Chapter 7: Nonlinear Static Behaviour 7.1 Linear vs.

Nonlinear Behaviour Linear Behaviour: Stiffness matrix for an assembly or structure does not change as load us applied Nonlinear Behaviour: Relationship between forces plus displacement for a structure is not lineal. 7.2 Types of Structural Nonlinearity 7.2.1 Geometric Nonlinearity Geometric nonlinearity: deformation (strains) or deflection is large enough that equilibrium equation must be writer in terms of the deformation geometry Large deformation (strains) Stress Stiffening Buckling 7.2.2 Material Nonlinearity Material nonlinearity Plasticity Nonlinear materials 7.2.3 Contact Nonlinearity Contact nonlinearity Gap Contact area Cables Discussion: Would you use a linear or a non-linear model to determine the maximum stresses in the tracks of a drawer that is being opened and has a weight inside? Discussion: Two parts are connected by a link arm by using two pins with a loose fit. Would you need a linear or a non-linear model to accurately determine the stress a) in the middle of the link arm? b) at the ends of the link arm? 7.3 Nonlinear Finite Element Issues Accuracy vs. Expense Verification Convergence 7.4 Examples of Nonlinear Static Problems Discussion: Find some examples of situations that would need to be modeled using a nonlinear static analysis. For each example, explain what results the model would give you. (Large definition material, contact) 7.5 Nonlinear Solution Techniques When nonlinear behaviour is present, the displacement response can not be predicted directly with a set of equations. An iterative series of linear approximations with corrections used to find the solution. The load may also need to be applied in sub step in order to achieve convergence. 7.5.1 Full Newton-Raphson Method The full Newton-Raphson method is an iterative way of solving for the displacement vector resulting from a given force vector. The method will be demonstrated by using a single degree of freedom model. 1. An initial displacement is assumed (xo). It can either be taken as zero, or as .

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.
8.

The initial tangent stiffness is determined (k0) based on the equation for F(x). The full load (Fa) is applied, and the displacement x1 is determined using k0. The stiffness is recalculated (k1) based on x1 and the equilibrium force F1 is determined. The difference in the forces is called the residual force. A new load increment F = Fa - F1 is applied, and using the current tangent stiffness k t1, the new displacement x2 is determined. The stiffness is recalculated (k2) based on x2 and the equilibrium force F2 is determined. This process is repeated until Fa = Fi, within a given tolerance.
Where Fi=Ki(Xi) Xi = (Fa - Fi-1)/Kt(i-1) + Xi-1

This process can be written as: If Fi = Fa then X=Xi 7.5.2 Adaptations of the Newton-Raphson Method Initial stiffness Secant stiffness

7.5.3 Convergence Criteria The solution is considered to be converged when the imbalance between the internal forecast applied forces is less than a specified amount. If rotational degrees of freedom are involved, the same criterion applies to the imbalance of the internal moments and the applied moments. 7.5.4 Radius of Convergence - The Newton-Raphson method will only converge if the starting point is within the radius of convergence -The radius of convergence is different for different models and for different magnitudes of applied load - In many simple cases as seen from Example 7.1 the radius of convergence can be very large and the full load can be applied initially. - In order to help obtain a converged solution, the load can be applied incrementally in substeps - Eventually, after many substeps, the starting point for the last substep will fall within the radius of convergence of total load, and a solution can be found. 7.5.5 Load Steps and Substeps Load step Substep Equilibrium iterations 7.5.6 Solver Types for Equilibrium Iterations Direct solver Iterative solver 7.6 Setting up a Nonlinear Analysis 7.6.1 Nonlinear Analysis Setting 7.6.2 Nonlinear Results

Chapter 8: Geometric Nonlinearity Is a result of the stiffness matrix changing with geometric deformation or displacements, requiring the equilibrium equations to be written in terms of the current or deformed geometry. It can be a result of such behaviours as large strain, large deflection (rotation), stress stiffening 8.1 Large Strain and Large Deflection (Rotation) Large deflection (rotation) Corotational Formulation Large strain Engineering Strain Engineering Stress True Strain True Stress Green strain 8.2 Stress Stiffening Stress stiffening Stress stiffening matrix 8.3 Buckling (Pandeo) Buckling is an example of stress stiffening where the in plane compressive load causes a weakening of the structure in the out of plane direction. 8.3.1 Linear buckling analysis - Similar to textbook solution using the Euler formula. - Provides a theoretical critical stress (Conservative) for an elastic structure free of imperfection plus deflects - Post buckling shape is not accurate 8.3.2 Non-Linear buckling analysis The overall buckling process is modeled using an applied displacement, large deflections, solid elements plus plasticity if required. The buckling load is identified as the peak load from a plot of the reaction force versus end displacement. When loaded axially, a finite element model of a symmetrical column will not buckle Buckling is initiated by a modeling technique such as an initial geometric imperfection (at the buckling site), a small lateral load or moment at the end.

8.4 Considerations for Geometric Nonlinearity - Elements may not support each different type of behaviour. ie. Some element support large a large deflection and stress stiffening but not large strain. - Use an appropriate mesh so that once strains become large, the elements are not excessively distorted (can cause solution failure). - Use a fine enough mesh so that no element experiences a large amount of flexine?? - Dont overconstrain - Be aware of loading - View results using the actual (unscaled) deformation as well as magnified deformations to identify errors. - Keep models as simple as possible by modeling the scenario just before the body deforms, and not modeling the entire process of rigid body motion.

Chapter 9: Material Nonlinearity 9.1 Introduction Material nonlinearity is a result of the stress-strain ____ of a material being nonlinear. For example, this can be a result of a nonlinear elastic material or a material that has been loaded past its yield point. This chapter will focus on material plasticity. Elasticity:

When induced stresses are below the material yield stress, the material can return to its original shape when the load is removed. The bonds between atoms are stretched but not broken Linear elastic behaviour is most commonly described by Hookes Law. Linear elastic strains are typically small (<1%) Results in a change in volume

Plasticity:

Refers to the material response beyond yield Is a result of dislocation motion (defects in cristal structing) , Results in permanent deformation after loads are removed. Can result in large strains ie. Metal forming. Volume generally remains the same.

In many design cases, we do not want the material to yield, but in cases such as metal forming, energy absorbing structure we need to account for the material plasticity in order to accurately predict the deformed shape. The onset of plastic response is based on the results of a uniaxial tensile test from which we can obtain the proportional limit and the strain hardening relationship. Proportional limit - below this value, the stress-strain relationship is linear Yield point (y) - below this value, all strains are recoverable Since the yield point and the proportional limit are very close, typically the yield point is taken as the point of transition between elastic and plastic behaviour. The 0.2% of set rule is often employed to determine the yield point from experimental stress strain data. Strain hardening - the material response in which the yield stress unckases with increasing plastic strain. Flow stress - the new yield stress following plastic strain, written as a function of strain The relationship between increments of stress and strain is defined using four components: yield criterion

hardening rule hardening scheme flow rule

9.2 Yield Criterion Yield Criterion: A scalar measme of a multiaxial stress state that can be compared to the yield stress from a uniaxial test. The deviatoric stress (c) is the difference between the normal stress in a coordinate direction (a) and the average stress (am). These stresses cause the material to deviate from its original proportions The hydrostatic stress (Gm) acts uniformly on all faces causing the material to retain its original proportions. Von Mises yield criterion Yielding will occur when the distortional energy of a volume equals the distortional energy of the same volume when loaded uniaxially to yield. Where: 1,2 and 3 are principal stresses e = von Mises equivalent stress

Yield occurs when e >y

This yield surface is plotted as a cylindrical surface in principal stress space, aligned along the 1,2 and 3axis. A stress state on this surface means that yielding will occur. - No stress state outside of this surface can exist, because the surface shifts or expands dire to strain hardening to accommodate the new yield surface. An infinitely large hydrostatic stress will theoretically never cause yielding. 9.3 Hardening Rule Hardening Rule: Provides the relationship between the relationships between the flow stress (current yield) plus plastic strain. ie. the Voce rule is commonly used for aluminum alloys - Typically curves are simplified to the following three shapes. 9.4 Hardening Scheme Hardening Scheme: Defmes the change in the yield surface as the material hardens.

Kinematic hardening shifts the yield surface. Many metals exhibit kinematic hardening behaviour for small strain cyclic loading. Also known as the baushinger effect where the yield strength of a metal decreases with a change in load path.

Kinematic hardening becomes inappropriate when strains are very large.

Isotropic materials that have yielded and have experienced kinematic hardening are very longer isotropic. Isotropic hardening expands the yield surface equally and is often used for large strains. Remember. The order that the loads are applied must represent real life because, Plastic strains are irreversible plus path dependent

The hardening scheme will be important if the load path changes ie tension to compression. 9.5 Flow Rule Flow Rule: Describes the direction of the plastic strain increment with respect to the yield surface, and is typically perpendicular to the yield surface. 9.6 Model Setup for Material Nonlinearity - Material models for basic materials (metals, rubber, concrete...) are available in libraries embedded within the finite element program. Values for properties such as yield strength, ultimate strength, and hardening rule are already defined. - In many cases, the material of interest will not be available within a library, and the values for material constants will need to be manually defined, ie. yield stress, hardening scheme, hardening rule.
Yield Criterion Von Mises Von Mises Von Mises Von Mises Hardening Scheme Kinematic Kinematic Isotropic Isotropic Hardening Rule Bilinear Multilinear Bilinear Multilinear

Name

Bilinear Kinematic Multilinear Kinematic Bilinear Isotropic Multilinear Isotropic

The challenge is in obtaining the necessary material constant to be used for the material models.

9.6.1 Choosing a material model The material model chosen depends upon the purpose of the analysis, the level of detail required and the properties available. Stresses and deflections due to working load: Permanent deformation: Dislocation motion: Shear localization: Energy absorption due to impact:

Continuum based material model: Non-homogeneous materials such as concrete or bone are represented as a homogenous material with one representative set of material properties. Material constants are determined from experimental results 9.6.2 Strain rate and temperature dependency Many materials exhibit strain rated dependency or temperature dependency, where the hardening curve varies when the material is loaded at different strain rates or exposed to different temperatures.

Since static analyses do not consider the changes in temperature or strain rate with time, the hardening curve for the specific strain rate and temperature for a particular point internal is used. These curves can vary for different elements within the model. 9.6.3 Failure models If structural failure is considered to be yield, a linear model in which the maximum stress is compared with the yield stress may be sufficient. If failure is considered to be loss of strength, a model incorporating plasticity in which the maximum strain are compared to ultimate strain may be sufficient. Crack growth or progressive failure can be represented by: successive models where the geometry is separated once elements have reached ultimate strain. significantly reducing the element stiffness past the ultimate strain.

9.6.4 Modeling Considerations Element Size Smaller element size may be needed in regions where plasticity occurs to avoid model failure due to excessive element distortion Integration points

For elements that remain linear, results at Gauss (integration) points are extrapolated to the corner nodes. For elements that have yielded, results at Gauss (integration) points are copied to the corner nodes. If the mesh is coarse, stresses at integration points that are just below yield may be extrapolated above yield. Applying Loads and Boundary Conditions Localized yielding may occur due to the stress concentrations resulting from point loads or boundary conditions when plasticity is used.

Chapter 10: Contact 10.1 Introduction Contact: - When two separate surfaces touch each other and do not ki ! 148 Contact The Status: depends

Surfaces

in

contact

can

transmit

stiffness

of

the

system

on

the

Q&i4

The status is determined by a ______ around Gauss integration points or nodes. If a point on a surface enters this radius, the contact status is defined as _____. Further calculations are performed to see if the surfaces are actually in contact.

- The system can have a normal and tangential (friction) stiffness which change dramatically with changes in status.

- Can cause ______ 149 10.2 Contact Algorithms In order to enforce the constraint that bodies in contact do not penetrate each other, the software must employ an algorithm that enforces __________________________________________ We will look at four algorithms, 1H / / ) 10.2.1 Penalty Method - Uses to generate stiffness between the two surfaces. - The spring stiffness, knormai is called the The spring is inactive until the surfaces begin to , each other. The spring tries to V : to prevent penetration. The solution S until equilibrium is found. Ideally, an would prevent penetration, but this is not numerically possible. There must be a small amount of penetration in order to achieve

150 - A higher value of the contact stiffness will penetration and therefore the most ACCu FAlead to CEt I result in the least solution, but can - The penalty method is also used for objects are ( - Xsliding is ideally /ic , but some -- f is allowed to occur. 10.2.2 Augmented Lagrange Method - An extra term is added to augment the contact force. FL - Requires more iterations than the penalty method, but is less sensitive to the ( ic4 - - This method is recommended for most contact problems including general friction or frictionless contact probis. Fn 1 behaviour where

151 10.2.3 The and Lagrange Multiplier contact force is treated is solved for as Method an 4 directly. C

Contact stiffness is not used. Nearly is enforced. - Often takes longer to converge because contact status is a Q i7C Contact Contact Displacement Displacement 10.2.4 Multipoint Constraints are used to define the relationship between the two surfaces. - Used for contact of a certain type such as _____________ contact, where the two surfaces remain in contact throughout the simulation, and can not j A -: 152 - For small deformations, bonded contact is run as a L r ti - For large deformations, the constraint equations are updated with each 10.3 Model Setup for Face to Face Contact 10.3.1 Contact Types Bonded: The two faces are not able to Lc7 ( / 4 be run as a linear analysis. . -i y eng.uwyo.edu No separation: Separation can not occur, but / .. blueoz.com Frictional: Sliding can occur based on a specified . Separation can occur. This could

153 Frictionless: Separation can occur and the coefficient of friction is assumed tobe Rough: Represents an infinite coefficient of friction where no sliding is allowed.

Separation 10.3.2 Contact Definition

can

occur.

- Requires the definition of a called a target plus contact surface, collectively called a contact pair

The target surface is defined as a continuous surface. _- In order to set up a contact model, the faces of the objects that are expected to come into contact must be defined. This occurs automatically by defining contact elements on top of the under using

collectively - For penalty or augmented Lagrange methods, the contact surface is defined by a set of discrete points located at the contact element

154 - Penetration of the contact surface can occur ____________the Gauss points.

- For the Lagrange multiplier or MPC methods, the contact surface is defined by the set of 1\Jock - Contact is only possible between the contact and target surfaces of a contact pair. Surfaces will s if contact is not defined.

Contact surface Target surface Continuous surface 0

155 10.3.3 Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Contact - In symmetric contact, the contact surfaces are prevented from penetrating the target surface and \A o automatically set-up o computationally /4( o contact pressure is difficult to extract as it separate for each surface and would have to be averaged. - In asymmetric contact only the contact surface is prevented from penetrating the target surface. o the contact and target surfaces must be explicitly chosen , and inappropriate choices can lead to model failure/Accuracies o computationally less expensive o correct contact pressure can be easily extracted

- The surface with the Cc,;*i mesh should be the rL74 surface. ,and Contact pressure between the two surfaces

156

- Two surfaces with underlying elements of different order (lower order vs. higher order) can be used to define a contact pair. The __________ order surface should be the 4surface. The target surface should also be: o The surface o The 7 surface o The surface 10.3.4 Contact Stiffness - Contact stiffness______________ is the most important parameter affecting accuracy and convergence and is used for the penalty and augmented Lagrange methods. The contact stiffness is determined by, o The 9 1 of the underlying element o The of the underlying element o The specified -r L /., F

i I - Typically an average of the stiffness values from all elements in the contact pair is used. - The contact stiffness can be increased or decreased depending on the application. p , F1 a C IC for bonded contact Cr1 a C A when bulk deformation occurs a C CCA-. P, if the problem is bending dominated or plasticity is present. - A contact stiffness that is too high may encounter _________________ difficulties, but would be more iCCti, f 157 - A contact stiffness that is too low will lead to inaccurate results due to excessive , but will converge more easily. 10.4 Pinball Radius - The pinball region around ach contact detection point represents a boundary between -J2 Li.io cf r- The pinball radius is often defined in terms of the <z of the underlying element. ie. 2 x depth of underlying element. If the pinball radius is too small, contact may be J1 - If the pinball radius is too big, the - will increase as more contact points will be in near field status requiring additional calculations for contact detection. - Bonded contact may defined, but may not be effective if the pinball radius is smaller than the y - A can be performed on the contact stiffness to determine whether the value used is reasonable. Interference fit C Max von Mises stress

0.001 4000 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 20000 65000 91000 92900 93000

158

10.5 Additional Contact Issues - In reality, it may be that parts are only constrained due to contact with other parts. Until contact occurs these parts may be _______________ ui f! These parts must be constrained to prevent I / but must still represent reality. LZ The two parts could be moved so that they start out in contact. r could be prescribed instead of using applied forces. The part could be constrained in space with very weak F 6 _____ _____ _____ ___ Unconstrained, no solution possible because of rigid . . body motion _____________________________ - Even if the surfaces start out just touching, a may exist, but the target surface should be just within the edge of the pinball radius. - Substeps should be small enough so that contact is not i 159

10.6 Applications - Continuous objects with separate parts can be modeled with bonded contact. - Self contact can detect a part

F I Representing relatively stiff parts computational time as are not calculated. by can decrease

The stresses due to an can be determined by allowing the software to move the initially penetrating surfaces so that they come in contact.

160

Unless the stresses in the contact region are needed or both parts deform significantly, one part is often modeled as an applied load.

F If deformation of the ball is not significant, contact can be represented by a force If deformation of the ball is significant, contact must be used 161