailed and rigorous monitoring of the HLC
performance is obviously essential at this stage. The identified problems then have to be addressed
during the secondary commissioning. Attempts must be made to achieve the highest possible run time
of the HLC system, typically 90 % or more, using an adequate and consistent control strategy. At this
stage, the HLC is expected to operate with the same performance as the best operator with respect to
production output, product quality, heat consumption, etc. The associated benefits depend on the size
of the plant and the performance previously achieved in manual operation. This phase, based on the
best operator know-how, can be considered as the foundation of the whole HLC project.
Phase 3: Process Optimization
The optimization of the process with respect to product quality and related process factors, on a
long-term basis, is the key to the ultimate level of savings arising from the HLC application. It is this
optimization that can give the plant additional benefits over and above those arising from the average
operator to Best Operator Performance. Process optimization mainly involves the plant technical
staff. It requires an evaluation of the process performance, an estimation of the potential savings,
which can be achieved, and an assessment of the control strategy performance. Since plant conditions
change in respect to raw material quality, availability of alternative fuels, product quality requirements,
etc., process optimization must be considered as a permanent task.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS / 5. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
5. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Basically, in the case of a conventional preheater kiln, HLC manages the control of the following
parameters:
the kiln feed rate
Query:
the kiln speed
the IDF speed (or damper position)
the fuel to the kiln burner
In case of a precalciner installation, the precalciner fuel and the position of the tertiary air damper (AS
system) have also to be controlled automatically.
The HLC system needs to access the process relevant data, such as preheater temperatures and
pressures, the gas composition, the kiln amperage, the burning zone temperature, etc.
The principles of kiln control operation depend on the HLC system used. The principles used in
LINKman are hereafter presented.
LINKman
LINKman works in two basic modes:
Normal Actions and Interrupt Actions.
The approach used in LINKman is sequential. In a first phase, a specific logic checks whether the kiln
is in normal operation or in upset situation.
Normal Actions
If the kiln is in normal condition, then the parameters BZT, OX and BET are calculated.
BZT (Burning Zone Temperature) represents the clinker burning degree, calculated out of NOx,
Kiln Amps, and zone temperature.
OX, the draught index, based on the gas composition at kiln inlet.
BET (Bet End Temperature): the degree of preparation of the material when entering the kiln.
LINKman selects then one of 4 ruleblocks to determine the required setpoint changes, depending on:
the deviation between the actual feed rate and the desired target,
the spare draught capacity,
The process conditions.
Rule Block Actions on
General Feed, Fuel, Fan
Top-feed Fuel, Fan
Query:
Top-feed Fuel, Fan
Top-damp Feed, Fuel
Stable Fuel
The changes calculated using the ruleblocks are scaled to physical changes. However these changes
are merely based on the present kiln conditions. Specific actions are then carried out, if required, to
take into account the previous actions and the process dynamics, they are included in the "Post-Rule
Block Processing" module.
Interrupt Actions
If a kiln-upset condition is detected, a dedicated control action is applied. As these actions have a
higher priority than the normal actions, they are called interrupt actions.
Examples:
Break-Action if the kiln is in unstable conditions for a longer period
Ring-Action if a ring fall is detected
Hot-Action if the kiln gets very hot
CO-Action if a high amount of CO is detected
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS / 6. BENEFITS AND KEYS OF
SUCCESS
6. BENEFITS AND KEYS OF SUCCESS
The experience shows that substantial benefits can be expected from HLC systems if they are properly
implemented and used. The following table shows typical ranges of quantifiable benefits:
Item Typical Range
Kiln output + [0 - 5 %]
Heat Consumption - [0 - 5 %]
Refractory Life + [0 - 30 %]
Long-term clinker strength + [0 - 5 %]
Electrical energy for clinker grinding - [0 - 10 % ]
NOx emissions - [0 - 30 %]
Number of kiln stops - [0 - 30 %]
Standard deviation of key variables - [0 - 50 %]
Query:
In addition, the following qualitative benefits have to be mentioned:
The working conditions of the operators are greatly enhanced. As the computer handles the routine
tasks, the operator can concentrate on more important matters.
Process analysis and optimization are made more easily since opportunities for testing new control
strategies and new ideas are available, assuming that the HLC is user-friendly enough.
The use of HLC imposes to keep the instrumentation in a good operating state.
The keys of success with HLC systems are:
An adequate and reliable instrumentation (sensors, actuators, PID controllers, etc.)
A stable and uniform raw mix chemistry
An optimized combustion
A highly motivated personnel
A follow-up of the performance of the system
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS / 7. HOW TO JUSTIFY AN
INVESTMENT IN HLC
7. HOW TO JUSTIFY AN INVESTMENT IN HLC
In order to justify an investment in HLC, it is important to estimate the potential cumulative savings over
the lifetime of the system. Figure 4 (Annex 4) gives an illustration of these savings over a period of ten
years.
In this figure, curves 1, 1a and 1b indicate the cumulative savings with HLC when achieving Best
Operator Performance. If the HLC has a robust strategy and is permanently adapted to the evolution
of the burning process, then the cumulative savings will increase consistently according to curve 1.
However, if the system is not properly maintained or not adjusted to changing process conditions,
sooner or later it will stop functioning and the savings will obviously stop. These situations can take
place very shortly after installation (curve 1a) or later on (curve 1b).
Curve 2 illustrates the cumulative savings, which can be realized in cases where the HLC is used as a
tool for permanent process optimization. These extra savings are on top of the savings indicated on
curve 1. The benefits resulting from this optimization can be achieved after reaching an HLC run time
of more than 90 %. The savings through optimization can increase even more if the original HLC
application is extended to other plant areas such as raw milling, stack gas flow control or integration of
an efficient raw mix control strategy.
To summarize, simply by achieving Best Operator Performance, the payback is generally less than
two years (considering only the investment in HLC). Furthermore, if the HLC is used efficiently as a
permanent optimization tool, then the cumulative savings will increase even more.
The experience shows that a payback of 1 to 2 years is realistic, when considering only the investment
costs in the HLC system.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS / 8. CONCLUSION
8. CONCLUSION
Query:
Over the last decade, HLC systems have penetrated the cement industry. About 300 applications have
been reported which represents roughly 15 % of the cement manufacturing installations.
There is no doubt that the proper implementation and use of a HLC system, although requiring
relatively low investment costs, provide significant enhancements in terms of productivity.
However it is of the utmost importance to select the adequate system, that means a system which has
proven to be efficient and performant in the long term.
It must be remembered that the success of any HLC system depends upon:
the quality of the instrumentation
the raw meal preparation
the quality of the combustion system
the motivation of the works personnel and the acceptance of the system by the operators
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS / 9. REFERENCES
9. REFERENCES
1) Bertrand I Automatic control of kilns and mills by expert systems.
World Cement, July 1991.
2) Bauer C., G. Jger, J. Patzer and K.H. Walen
Cost-effective clinker production with the PYROEXPERT optimization system.
Zement, Kalk, Gips Nr. 4/1993.
3) Hasler R. and E.A. Dekkiche
Experience in kiln optimization with LINKman Graphic.
IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference, Seattle 1994.
4) Haspel D. and W. Henderson
A new generation of process optimization systems.
International Cement Review, June 1993.
5) Maynard B. Hall
Kiln stabilization and control - A COMDALE/C expert system approach.
IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference, Toronto 1993.
6) Mende N.
Erfahrungen mit dem Ofenfhrungssystem KCS an einer grossen Drehofenanlage in Sdkorea.
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Nr. 2/1993.
7) Ostergaard J.J.
FUZZY II - The new generation of high level control
Zement-Kalk-Gips, Nr. 11/1990.
8) Otomo T., T. Nakagawa and H. Akaike
Statistical approach to computer control of cement rotary kilns.
Automatica, Vol. 8, 1972.
9) Ruiz Navarro M., J.M. Martn-Snchez and C. Corzo Carreno
Minimizing energy consumption in kilns by the SCAP system.
World Cement, March 1993.
10) Umbers I.G., P.J. King
Query:
An analysis of human decision-making in cement kiln control and the implications for automation.
Int. J. Man-Machine Studies, Nr. 12, 1980.
11) Young S.C.K., K.L. Todd and K.H. Lau
On-line optimization of rotary cement kilns.
3rd IFAC/IFIP Intern. Conf. on Digital Computer Appl. to Process Control. Helsinki 1971.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / HIGH LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEMS / 10. ANNEX
10. ANNEX
Figure 1: Example of Improved Clinker Uniformity
Figure 2: Example of Improved Heat Consumption
Query:
Figure 3: Operator Training
Figure 4: Lifetime Benefits of Process Optimization with HLC
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / Field Preparation for High Level Control - Process Preview
Field Preparation for High Level Control - Process Preview
U. Haberstich
PT 99/14495/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DETAILED SCOPE OF WORK
2.1 Definition of responsibilities and meetings
2.2 Data collection
2.3 Combustion check
2.4 Definition of the strategy
2.5 Control loops
2.6 Instrumentation check
3. APPENDIX 1
3.1 KILN MANUFACTURING DATA
Query:
Summary and conclusion:
The introduction of a High-Level Control System requires a proper preparation of the plant to ensure an
efficient and successful implementation and commissioning. For that purpose a so-called preproject
from HMC is proposed in order to disclose eventual difficulties or even disability of the plant to
implement such a system. A team of the Process Technology Department (HMC/PT) and Holderbank
Engineering Switzerland (HES) will help the plant to achieve the best preparation.
HES will check the possibilities to connect the LINKman system to the installed plant control system
and the sensitivity of measuring and control devices.
HMC/PT will check the quality aspects and the kiln behavior in order to disclose eventual process
problems.
The main items of the LINKman preproject are:
Kick-off meeting with explanation of the LINKman system and the procedure to implement it.
Collection of all available plant data (Flow-sheets, technical descriptions of the installation).
Collection of all available process data (Log-sheets, quality data, flow-sheets and trends).
Combustion check.
Description of the used strategy and rules for manual kiln and cooler control (which parameters
were used) and a description of the most common kiln and cooler problems (dusty clinker, coating
falls, etc.).
Control of the adjustments of the most important control loops.
Instrumentation check (type, position, sensitivity).
Definition of the preparatory work to be done before the LINKman implementation.
Conclusion meeting with the definition of the implementation schedule (ordering and
commissioning). Definition of the project leader and of the responsible for the LINKman Hardware
and Software (Strategy).
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / Field Preparation for High Level Control - Process Preview / 1.
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
The introduction of a kiln High-Level Control System like LINKman requires several preparatory works
by the plant to ensure an efficient and successful implementation. The capability of the kiln to be driven
by an automatic system has to be ensured by a pre-project. As in every project, the organization has to
be determined and responsibles have to be nominated.
The LINKman pre-project has to cover mainly the following capability checks of the kiln system:
Disclosing eventual process problems
Defining an adequate kiln and cooler control strategy
Checking the instrumentation
Query:
Checking the sensitivity of the measuring and control devices (HES)
Defining the connection of the LINKman system to the installed plant control system (HES).
DETAILED SCOPE OF WORK
2. DETAILED SCOPE OF WORK
DETAILED SCOPE OF WORK / 2.1 Definition of responsibilities and meetings
2.1 Definition of responsibilities and meetings
A kick-off meeting has to be organized at the beginning of the pre-project. Experience has shown that
a more detailed explication of the LINKman system avoids confusions. The implementation schedule
(ordering and commissioning) has to be defined as well as the project leader and the responsibles for
the LINKman Hardware and Software (Strategy).
The responsible for the Hardware issues is usually an electrical engineer with knowledge of the plant
control system and the automatic control loops.
The responsible of the Software (strategy) needs detailed knowledge about the burning process and
kiln control. Therefore, a process engineer is strongly recommended. He will be the future LINKman
Champion and doing all further modifications of the strategy after the commissioning.
Before the implementation also the exact position of the Hardware has to be defined (location of the
operator- and engineer-station in the control room and location of the LINKman cabinet).
After finishing the study, all requirements will be discussed during the conclusion meeting at the end of
the visit. The preparatory work has to be terminated until the first commissioning of ABB. If stronger
process problems were detected, it may be recommended to postpone the order of the system.
DETAILED SCOPE OF WORK / 2.2 Data collection
2.2 Data collection
To prepare the system before delivering, ABB needs sufficient data about the plant. Therefore, a
collection of all available plant data is required. This contains mainly:
Plant descriptions:
Flow-sheet of the kiln system
Flow-sheet of the plant control system (PLC-System)
Kiln manufacturing data (see also Appendix 1)
Layout of the control room (to place the Hardware and pre-configure the cabling)
List of available control loops
Instrumentation list.
Query:
Process data
(During 1 week of representative production)
Quality data of Raw meal, Hot meal and Clinker
Operator log-sheets
Statistical distribution of the freelime.
For 24 hours
1-day-trend of all important process values of that week (burning zone temperature, NOx, Amps,
Calciner temperature, Preheater exit temperature, etc.)
Additional information
Printout of all available kiln process screens (only 1 momentary printout)
Short description of the used strategy and rules for manual kiln and cooler control (which
parameters were used). Is there a correlation between the clinker quality and some kiln control
parameters (NOx, kiln amps, burning zone temperature)?
DETAILED SCOPE OF WORK / 2.3 Combustion check
2.3 Combustion check
Process problems strongly influence the kiln behavior. Incomplete combustion leads to enhanced
Alkali/Sulfur cycles within the kiln system. If the molar Alkali/Sulfur ratio of the total input of Alkalis and
Sulfur is within the desirable range (0.8 to 1.5), minor encrustation and Sulfur ring formation take place.
To avoid a bad or wrong implemented strategy and bad availability of the LINKman system, a
combustion check is required.
A combustion check contains:
Description and analysis of all fuel at the main firing
Gas analysis data at kiln inlet (O
2
, CO, NOx)
Assessment of sintering zone, coating and the burner position
Alkali/Sulfur balance. For this, sufficient samples of the raw meal, hot meal and clinker have to be
taken and analyzed.
Burner check (Primary air amount, fuel oil pressure, exit velocities, pressure fluctuations, etc.)
Description and analysis of all fuels at the secondary firing
Gas analysis data at preheater exit (O
2
, CO, NOx)
DETAILED SCOPE OF WORK / 2.4 Definition of the strategy
2.4 Definition of the strategy
LINKman offers standard strategies for almost every kiln type. One of those strategies will be
Query:
pre-configured before delivery and modified on site during the commissioning.
To ensure a proper predefinition of the kiln and cooler control strategy, a description of the current
used strategy and the rules for manual kiln and cooler control is required.
Kiln Control:
Define the most important parameters estimating the burning zone temperature, the kiln inlet
temperature and the oxygen level.
A description of the most common kiln problems (dusty clinker, coating falls, etc.) will help defining
required special actions.
Cooler Control:
Define the most important parameters to ensure proper clinker cooling and high efficiency.
A description of the most common cooler problems (kiln rushes, red rivers, hot plates, etc.) will help
defining required special actions.
DETAILED SCOPE OF WORK / 2.5 Control loops
2.5 Control loops
For a proper working High Level Control System, the in the PLC installed control loops have to work
properly and smoothly. Therefore, the most important loops (kiln hood pressure control, under grate
pressure control, etc.) have to be revised and adjusted, if required. A further possibility is the complete
removing of a loop from the PLC in order to add it into the LINKman strategy or to switch it off during
LINKman control.
DETAILED SCOPE OF WORK / 2.6 Instrumentation check
2.6 Instrumentation check
The instrumentation is the most important point for an automatic kiln control. The signals have to be
convenient and reliable. Therefore, the type and position of the most important sensors have to be
revised and corrected if required. Especially the gas analyzers need periodic calibrations and
maintenance inspections.
For a list with required process signals and its position see Report HES 98/6347/E.
APPENDIX 1
3. APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 1 / 3.1 KILN MANUFACTURING DATA
3.1 KILN MANUFACTURING DATA
Plant
Query:
Kiln No. :
Supplier:
Nominal Capacity:
Max. Capacity:
Type of fuels :
Heat Consumption:
Length:
Diameter:
Slope:
(t/d)
(t/d)
(kJ/kg)
(m)
(m)
(%)
Preheater: Number of strings:
Number of stages:
Precalciner: Type:
Type of fuels:
% Fuel PC / Kiln:
Burner Type:
% Primary air:
Cooler Type:
Number of grates:
Number of fans:
Width x length:

Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / Field Preparation for High Level Control
Field Preparation for High Level Control
F. Fehr
HES 98/6347/E
1. INPUT SIGNALS FOR HIGH LEVEL CONTROL
1.1 Checklist: Assignment of Input Signals
1.2 Example of a Checklist
2. OUTPUT SIGNALS FOR HIGH LEVEL CONTROL
2.1 Primary Control Loops, Actuators
2.2 Example of a check list 1
3. INTERFACE TO PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
3.1 Data Exchange
3.2 Security
4. EXAMPLES OF MOST IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND
CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER
4.1 General
4.1.1 Definition:
4.1.2 Location of the Sensor
4.1.3 Calibration of the Transmitter
4.2 Examples
4.2.1 Temperature
4.2.2 Pressure
4.2.3 Speed
4.2.4 Current
4.2.5 Power/Energy
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / Field Preparation for High Level Control / 1. INPUT SIGNALS FOR
HIGH LEVEL CONTROL
1. INPUT SIGNALS FOR HIGH LEVEL CONTROL
The Input Signals of the High Level Control system (HLC) are the measured variables of the controlled
systems (kiln, cooler, mill). In the following a selection of the normally used input signals is indicated.
Selection of Input Signals
Wet kiln
Sintering zone temperature (Pyrometer)
Secondary air temperature (if available)
Amps of kiln drive (Torque)
O2/CO/NOx at kiln inlet
Temperature at chain zone
Backend temperature
Backend pressure
Kiln hood pressure
Any other significant process variable used by the kiln operators
Preheater kiln
NOx at kiln inlet or at preheater exit
O
2
/CO at kiln inlet
Kiln inlet temperature
Kiln inlet pressure
Kiln hood pressure
Preheater exit temperature or second stage from top
Preheater exit pressure
O
2
/CO at preheater exit
Precalciner kiln
Query:
Basically the same signals as for preheater kilns, but additionally:
NOx at kiln inlet
Temperature exit lowest cyclone stage
Tertiary air temperature
Lepol kiln
O
2
/CO/NOx at kiln inlet
Temperature in hot chamber of Lepol grate (Pyrometer or Thermometer)
CO/O
2
after intermediate fan
Temperature intermediate fan
Pressure in hot chamber above grate
Pressure in hot chamber underneath grate
Kiln hood pressure
Clinker cooler
Air rates of the individual fresh air fans
Pressures of chambers 1, 2, 3
Exhaust air temperature
Temperature of cooler plates
Middle air temperature (if any)
Cement mill
KW of mill motor
KW of bucket elevator
Rate of separator returns (t/h)
Noise level by electronic ear
Temperature/pressure at mill inlet and outlet
Production rate, e.g. belt weigher, pressure of pneumatic transport, etc.
Query:
HIGH LEVEL CONTROL / 1.1 Checklist: Assignment of Input Signals
1.1 Checklist: Assignment of Input Signals
INPUT SIGNALS Min. Max. Target
Name of Signal, Value
Sensor:
Location:
Significance:
Stability:
Comment:
Sensor:
Location:
Significance:
Stability:
Comment:
Sensor:
Location:
Significance:
Stability:
Comment:
Sensor:
Location:
Significance:
Stability:
Comment:
Sensor:
Location:
Significance:
Stability:
Comment:
HIGH LEVEL CONTROL / 1.2 Example of a Checklist
Query:
1.2 Example of a Checklist
INPUT SIGNALS Min. Max. Target
1) Secondary air tempe rature 650C 1040F 815C
1200F 1900F 1500F
Sensor: o.k.
Location: o.k.
Significance: Indication is sensitive. Tendency is o.k.
Stability: o.k.
Comment: Measuring equipment is adequate. Useful
signal for LINKman II. Upper/lower limits are
exceeded, therefore the limits have to be
adjusted.
2) Cooler exhaust air temperature 95C 230C 150-175C
200F 450F 300-350F
Sensor: o.k.
Location: o.k.
Significance: not looked at
Stability not stable due to unstable cooler operation.
Comment: Measuring equipment is adequate.
3) Clinker temperature - -
Sensor: o.k.
Location: Existing location gives no representative
signal.
Significance: not looked at
Stability: not looked at
Comment: As a better location is not available, this
temperature should not be considered for auto-
matic control.
4) Grate speeds of cooler - -
Query:
4) Grate speeds of cooler - -
Sensor: - -
Location: -
Significance: -
Stability: -
Comment: unproblematic signal.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / Field Preparation for High Level Control / 2. OUTPUT SIGNALS FOR
HIGH LEVEL CONTROL
2. OUTPUT SIGNALS FOR HIGH LEVEL CONTROL
HIGH LEVEL CONTROL / 2.1 Primary Control Loops, Actuators
2.1 Primary Control Loops, Actuators
Basically all High Level Control output signals go as setpoints to primary control loops which then drive
actuators.
Example:
Figure 1:
The behaviour of the variable controlled by the primary loop is influenced by the following factors:
repeatability of the sensor (specifications)
absolute accuracy of sensor (calibration)
type of actuator: continuous, step-wise
tuning of PID controller
deadband to protect actuator
disturbances from outside (e.g. flushing material)
For HLC the primary loops have to fulfil the following criterias:
Query:
1) Tolerable deviation from setpoint
Figure 2:
x: max. tolerable deviation during a time > t
x and t depend upon what is controlled by the primary loop (e.g. coal, slurry to a wet kiln)
2) Sensitivity of setpoint change
What is the minimum applicable setpoint change that causes a reaction of the controlled variable?
Figure 2:
The criterias which have to be fulfilled are given in the following list for every type of primary loop. Most
of the loops are not critical so that no criterias for the tolerable deviation are given:
Table 1
Tolerable Deviation from
Setpoint
Sensitivity of Setpoint
Change
x[% of Span] t [min] SPmin [% of Span]
Query:
x[% of Span] t [min] SPmin [% of Span]
Cooler
Volume rate fresh air fans
- speed
- damper position
Kiln hood pressure
- speed
- damper position
Grate speed ratio
Under grate pressure
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.5%
1.0%
0.5%
1.0%
1.0%
1.0%
Kiln
Kiln fan
- fan speed
- damper position
Kiln drive
Fuel rates
Feed: wet
preheater
Dust insufflat. rate
Tertiary air dampers
Intermed. fan (Lepol)
Lepol grate speed
Water to granulator
-
-
-
3%
3%
3%
10%
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.5
10.0
2.0
0.5
-
-
-
-
0.5%
1.0%
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
0.5%
1.0%
1.0%
0.5%
1.0%
1.0%
Mill
Mill feed
Separator speed
Cooling air fan
- fan speed
- damper position
Water injection
3%
-
-
-
-
-
0.5
-
-
-
-
-
1.0%
0.5%
0.5%
1.0%
1.0%
HIGH LEVEL CONTROL / 2.2 Example of a check list 1
PID Loop: Kiln drive
HAC
Code
0% to 100% Unit
Setpoint: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Actual Value: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Query:
Actual Value: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Manipulated Variable:
(actuator)
..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Visual check of actuator:
Tuned:
Parameters: K
P
= .... T
l
= .... [ ] T
D
= .... [ ]
Max. deviation:
during:
Delta x =
Delta t =
....
....
[ % of span ]
[ min ]
Sensitivity:
SPmin =
.... [ % of span ]
Remarks:
PID Loop: Precalciner fuel rate
HAC
Code
0% to 100% Unit
Setpoint: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Actual Value: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
(actuator)
..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Tuned:
PID Parameters: Kp = .... T
l
= .... [ ] T
D
= .... [ ]
Max. deviation:
during:
Delta x =
Delta t =
....
....
[ % of span ]
[ min ]
Sensitivity:
SPmin =
.... [ % of span ]
Remarks:
HIGH LEVEL CONTROL / 2.3 Example of a check list 2
Query:
PID Loop: Main burner fuel rate
HAC
Code
0% to 100% Unit
Setpoint: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Actual Value: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
(actuator)
..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Tuned:
Parameters: Kp = .... T
l
= .... [ ] T
D
= .... [ ]
Max. deviation:
during:
Delta x =
Delta t =
....
....
[ % of span ]
[ min ]
Sensitivity:
SPmin =
.... [ % of span ]
Remarks:
PID Loop: Kiln feed
HAC
Code
0% to 100% Unit
Setpoint: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Actual Value: ..... ..... to ..... [ ]
(actuator)
..... ..... to ..... [ ]
Tuned:
PID Parameters: Kp = .... T
l
= .... [ ] T
D
= .... [ ]
Max. deviation:
during:
Delta x =
Delta t =
....
....
[ % of span ]
[ min ]
Sensitivity:
SPmin =
.... [ % of span ]
Query:
Remarks:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / Field Preparation for High Level Control / 3. INTERFACE TO PROCESS
CONTROL SYSTEM
3. INTERFACE TO PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
For any process control application, the High Level Control System needs to read data from the
process (inputs from sensors) and to write data to the process (outputs to primary control loops).
Moreover, for kiln/mill control, the High Level Control System requires also operator inputs such as:
operating targets (NOx, O
2
, etc.)
operator setpoints (kiln feed, fuel feed, etc.)
laboratory data (clinker factor, fuel heat value, % free lime etc.)
These inputs can be entered either from the LINKman II or from the Process Control System (PCS)
The data communication between the PCS and the HLC is mostly based on a RS 232/422 serial link
with the PCS brand specific communication protocol. The data set for exchange has to be
pre-processed and stored in a specific memory location to be available for the data communication
software.
For a kiln application for example, process data are accessed every 10 seconds and outputs are sent
every 5 minutes, or with higher frequency if required, to update setpoints. The kiln strategy, for
example runs every minute.
To connect the LINKman II to the PCS, two possible configurations are proposed:
If the PCS has a bus connecting the whole plant (plant loop), then the LINKman II is interfaced by
using a serial link to the interface box of the loop. An example is presented on the next page where
the LINKman II is interfaced through a CIU (Computer Interface Unit) to a Bailey Network 90.
If the PCS is structured according to the plant departments, the LINKman II has access to the
individual departments through individual serial lines. The second picture shows a typical interface
in a application where an Allen Bradley Programmable Logic Controller is used in connection with
the HOLDERBANK ODH system as Men Machine Interface (MMI).
Figure 4:
Figure 5:
Query:
CONTROL SYSTEM / 3.1 Data Exchange
3.1 Data Exchange
The PCS does not only act as data acquisition system for the LINKman II, it serves also as operator
interface (MMI, setpoint change, manual mode control), it hosts the basic loop controller, is responsible
for automatic/manual switching including fail safe procedure if the LINKman II or communication
breaks and does the alarm handling for the whole process (also HLC alarms). Because of this, the
communication data set consists not only of analog inputs and outputs, but also of digital signals:
Digital control bits from the PCS (digital inputs)
Digital alarm and status bit from the HLC (digital outputs)
DIGITAL INPUTS
The PCS system has to provide different status bits from the process to indicate specific conditions
which the LINKman II needs to work for proper operation.
Example:
LINKman II on/off
failure of instrumentation
group ready/running
direct/indirect operation of raw mill
select status (type of cement etc.)
DIGITAL OUTPUTS
In a similar way, the LINKman II has to send status bits to the PCS to inform the operator about its
status.
Example:
LINKman II available
on/off line
Query:
normal condition
upset condition
alarms
etc.
CONTROL SYSTEM / 3.2 Security
3.2 Security
The communication and proper execution of the program have to be guarantied. Therefore, a
watch-dog function on the PCS has to be realised:
Example:
Communication/HLC watch-dog
To check the communication as well as the LINKman II operating status (HLC on or off), a watch-dog
toggle-bit has to be programmed.
Figure 6:
The two on-delay timers control the on- and the off-time of the toggle-bit. If the time exceeds the
pre-set delay time of the timers (typical 30 s), the toggle-bit has not been inverted and this means, that
the LINKman II or the communication is off.
The PCS is responsible to switch the HLC on- or off-line (on operator's request) and to monitor the
HLC's on/off-state feedback and to switch the setpoint signals accordingly (setpoint from operator MMI
or from HLC). If the HLC goes off-line and the watch-dog detects a problem, the setpoint will be set to
the operator control and an alarm has to be evoked.
Note: The setpoint switching has to be made bumpless. (see PID subject)
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C05 - High Level Control / Field Preparation for High Level Control / 4. EXAMPLES OF MOST
IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER
4. EXAMPLES OF MOST IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND
CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER
Query:
IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER / 4.1 General
4.1 General
IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER / 4.1 General / 4.1.1 Definition:
4.1.1 Definition:
Range = Max. - Min. of the sensor
Example: 0C - 1000C
Span = Used range for the electrical signal
f or monitoring the process
Figure 7:
IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER / 4.1 General / 4.1.2 Location of
the Sensor
4.1.2 Location of the Sensor
The location of the sensor is the most important thing in the instrumentation. There are a few locations
which are really false and a lot which are good. For maintenance of the sensors it is quite frequently
necessary (especially in the kiln area), that the location of the sensor should be above all easy
accessible.
IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER / 4.1 General / 4.1.3 Calibration of
the Transmitter
4.1.3 Calibration of the Transmitter
The calibration includes first of all the checking of the transmitter. There are different methods how to
check:
1) Reference measurement: The sensor will be tested on a well-defined media (boiling oil, known
weight, etc.)
2) Comparison measurement: Measure the process value by an other measuring device (hand-held
thermometer/multimeter, pressure U-tube, etc.)
3) Find out the actual physical measurement by measuring the electrical signal coming out of the
Query:
sensor (only if the characteristics are well-known,should not be used on thermocouple due to the
cold reference junction).
4) Simulating the process with an alternative source by entering a calibrated signal on the primary
side.
While applying method 1 or 2 as described above, the process value on the highest level (screen of the
supervisor or high level control system) - if already installed - has to be monitored. If o.k., the
procedure of course is quickly and successfully finished. If not, the output of the transmitter has to be
measured by an Amp-Meter (4...20mA) and the transmitter has to be calibrated according its manual.
In very seldom cases, the problem is in the scaling of the PLC or the supervisory system.
Note: Two hints on calibration
Do a Plausibility Check. This means that the signal should be checked of its plausibility. Is it
on its expected value? If not, there is something wrong. Do not accept everything you
measure. Repeat the measurement if it is not plausible or try to make the calibration by an
other way.
Accuracy. If the sensor is not accurate enough or the transmitter has a too large range, try
to calibrate it within the operating range.
IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER / 4.2 Examples
4.2 Examples
IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER / 4.2 Examples / 4.2.1
Temperature
4.2.1 Temperature
EXAMPLE 1: KILN INLET TEMPERATURE
LOCATION:
Figure 8:
Easy accessible for maintenance
Cleaned by pulling out (daily)
Query:
Tip of sensor should be in the air-stream but not affected too much by incrustation
Sensor should not be damaged by falling material
The final position has to be evaluated
CALIBRATION:
Figure 9:
Inject a voltage in mV without the sensor into the transmitter, while measuring in the 4...20mA line.
Take readings at the display for 0 and 100%.
SPAN: minimum: 0% = 1000C = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = 1250C = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 2,5C = 0.16mA
typical value: 80% = 1200C = 16.8mA (16:100x80+4)
EXAMPLE 2: PYROMETER (at kiln hood for clinker temperature)
LOCATION:
Figure 10:
Query:
Aim spot 30 cm (1 foot)
Do not point into flame (radiation)
Aim the pyrometer below the flame into the clinker just before the clinker flows out of the kiln
Dust on the lens of the pyrometer or between lens and clinker affects the measurement, therefore,
choose a short measuring distance
CALIBRATION:
Calibration according to the manufacturer. (Does not have to be calibrated under normal
circumstances)
maximum: 100% = 1600C = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 5C = 0.16mA
typical value: depending on the kiln
Note: The absolute temperature is not so important, changes have to be monitored.
EXAMPLE 3: PRECALCINER LOWEST CYCLONES
LOCATION:
Figure 11:
1 Dead zone
2 Good position for material temperature
Find the 2 right locations out of 4
Parallel probes recommended
CALIBRATION:
Query:
maximum: 100% = 1000C = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 4C = 0.16mA
EXAMPLE 4: PREHEATER EXIT TEMPERATURE
LOCATION:
Figure 12:
Good for minimizing of exhaust gas temperature
Equilibrium of tower streams
If the temperature of the second stage is more indicative, it is advantageous to use this value
CALIBRATION:
maximum: 100% = 500C = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 5C = 0.16mA
Query:
IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER / 4.2 Examples / 4.2.2 Pressure
4.2.2 Pressure
EXAMPLE 1: KILN HOOD
LOCATION:
Figure 13:
1 Measuring points (hood pressure)
2 ambient pressure (heated up air)
3 transmitter
4 U- Tube for calibration purpose
CALIBRATION:
Measure the pressure by an U-Tube (differential measurement)
grate cooler: SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0.1mbar = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = -0.3mbar = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 0.004mbar = 0.16mA
typical value: 37.5% = -0,05mbar = 10.0mA (16:100x37.5+4)
planetary cooler: SPAN: minimum: 0% = -2mbar = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = -3mbar = 20.0mA
EXAMPLE 2: KILN INLET PRESSURE
LOCATION:
Figure 14:
Query:
Daily cleaning required
Indicates ring formation, limits max. production
CALIBRATION:
grate cooler: SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0mbar = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = 10.0mbar = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 0.1mbar = 0.16mA
typical value: = 2-4mbar
planetary cooler: SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0mbar = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = 10mbar = 20.0mA
EXAMPLE 3: PREHEATER EXIST PRESSURE
LOCATION:
Figure 15:
Query:
Please note, that this pressure may be different from the ID-fan inlet pressure because of the
resistance in the tubes.
Typical value: 5mbar
i.e. 5mbar pressure difference from preheater top to
ID-fan (at bottom, difference in height : 100 m)
CALIBRATION:
grate cooler: SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0mbar = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = 10.0mbar = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 1mbar = 0.16mA
IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER / 4.2 Examples / 4.2.3 Speed
4.2.3 Speed
EXAMPLE: DC-DRIVE KILN
LOCATION:
DC-Drive Panel. Usually the transmitter is in the panel as well.
CALIBRATION:
By a hand-tachometer (analogous or digital) on the kiln motor or motor coupling.
Query:
SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0rpm = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = 1500rpm = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 15rpm = 0.16mA
typical value: 85% = 1275rpm = 17.6mA (16:100x85+4)
IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER / 4.2 Examples / 4.2.4 Current
4.2.4 Current
EXAMPLE: KILN DRIVE CURRENT
LOCATION:
DC-Drive Panel. Usually the transmitter is in the panel as well.
CALIBRATION:
By the Amp-meter on the DC-drive panel while measuring in the 4...20mA line.
SPAN: minimum: 0% = 0A = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = 1000A = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 10A = 0.16mA
typical value: 30% = 300A = 4.8mA (16:100x30+4)
IMPORTANT:
The kiln amps are used to indicate the torque (and with the torque the:
coating falling
hot or cold clinker)
If the field current is not kept constant by a thyristor controlled unit, the kiln drive amps have to
be multiplied by the field current.
The value has to be filtered in case of a planetary cooler, but in a way that ring breaks still can be
registered
Span must be 100% nominal motor current
IMPORTANT INPUTS IN RESPECT OF THE LOCATION AND CALIBRATION OF THE TRANSMITTER / 4.2 Examples / 4.2.5
Power/Energy
Query:
4.2.5 Power/Energy
EXAMPLE: POWER OF MILL DRIVE
LOCATION:
Medium-voltage Switchgear.
CALIBRATION:
Calibration is usually not necessary. For checking the value, it can be calculated: voltage (phase to
phase) x current x 1.732 (square root of 3) x power factor (cos, see motor data, typical 0.97).
RANGE: minimum: 0% = 0kW = 4.0mA
maximum: 100% = 2000kW = 20.0mA
unit: 1% = 20kW = 0.16mA
typical value: 98% = 1960kW = 19.68mA (16:100x98+4)
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work
C06 - Practical Work
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Control Technique - Practical Work
Control Technique - Practical Work
1. THE CONTROL LOOP
2. DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF THE PROCESS
2.1 Proportional Factor of the Process
2.2 Dead Time Element
2.3 Delay Element
2.4 Combinations
3. CONTROLLERS
3.1 Different Types of Controllers
3.2 PID - Controller
3.3 Analog and Digital Controller
3.4 Terminology
4. HOW TO TURN THE KNOBS - OPTIMAL SETTINGS OF THE CONTROLLER
4.1 Stabilization Point
4.2 Adjustments of the PID Settings
4.3 Optimal Settings of the Controller
Query:
SUMMARY
Lack of manpower, quality requirements and complicated processes have increased the importance of
control to industry.
This lecture gives an introduction into the basic control theory and its use. Because of the variety of
todays control techniques, applications are purposely omitted.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Control Technique - Practical Work / 1. THE CONTROL LOOP
1. THE CONTROL LOOP
The functioning and the components of a control loop are explained by the example of cooling tower
control loop.
Figure 1 Cooling tower control loop
1) Process: The Cooling Tower
The process consist of those machines and equipment which are controlled to produce a desired
output.
2) Process Inputs and Outputs
For example:
Process inputs: flowrate hot gas
temperature hot gas
flowrate cooling water
Process outputs: flowrate cooled gas
temperature cooled gas
3) Controlled Output (c): Outlet Gas Temperature
The purpose of the cooling tower control is to achieve a constant outlet gas temperature. Variations
of the other process outputs are of no importance.
4) Disturbances: Variations in Flowrate and Temperature of the hot Gas
Variations of the process inputs cause disturbances to the process and therefore also to the
process outputs, especially to the controlled output.
5) Manipulated Variable (m): Cooling Water Flowrate
The cooling of the gas stream is achieved by spraying water into it. The degree of the cooling
depends on the amount of water sprayed. Therefore, the outlet gas temperature can be controlled
Query:
by manipulating the cooling water flowrate.
6) Set point (s): Desired Outlet Gas Temperature
The level at which the controlled output shall be kept has to be defined. This reference input or
setpoint can either come from an operator or from an other control system.
7) Feedback Elements (h): Thermocouple
The process output you want to control has to be measured because you cannot control what you
dont know. The feedback elements are always measuring devices.
8) Actual Value (x): Temperature Signal
The signal which is delivered by the feedback elements
9) Error (e): Deviation between measured Gas Temperature and the desired Temperature
The actual value is compared with the setpoint (desired value). The controller will react according to
the deviation of these two signals.
Depending on the process it has to be selected between forward and reverse action:
Forward Action:
If the actual value is below the setpoint an increase of the controller output is required and vice
versa.
Example: If the temperature in a kiln is too low the fuel has to be increased to heat up the kiln.
Reverse Action
If the actual value is below the setpoint a decrease of the controller output is required and vice
versa.
Example: If the temperature after a cooling tower is too low, the flowrate of the cooling water has to
be reduced to increase the temperature.
The switching between the two actions can simply be done by calculating the error either by
subtracting the actual value (x) form the setpoint (s) (forward action) or by subtracting the setpoint
(s) from the actual value (reverse action).
10) Control Elements (g1)
According to the error, the control elements act upon the manipulated variable. Two main elements:
Controller: The controller is a device which generates the appropriate control signal according
to the error (e) (see also the chapter Controller).
Actuator: The actuator transforms the controller output (y) into a change of the manipulated
variable. In our example: A control value which acts upon the cooling water flow.
11) The commonly used expressions introduced above are summarized in the figure below:
Figure 2 Cooling tower control loop
12) Block Diagram
Query:
Every closed loop control system can be represented with the same diagram.
Figure 3 Block disgram of control loop
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Control Technique - Practical Work / 2. DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF THE
PROCESS
2. DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF THE PROCESS
Depending on the nature of the process the output response to an input change or a disturbance
varies. The most important tool to characterize the dynamic behavior of a process is the transient
responses: the reaction of the process to a step-change of the input.
PROCESS / 2.1 Proportional Factor of the Process
2.1 Proportional Factor of the Process
The proportional factor describes how big the change of the output is caused by a one-unit change of
the process input:
Proportional factors of the process = B / A
Figure 4 Proportional factor of the process
PROCESS / 2.2 Dead Time Element
2.2 Dead Time Element
Query:
Most processes require a finite response time, often with a magnitude of minutes or hours. The dead
time is defined as the difference in time between an input change and the resulting output change. The
dead time slows down controller response because the controller cannot act until an error in output is
detected.
An example for a typical dead time element is a belt conveyor. The dead time is given by the length
and the speed of the belt.
Figure 5 Dead time
The cooling tower as an example contains multiple dead time elements which can be added together:
reaction time of the control value
time the change in the water flow rate needs to reach the spraying nozzles
time the gases need to pass the height of the cooling tower
reaction time of the thermo-couple
PROCESS / 2.3 Delay Element
2.3 Delay Element
The reaction of a process to an input change is depending on the physical and chemical reactions
controlling this process: heat transfer, mass transfer, chemical reactions. As all these reactions do not
just happen within no time but follow certain time laws, the whole process shows certain time delays.
These time delays can be classified in different types.
Example:
First order element, second order element. The most frequent is the second order delay.
Figure 6 Delay time
Query:
The delay in the cooling tower system is the time between the first noticeable change in the outlet gas
temperature and the moment when the new stable temperature is reached.
PROCESS / 2.4 Combinations
2.4 Combinations
In most of the cases the process is a combination of a dead time and a delay element (second order).
Figure 7 Dead time plus delay time
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Control Technique - Practical Work / 3. CONTROLLERS
3. CONTROLLERS
As mentioned before the controller is a device which generates according to the deviation between
desired and actual value an appropriate control signal to bring this deviation to zero.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Control Technique - Practical Work / 3. CONTROLLERS / 3.1 Different
Types of Controllers
3.1 Different Types of Controllers
1) On-Off Controller
The controller output can only have two positions;: fully open and fully closed. The controlled
variable is controlled within a band. When the variable falls below the lower limit of the band, the
controller output changes to open. The variable starts to rise again. When the upper limit of the
Query:
band is reached, the controller output changes back to closed. The variable starts to fall again.
Example: Temperature control of a refrigerator.
2) Continuous controller (PID-controller)
The output can have any position between open and closed.
3) Adaptive controller
The controller adapts automatically its parameters to changing process characteristics. It has to be
differentiated between controllers which adapt themselves continuously and controllers that adapt
only when this is desired.
4) Predictive Controller
The predictive controller uses a mathematical model to predict the behavior of the controlled
process. With this information the controller can optimize the control actions.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Control Technique - Practical Work / 3. CONTROLLERS / 3.2 PID -
Controller
3.2 PID - Controller
The most frequently used controller is the PID-Controller. The total control action is a combination of
three basic control actions:
1) P- Controller (proportional controller)
The output of the proportional controller is the error (e) multiplied by a constant factor. This factor is
called the proportional constant or the proportional gain.
Figure 8 Proportional Controller
The control algorithm:
y = Kp e
Kp: Proportional constant
Characteristic Features:
Increasing Kp causes stronger control actions and thus a faster return to the setpoint. But with
increasing Kp the tendency of the system to cycle increases (see figure 9).
Off-set: the P- controller is adjusted to work for one specific load of the controlled system (in the
cooling tower example: one specific flowrate of the hot inlet gas). If the load changes, a permanent
error.
Query:
2) I-Controller (integral or reset Controller)
As long as a deviation between setpoint and actual value exists, the I-controller sums the deviation
up with time and produces an output proportional to this sum.
Figure 10 Integral controller
y = K
I
edt
K
I
: integral constant or integral gain
K
I
can be expressed with the proportional constant
K
I
= Kp/T
I
Kp: proportional constant
T
I
: integral action time - Time after which the output of the I-controller
is equal the output of a P-controller (for a step).
As a permanent error leads to a continuously increasing control signal, an I-controller is very
suitable to eliminate an off-set.
With increasing K
I
increasing tendency to oscillate
3) D-Controller (differential, derivative or rate controller)
The D-controller produces an output which is proportional to the rate of change of the deviation
Query:
between setpoint and actual value. The D-controller weights the speed of a disturbance.
Figure 11: D-Controller
Y = K
D
de/dt
K
D
: derivative constant or derivative gain.
K
D
can be expressed with the proportional constant K
D
= Kp T
D
Kp: proportional constant
T
D
: derivative action time. Time after which the output of the D-controller
is equal to the output of a P-controller (for a ramp).
D-controller reacts earlier because it detects slope errors which occur before real errors.
A D-controller cannot be used alone. It is used in combination with P or PI controller actions.
As the D-controller reacts to slopes, it can be unstable for highly oscillatory systems.
4) PID - Controller
The three basic control actions can be used alone (whit the exception of the D-controller) or as
combinations like PI-Controller, PD-controller, PID-controller. In this case the total control action is
the sum of the different basic control actions which means the controllers are arranged in parallel.
Example: PID - Controller (three mode controller)
Figure 12 PID Controller
Query:
The control algorithm when using the parameters Kp, K
I
, K
D
:
y = Kp e + K
I
edt + K
D
de/dt
The control algorithm when using the parameters Kp, T
I
, T
D
:
y = Kp e + ( Kp / T
I
) edt + Kp T
D
de/dt
Figure 13 Comparison of the different controllers
Which controller to choose depends on the plant behavior. Below you will find some guidelines on how
to choose a controller for a given plant.
In a cement plant a lot of controllers are just PI - controllers because many of the processes which
have to be controlled are relatively slow and thus a derivative control action (D - controller) is not
necessary
Table 1 Guidelines how to choose a controller
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Control Technique - Practical Work / 3. CONTROLLERS / 3.3 Analog and
Digital Controller
3.3 Analog and Digital Controller
A PID - Controller can be realized as an analog or as a digital controller.
a) Analog Controller
Query:
The control loop is closed all the time. The control operations are executed at every point of the
time scale.
The control algorithms are realized on the hardware side with appropriate circuits. This means: the
more sophisticated the control algorithms the bigger the hardware.
Figure 14 Analog Controller
b) Digital Controller
The control loop is only closed at certain sampling points. The different arithmetical operations of
the control algorithm are not executed simultaneously but one after the other.
The control algorithms are realized on the software side.
Figure 15 Digital Controller
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Control Technique - Practical Work / 3. CONTROLLERS / 3.4 Terminology
3.4 Terminology
Sometimes it can be very confusing that in the control technique a lot of different terminologies are
used. Some of the terms used are listed below. We recommend strongly to stick to the terms used in
the other chapters of this paper.
Kp K
I
K
D
Controller Kp *e + Kp/T
I
*edt + KpT
D
* de/dt
output =
Query:
output =
100/PB (100/PB)*(R/M) (100/PB)*RT
Kp = 100 / PB proportional gain or
proportional constant
PB = Xp proportional band
K
I
= Kp / T
I
integral gain or
integral constant
1 / T
I
= R / M reset gain or
reset rate
R / M reset per minute
T
I
integral action time
K
D
= KpT
D
= (100/PB)
*RT
derivative gain or
derivative constant
T
D
= RT derivative action time or rate time or
rate gain
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Control Technique - Practical Work / 4. HOW TO TURN THE KNOBS -
OPTIMAL SETTINGS OF THE CONTROLLER
4. HOW TO TURN THE KNOBS - OPTIMAL SETTINGS OF THE CONTROLLER
OPTIMAL SETTINGS OF THE CONTROLLER / 4.1 Stabilization Point
4.1 Stabilization Point
Two possibilities to interrupt the process:
changing the setpoint
disturbing the process
According to settings of the PID parameters Kp, T
I
, T
D
the reaction of the control system to such an
interaction varies:
Figure 16 Changing the setpoint
Query:
Figure 17 Disturbing
OPTIMAL SETTINGS OF THE CONTROLLER / 4.2 Adjustments of the PID Settings
4.2 Adjustments of the PID Settings
the list and the figure below shall give you a better feeling about what happens if you change one of
the PID parameters Kp, T
I
, T
D
.
Adjustment Reaction
Increasing
P action
Increasing Kp Speeding up control action:
- smaller amplitude,
- smaller period of oscillation
Decreasing offset
Increasing tendency to oscillate
Decreasing
P action
Decreasing Kp Slowing down control action:
- bigger amplitude
- bigger period of oscillation
Increasing offset
Decreasing tendency to oscillate
Query:
Decreasing tendency to oscillate
Increasing
I action
Decreasing T
I
Bigger amplitude
Smaller period of oscillation
Faster elimination of the offset
Decreasing
I action
Increasing T
I
Smaller amplitude
Bigger period of oscillation
Slower elimination of the off-set
Increasing
D action
Increasing T
D
Smaller amplitude
Bigger Period
First degreasing but beyond a certain
point increasing tendency to oscillate
Decreasing
D action
Decreasing T
D
Bigger amplitude
Smaller period
First increasing, beyond a certain point
decreasing tendency to oscillate
Adjustment of the PID Settings Kp
Adjustment of the PID Settings Ti
Adjustment of the PID Settings Td
Query:
OPTIMAL SETTINGS OF THE CONTROLLER / 4.3 Optimal Settings of the Controller
4.3 Optimal Settings of the Controller
Chien-Hrones Method
The optimal controller settings are determined from the reaction curve of the opened control loop to a
step disturbance. This method is also called
process reaction curve method
lag reaction rate method
1) open the loop (switch controller to manual)
2) create a step on the controller output signal
Figure 18 Step in control element position
3) record the answer of the process to this step
Figure 19 Process reaction curve
Query:
4) determine the following expressions:
Td: Dead time [min]
Ts: Time constant [min]
N: Slope = reaction rate in % of feedback signal range per minute [%min]
S
T
D C
N
100 *
P: % change in control element position [%]

100 *
B
A
p
5) Optimal settings (rough estimation)
dt
de
T Kp edt
T
Kp
Kpe Output
D
I
* *
+ +
P-Controller Kp =
Td N
p
*
PI-Controller Kp =
Td N
p
*
* 92 . 0
T
I
= 3.3 * Td
PID-Controller Kp =
Td N
p
*
* 2 . 1
T
I
= 2 * Td
T
D
= 0.5 * Td
Example: Cooling tower control loop
A step is made in the position of the cooling water control value from 60 % to 50 %. The measured
outlet gas temperature signal shows the following picture (the range of the temperature signal is from
Query:
100 C to 300 C):
Figure 20
Figure 21
Td = 5 min.
Ts = 4 min.
% 10 100 *
100
60 50
. min / % 75 . 3
4
100 *
100 300
150 180
p
N

Optimal Settings for PID-Controller
Kp =
Td N
p
*
* 2 . 1 =
5 * 75 . 3
10 * 2 . 1 = 0.64%/%
T
I
= 2 * Td = 2 * 5 = 10 min.
T
D
= 0.5 * Td = 0.5 * 5 = 2.5 min.
Query:
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / PRACTICAL EXERCISE - Fuzzy-Control
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - Fuzzy-Control
F. Fehr
98/6346/E
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EXERCISE
2.1 Start / Set-up
2.2 Input/output Fuzzyfication
2.3 Implementing rules
2.4 Testing
2.5 Save
3. MISCELLANEOUS
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / PRACTICAL EXERCISE - Fuzzy-Control / 1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
This is an approach to teach the Fuzzy theories in a practical way, without a lot of paper and formulas.
On behalf of a Siemens Demo Software, a Fuzzy controller will be shown and worked out empirically.
The goal of this exercise is to get a basic idea about
What is Fuzzy-Control
How does it work
There is a diskette included for every participant. Please take this diskette home as an example that
you can recall anytime, whenever you are in a position to work with fuzzy-logic or explain to someone
else what fuzzy is really about.
The task of this exercise is:
To set-up a temperature controller which uses a room and an outside temperature signal thus
actuating a heater and an air-conditioner.
Room Temperature
Controller
Heater
Outside Temperature Air Conditioner
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / PRACTICAL EXERCISE - Fuzzy-Control / 2. EXERCISE
2. EXERCISE
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / PRACTICAL EXERCISE - Fuzzy-Control / 2. EXERCISE / 2.1 Start / Set-up
2.1 Start / Set-up
Start Fuzzy.exe
Create new Project with the name "TEMPCON" ("File" "New...") with 2 Inputs and 2 Outputs.
Assign names to inputs and outputs (see pictures in 1. Introduction)
Define 3 temperature ranges (membership functions) for room temp (e.g. chilli, comfortable, warm).
Define 3 temperature ranges for outside temp (e.g. cold, warm, hot).
Define 4 ranges for the heater (e.g. off, low, high, on) and 3 ranges for the air conditioner (e.g. off,
med, on).
Adjust the temperature scale to reasonable values (e.g. room temp. from 1030C).
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / PRACTICAL EXERCISE - Fuzzy-Control / 2. EXERCISE / 2.2 Input/output
Fuzzyfication
2.2 Input/output Fuzzyfication
Perform the Fuzzyfication of the 2 inputs and 2 outputs by asking the following questions and set the
curves accordingly:
where is 0% cold
from where to where is 100% warm
Out of 100 people, how many people would say that is chilli (first curve) at what temperature. Do the
same for the other 2 curves. The number of people (in %) which is actually the degree of fulfilment (or
the percentage of truth) is on the vertical axis, the temperature on the horizontal axis.
On the example in the next picture below, it is 50% chilli (50 out of 100 people would call it chilli) at
20.5C and after 22C it is not chilly anymore.
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / PRACTICAL EXERCISE - Fuzzy-Control / 2. EXERCISE / 2.3 Implementing
rules
2.3 Implementing rules
Now fill in the rules in "Ifthen".
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / PRACTICAL EXERCISE - Fuzzy-Control / 2. EXERCISE / 2.4 Testing
2.4 Testing
Use the menu "View" to simulate input values as constants or curves (sub menu "Curve
Parameters") and test the controller (sub menu "Curve Recorder").
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / PRACTICAL EXERCISE - Fuzzy-Control / 2. EXERCISE / 2.5 Save
2.5 Save
Save your project (File Save or File Save As).
For those who could not work through the exercise, there is an example of this exercise on the
diskette, named exercise.txt. Rename it to *.fpl to be able to call it from the demo software.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / PRACTICAL EXERCISE - Fuzzy-Control / 3. MISCELLANEOUS
3. MISCELLANEOUS
On the Cement Course CD-Rom, the directory \MISC\FUZZY contains all files and information being
used for the practical work of fuzzy control logic described in the chapters above. Below a list of all files
of the directory \MISC\FUZZY
Files Description
FUZZY.EXE program file for the Fuzzy demo
FUZZY.ICO icon for the above file
Query:
README.TXT supplementary supplier information about the fuzzy package
SHUTTERS.FPL example "shutters controller"
PENDULUM.FPL example "inverse pendulum"
EXERCISE.TXT example "temperature control"
S7FUZ1EF.PPT Power Point slides about the fuzzy package
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work
Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work
H. Nyfenegger
PT 97/14231/E
1. THEORETICAL BASIS
1.1 The Law of Bernoulli
2. LOCAL VELOCITY AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
2.1 The Measurement of the Pressures
3. GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT BY THE PRANDTL TUBE
4. INTEGRAL GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT WITH NOZZLES AND ORIFICES
4.1 Standard Nozzles
4.2 Standard Orifices and Venturi-Nozzles
5. CALCULATION OF DENSITY
5.1 Requests, Calculation of Real Conditions
5.2 Gas Compositions
5.2.1 Calculation of a Heterogeneous Gas
6. PRACTICAL WORK IN GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT
6.1 Test Equipment
6.2 The Prandtl Tube
6.2.1 Calculation of the Gas Density
6.2.2 Numerical Calculation of Density
6.3 Calculation of the Gas Velocity
6.4 Calculation of the Gas Flow Rate
6.5 Anemometers
6.5.1 Type A (Vane Wheel Anemometers)
6.5.2 Type B Thermal Anemometers
6.5.3 Vortex Anemometers (not used in practical work)
6.6 Characteristic Curves of the Fan
6.6.1 Measurements
6.7 INLET NOZZLE
6.8 Manometers
Query:
6.8.1 Inclined Stationary Manometer
7. SYMBOL LIST OF GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT
Query:
SUMMARY
This paper shows the basic equations for gas flow measurement. Furthermore, the principles of gas
flow measurement by the Prandtl tube as well as the Orifices and Nozzles are explained.
Some of the presented principles and instruments will be used for the practical work carried out on a
test equipment in the laboratory hall.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work / 1. THEORETICAL BASIS
1. THEORETICAL BASIS
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work / 1. THEORETICAL BASIS / 1.1
The Law of Bernoulli
1.1 The Law of Bernoulli
(Daniel Bernoulli, 1700..1782 Swiss Scientist)
In aeronautics, a law or theorem state that in a flow of incompressible fluid the sum of the static
pressure and the dynamic pressure along a streamline is constant if gravity and frictional effects are
disregarded.
Resultant from this law is that if there is a velocity increase in a fluid flow, there must be a
corresponding pressure decrease. Thus an airfoil, by increasing the velocity of the flow over its upper
surface, drives lift from the decreased pressure.
As originally formulated, a statement of the energy conservation (per unit mass) for a non-viscous fluid
in steady motion. The specific energy is composed of the kinetic energy v
2
/2, where v is the speed of
the fluid; the potential energy gz, where g is the acceleration of gravity and z is the height above an
arbitrary reference level; and the work done by the pressure forces of a compressible fluid v dp,
where p is the pressure, v is the specific volume, and the integration is always with respect to value of
p and v on the same parcel. Thus, the relationship
v
2
/2 + gz + v dp = constant along a streamline
is valid for a compressible fluid in steady motion, since the streamline is also in path. If the motion is
irrational, the same constant holds for the entire fluid.
If the fluid is compressible If the fluid is incompressible:
Query:
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 2 1 1
2 1
w A w A
V V
m m

& &
& &
2 2 1 1
2 1
2 1
w A w A
V V

& &

If the fluid is incompressible, that means is constant:

2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
2 1
w P w P
+ +

Symbols and units:
A Cross section area
[m
2
]
d Diameter of the smallest aperture [m]
D Diameter of the tube [m]
m
Cross section area ratio m = d
2
/ D
2
[-]
m
Mass flow rate [kg/s]

p Pressure
N / m
2
]
Volume flow rate
[m
3
/ s]
w Velocity [m / s]
Density
[kg / m
3
]
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work / 2. LOCAL VELOCITY AND
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
2. LOCAL VELOCITY AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
Query:
The above figure shows a fluid flowing around an obstacle. One of the streamlines reaches the body at
the point 2, called stagnation point. At this point the velocity of the fluid is zero.
The Bernoulli equation, for the undisturbed flow at point 1 to point 2,
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
w P w P
+ +
or (w
2
= 0)
2
1 1 2
2
w P P

+

where P
2
is the total pressure
P
1
is the static pressure

2
1
2
w
is the dynamic pressure

p
2
, p
1
and
2
2
w
are pressures called total, static and dynamic pressure.

Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work / 2. LOCAL VELOCITY AND
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS / 2.1 The Measurement of the Pressures
2.1 The Measurement of the Pressures
The total pressure of a fluid can be measured at a stagnation point. For this purpose the so-called Pitot
tube is used.
At the point 2 a stagnation point is created where the total pressure can be measured.
A boring placed vertically to the flow (1) measures the pressure independent from the direction. This
Query:
pressure is called static pressure.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work / 3. GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT
BY THE PRANDTL TUBE
3. GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT BY THE PRANDTL TUBE
The dynamic pressure, defined as

2
1
2
w
can be expressed as the pressure difference between the total and the static pressure. The relation is

2
1 1 2
2
w p p

This difference is measured with the Prandtl Tube.
The inner part of this instrument corresponds exactly to a Pitot Tube and the total pressure is
measured there. The outer part has the function of the static pressure measurement.
The difference between the two connections is the dynamic pressure.
The direction of the flow should correspond to the axis of the Prandtl Tube. Deviations until t 10
however, do not essentially influence the measuring accuracy.
The error in the measurement of the pressure is below t 1%.
With the dynamic pressure the fluid velocity can be calculated as follows:
Query:

( )
1 2
1
2 P P
w

The Prandtl Tube measures a local velocity only. In order to get an integral velocity (e.g. the average
value) the integration of several local velocities over the cross sectional area must be made.

A
dA w
A
w
1
The gas flow rate is finally calculated by multiplying the average gas velocity with the cross sectional
area.
Specific information on the gas flow measurement by the Prandtl Tube is given in chapter 6 "Practical
work in gas flow measurement.
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work / 4. INTEGRAL GAS FLOW
MEASUREMENT WITH NOZZLES AND ORIFICES
4. INTEGRAL GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT WITH NOZZLES AND ORIFICES
The idea of this method is to create a change of cross section of the whole fluid stream. By means of
this change also the pressure and the velocity change and from the pressure difference the velocity
can be calculated.
A precondition for this measurement method is a more or less equalized velocity profile. Disturbances
like
Flow separation behind bends, valves, etc.
Pulsation behind a piston type compressor
High dust loading
etc.
falsify the measurement and make it useless in a lot of cases. As a rule of thumb it can be said that
prior to such a flow measurement a straight tube length of more than 10 tube diameters is to be
provided.
Query:
Between point 1 and 2 the continuity condition can be formulated as
A
1
w
1
= A
2
w
2
Between the same two points the Bernoulli equation (see 1.1) gives:

2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
w p w p
+ +

From the two relations the following equation is derived:

( )
1
1
]
1
,
_
1
2
2
2
1
2 1
1
A
A
P P
w
The velocity w
1
can be calculated from the pressure difference between the undisturbed flow (point 1)
and the accelerated flow in the smallest cross-sectional area.
The pressure p
2
is lower than pressure p
1
and compared to the pressure p
1
, is p
2
a negative pressure.
The relation is

( )
1
1
]
1
,
_
1
2
2
2
1
2
1 2 1
A
A
W P P

The pressure difference is a function of the ratio square of the cross sectional area. Great ratios
produce therefore extreme underpressures! An example of such a great ratio is the reduction of the
cross-sectional area during coating formation in preheaters.
The change of the cross-section causes, especially when it is done suddenly, a disturbance of the flow.
The fluid cannot follow the wall and a contraction of the stream is produced.
Query:
The effective cross section A
e
is now smaller than the real one and the calculated velocity must be
corrected. The correction cannot be calculated, it must be measured. For this reason several types of
integral measuring instruments are standardized by DIN 1952.
In the following the 3 basic standard instruments are sketched:
MEASUREMENT WITH NOZZLES AND ORIFICES / 4.1 Standard Nozzles
4.1 Standard Nozzles
Standard nozzles are used for tubes with diameters from 50 to 500 mm and a cross-sectional ratio
(smallest area against tube area) of 0.1 to 0.64.
The velocity in the tube and the volume flow, respectively, are calculated by the following relation:
1
2

p
m w

1
2
2
4

p
D m V

&
The factor considers the change in the density of a compressible fluid. For incompressible fluids (e.g.
water or air until a maximum velocity of 100 [m/s]) this factor has the value 1, otherwise it is tabulated
Query:
in the DIN - Standards 1952.
The value is the correction factor for the contraction of the fluid. It is a function of the Reynolds
number and the ratio m of the cross-sectional areas. This factor is also tabulated in the DIN -
Standards 1952. The table below shows an output of these standards.
Correction factors for the contraction = f (m
2
, Re) for standard nozzles in tubes with smooth surfaces,
valid for diameters D between 50 and 500 mm. Between the indicated values of m
2
(not m) can be
interpolated linearly.
MEASUREMENT WITH NOZZLES AND ORIFICES / 4.2 Standard Orifices and Venturi-Nozzles
4.2 Standard Orifices and Venturi-Nozzles
Orifices and Venturi-nozzles are standardized in the same way as above-mentioned standard nozzles.
The following figure shows the two standard orifices distinguished only in the pressure taps.
The following figure shows the two used Venturi nozzles distinguished only in the length of the diffuser
part.
Query:
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work / 5. CALCULATION OF DENSITY
5. CALCULATION OF DENSITY
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work / 5. CALCULATION OF DENSITY /
The methods based on the law of Bernoulli needs the knowledge of the density of gas. For simple
gases like dry air this request makes normally no problem. In case of kiln gases e.g. the density must
be evaluated or approximated to the real condition.

[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] ] [ 322 . 133 1
0 16 . 273
] [ 10 * 01325 . 1 760 760
2
0
2
5
0
Pa or
m
N
Hg mm
C K T
Pa or
m
N
Hg mm Torr p
1
]
1

1
]
1

In case of air and in function of the relative humidity is almost invariant:
Table 1
[%]

o
[kg/m
3
]
100
80
60
1.290
1.290
1.291
Thus, the actual gas density
G
can be found with the following correlation:
5
0
0
0
10 01325 . 1
16 . 273
29 . 1

G
G
G
G
G
T p T
p T

where p
G
= actual static gas pressure [N/m
2
]
Query:
T
G
= actual gas temperature [K]
P
G
can be measured by adding the differential pressure between tube and the ambient to the
barometric pressure.
Mainly in the field of kiln, the gas compositions can be very different so that their density must be
determining. The greatest influences to the density come from the components carbondioxide (CO2)
and water content (H2O, humidity). Often both components are unknown and cant be measured
easily, so that the user depend from approximations.
5.2 Gas Compositions / 5.2.1 Calculation of a Heterogeneous Gas
5.2.1 Calculation of a Heterogeneous Gas
Density of dry gas composition:
ndr
Component Content [%] Factor Part of Unit
CO
2
1.977
[kg/m
3
,N, dr.]
O2 1.429
[kg/m
3
,N, dr.]
CO 1.25
[kg/m
3
,N, dr.]
N2 1.257
[kg/m
3
,N, dr.]
1.000
ndr
=
[kg/m
3
,N, dr.]
Density of wet gas composition:

dr f
W ndr
nw
+
+
1
0
Where W
0
= Water content [kg/m
3
n,dry]
f
dr
=
804 . 0
0 W
[m
3
/m
3
n,dry]
Process Technology / B06 - PT III / C06 - Practical Work / Gas Flow Measurement - Practical Work / 6. PRACTICAL WORK IN GAS
FLOW MEASUREMENT
6. PRACTICAL WORK IN GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT
FLOW MEASUREMENT / 6.1 Test Equipment
6.1 Test Equipment
The measurement of the velocity profile and the volume flow is shown on a special test equipment
which is sketched in the following figure.
Query:
The following measuring methods are demonstrated and applied:
1) Prandtl Tube: The velocity will be measured on several points of the cross sectional area by
means of which the average velocity and the volume rate will be calculated.
2) Anemometers: At the outlet of the test equipment the mean velocity will be measured with two
different anemometers.
3) Fan Characteristics: With the knowledge of the characteristic curves of the fan given by the
supplier, the volume rate is determined by the pressure difference of the fan and the revolutions of
the fan.
4) Inlet Nozzle (Piezometer): At the suction side of the fan an inlet nozzle is attached. This nozzle is
calibrated and the volume rate can be calculated by means of the pressure difference between the
nozzle inlet and ambient.
FLOW MEASUREMENT / 6.2 The Prandtl Tube
6.2 The Prandtl Tube
Prandtl tubes are mainly used for speed measurements of gaseous mediums. The application of a
Prandtl tube is suitable for following measurements:
Higher Temperatures (Until 500C, depending of construction materials)
Few dust loaded gas flows (approx. 50 g/m
3
max.)
Only for higher gas velocities (approx. 10 m/s min.)
The density of the medium must be known
The Prandtl tube itself is a very simple and cheap measuring instrument. Because the measuring is
selectively for an integral gas flow measurement several measuring points must be measured.
Therefore, the time consumption for the measurement itself and the evaluation is considerable.
Most application in cement industry for Prandtl tubes are:
Air output of grate coolers
Riser ducts
Query:
Tertiary air ducts
etc.
Generally, the application of Prandtl tubes are indicated when other instruments e.g. anemometers as
a result of high temperatures or other reasons cannot be used.
If a Prandtl tube is put into a flowing medium, the following pressures are produced:
The total pressure P
tot
acts on the ball-shaped measuring head, composed of the static pressure P
stat
and the dynamic pressure. The Bernoulli-equation formulated from the point 0 (ambient point) to the
point 1 (pressure point) states:

pressure static
pressure dynamic
pressure total p w p
tot
G
stat

+
2
2
(1)
The flow speed is only influenced by the dynamic pressure:

( )
stat tot
G
p p
2
w

(2)
Its value is obtained from the difference of the total pressure P
tot
and the static pressure P
stat
read on a
differential pressure gauge.

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"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

Holderbank Management & Consulting, 2000 6/23/2001 - 5:13:33 PM Page 1

= Efficiency of the electrical precipitator

"Holderbank" - Cement Course 2000

P: % change in control element position [%]

Mass flow rate [kg/s]

is the dynamic pressure

are pressures called total, static and dynamic pressure.

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