Describe how the breathing rate and the depth is controlled by the medulla oblongata and phrenic nerves

Breathing rate, the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide within the body's tissues, is primarily an involuntary process controlled by many mechanisms including nervous control and chemical control. The medullary rhythmicity area is the respiratory control centre of the central nervous system located in the medulla oblongata. The respiratory control centre can be divided into the inspiratory centre and expiratory centre. The inspiratory centre spontaneously controls the diaphragm and intercostal muscles responsible for inspiration. These inspiratory muscles are connected to the medulla oblongata via spinal nerves. Contraction of the diaphragm is controlled by two phrenic nerves that emanate from the third, fourth, and fifth cervical spinal nerves. Eleven pairs of intercostal nerves that commence from the first 11 thoracic spinal nerves regulate the intercostal muscles. Under normal, resting conditions, there is no activity within the expiratory centre and expiration occurs passively by relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles and elastic recoil of the lungs. However, when breathing increases during exercise for example, the expiratory centre stimulates forceful expiration by contraction of the abdominal muscles and the internal intercostal. The medulla oblongata is able to change the rate, depth, and rhythm of respiration because of feedback mechanisms sent by sensory neural pathways. The first pathway is controlled by the vagus nerve and is called the HeringBreuer reflex because it prevents the lungs from over inflating. The vagus nerve provides sensory information from the thoracic and abdominal viscera including the lungs. When the bronchi and bronchioles expand, the vagus nerve conveys this information to the medulla oblongata that in turn temporarily inhibits the inspiratory centre so that expiration occurs. Once the bronchi and bronchioles return to normal size, the vagus nerve no longer sends inhibitory signals to the medulla oblongata and the inspiratory centre becomes active and initiates inspiration. The pneumotaxic centre is another neural pathway that provides inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory centre of the medulla oblongata. This centre is located in the pons and is only active during increased breathing. In addition to the Hering-Breuer reflex, the pneumotaxic centre ensures that the lungs do

not overinflate. The apneustic centre is also located in the pons and activates inspiration in the medulla oblongata under normal, resting conditions. However, the amnestic centre is cancelled out by the pneumotaxic centre when the breathing rate increases. Chemicals in the body such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion concentrations greatly influence respiration. Each chemical is required in certain amounts in the body and any deviation from the baseline level will change the rate, depth, or rhythm of respiration. Chemical changes are monitored by chemoreceptors located in the medulla oblongata as well as the carotid arteries and the aortic arch. For example, excess carbon dioxide in the blood, a condition called hypercapnia, is accompanied by a decrease in pH and can be sensed by chemoreceptive areas in the medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata responds by increasing the rate and depth of respiration, called hyperventilation, to expel the excessive carbon dioxide during expiration and return the pH levels to normal. Conversely, if levels of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions fall below the baseline level, hypocapnia may result. Hypocapnia occurs when carbon dioxide falls below its baseline level of 40 mm Hg in the blood and results in slow, shallow breathing called hypoventilation. Likewise, when oxygen levels are low and carbon dioxide and pH remain normal, ventilation will increase until oxygen levels return to normal. However, if oxygen levels fall lower than 50 mm Hg in the blood, tissues become starved for oxygen and impulses are not sent to the respiratory area. Thus, respiration is not increased and eventually the person may stop breathing. To some extent, respiration can be controlled voluntarily because of neural pathways between the cerebral cortex and the respiratory control centre. For example, people can chose to take slow, deep breaths in an attempt to relax them, or they can consciously increase respiration and self-induce hyperventilation. Additionally, people can voluntarily hold their breath. However, when there is too much carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions and not enough oxygen in the blood, loss of consciousness will occur and the respiratory centre will return breathing to normal. Respiration may increase or decrease in response to changes in body temperature. When body temperature is low, respiration will decrease in an effort to conserve heat that would otherwise be lost during expiration. Conversely, respiration increases when body temperature is high from fever or exercise for example, to dissipate some of the heat and return the body temperature to normal. Additionally, a sudden shock to cold may cause a temporary breathing cessation.

Certain drugs and medications can affect respiration. For example, narcotics such as Demerol and morphine can reduce the rate and depth of breathing while adrenaline, amphetamine, and cocaine typically have the reverse effect. Pain and emotions often increase respiration. Similar to the shock of cold, a sudden pain such as being hit with a baseball may also cause temporary apnea (cessation of breathing). However, continual pain typically increases the rate and depth of breathing. Emotions such as crying are controlled by the hypothalamus and limbic system that, in turn, stimulate the respiratory centre and increase respiration. When the pain or emotion subsides, respiration returns to normal. Other influences that can affect respiration include baroreceptors and proprioceptors. Baroreceptors are pressure receptors located in the carotid and aortic sinuses that sense changes in blood pressure. Changes in respiration are inversely proportional to changes in blood pressure. For example, when blood pressure increases, respiration decreases. Proprioceptors are receptors located in muscles, tendons, and joint that sense movement. During exercise, these receptors transmit signals to the respiratory centre that increase the rate and depth of respiration.

References 1.Advanced biology for you, Gareth Williams,Stanley Thornes Ltd.2000