Pluckhahn, Thomas J., and Ann S. Cordell 2011 Paste Characterization of Weeden Island Pottery From Kolomoki and Its Implications For Specialized Production. Southeastern Archaeology 30 (2) :288-310.

PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF WEEDEN ISLAND POTTERY FROM KOLOMOKI AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR SPECIALIZED PRODUCTION
Thomas J. Pluckhahn and Ann S. Cordell
PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF WEEDEN ISLAND POTTERY FROM KOLOMOKI AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR SPECIALIZED PRODUCTION
Thomas J. Pluckhahn and Ann S. Cordell
conceived, specialization is recognized as a feature common to small-scale societies. Explanations for specialization in state-level societies, which have traditionally emphasized political aggrandizement and economic maximization, may be a poor fit for such smallscale societies; thus motivations are increasingly sought in the need for socially valued goods which are critical for ritual performance (Spielmann 1998, 2002, 2008). This more expansive understanding of specialization has thus far found limited application in archaeological studies of the societies that were present in the Southeast prior to the Mississippian period (for exceptions from the northern periphery of the Southeast, see Spielmann [1998, 2002] and Nolan et al. [2007]). In this paper, we consider possible specialization in the production of pottery among the Middle and Late Woodland societies of the Gulf Coast and adjacent interior sections of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia (Figure 1), broadly defined by the Weeden Island ceramic series and dating from around A.D. 200 to 1000 (Milanich 2002:352). Weeden Island pottery, with its diverse suite of styles and unusual vessel shapes (many of which are poorly suited to utilitarian purposes) (Figure 2), as well as its strong association with mortuary deposits, has long been recognized as a distinct and specialized class of ceramics. The possibility that Weeden Island pottery was produced by specialists, however, has been muddled by assumptions regarding a linear relationship between specialization and complexity. Briefly, archaeologists emphasizing the seemingly precocious sociopolitical complexity of Weeden Island societies have argued for specialization (Sears 1956:98, 1973:39), while those who have asserted the more egalitarian trappings of these societies have considered specialization more cautiously (Cordell 1984:195; Milanich et al. 1997:139). As a means of assessing specialization in Weeden Island pottery production, we focus on the intensive characterization of ceramic paste. Our ceramic sample is drawn primarily from the Kolomoki site in the lower Chattahoochee Valley of southwestern Georgia. Kolomoki is the largest Weeden Island settlement in the region, with at least nine mounds and a U-shaped occupation area centered on a circular plaza and extending nearly a kilometer north-south and eastwest (Pluckhahn 2003; Sears 1956). The site has been dated to about cal. A.D. 350750 (Pluckhahn 2003), although recent work suggests it likely persisted later, to about A.D. 850 or 900. Our pottery sample is derived from intensive work at Kolomoki in the middle
We report the results of a petrographic analysis of pottery from Kolomoki, a Middle and Late Woodland period mound and village complex in southwestern Georgia. Thin sections of 65 sherds representing several prestige and utilitarian Weeden Island pottery types, from both domestic (midden) and ceremonial (mound) contexts, were obtained. For comparison, we also analyzed samples from a few potential clay sources. We characterize the range of variability in paste/resource groupings present in the Kolomoki assemblage and use these data to address patterns of manufacture and exchange of Weeden Island pottery through comparisons to thin sections of comparable types from the McKeithen site and other Weeden Island sites in the region. Archaeological investigations of craft specialization like those of political economy in generalhave long been linked with issues of social evolution. Specialized craft production has traditionally been considered both a cause and marker of the development of more complex, hierarchically organized societies (Cobb 1993:67). Within the Southeast, for example, debate concerning craft specialization at Cahokia and Moundville has been permeated by broader controversies regarding the size of these polities and the degree of social stratification within them (Blitz 1993; Milner 1990; Muller 1997:342346; Pauketat 1987; Prentice 1983, 1985; Welch 1991; Wilson 2001; Yerkes 1983, 1989). In recent years, however, archaeologists working with nonstratified societies have endeavored to decouple specialized craft production from social complexity. These studies are founded in a broader and more inclusive definition of specialization. Costin (2001:276), for example, characterizes specialization as, simply, a situation in which fewer people make a class of object than use it (see also Cobb 1993:66). This strikes us as perhaps overly broad, potentially including even domestic production and consumption of a class of objects as a form of specialization if the former is undertaken by a subset of the household. Nevertheless, we agree with the more general point that specialization should be understood as multidimensional, existing along continuums of context (from independent to attached), concentration (from dispersed to nucleated), scale (from small and kin-based to factory), and intensity (from part to full time) (Costin 1991:118). So defined and
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PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF KOLOMOKI POTTERY
Figure 1. Location of Kolomoki and other sites mentioned in the text.
twentieth century by William Sears (1956), as well as more recent investigations by Pluckhahn (2003). We compare paste groupings at Kolomoki to those identified from a sample of sherds from the McKeithen site in north-central Florida. McKeithen, intensively investigated by Milanich and colleagues (1997), includes three mounds and U-shaped habitation area centered on a circular plaza and measuring about 600 m by 500 m. The site is dated to around cal. A.D. 200900, although radiocarbon dates are skewed to the first half of this range. We also compare the Kolomoki and McKeithen paste groupings to a sample of sherds from selected Weeden Island sites in the region. Our analysis, while not definitive, lends supports to the assertion that some Weeden Island pottery was produced by specialists, probably a subset of the population at Kolomoki. We consider the nature of this ceramic production and distribution in light of recent work on specialization in small-scale societies, especially as they relate to ritual.
Considerations of Specialization in Weeden Island Pottery Production Weeden Island pottery was recognized as a distinct and specialized class of ceramics long before the series
was formally defined archaeologically. In his work on the Gulf Coast, C. B. Moore (1901, 1902, 1903a, 1903b, 1905, 1907, 1918) noted the repeated association of the effigy forms that we now recognize as Weeden Island, as well as other incised and punctated styles of the Weeden Island series, with caches placed on the east sides of mortuary mounds. He frequently referred to the effigy form as a freak or ceremonial ware (e.g., Moore 1902:352353). The Weeden Island pottery series was formally defined in the 1940s (Willey 1945; Willey and Woodbury 1942). Willey (1949:406), in his landmark synthesis of the archaeology of the region, described Weeden Island pottery as the most outstanding of the Gulf Coast and, in many respects, of the entire aboriginal eastern United States with regard to quality of production, form, and decoration. He noted that much of the pottery appears to have been used for storage, serving, or ceremonial purposes rather than cooking. William Sears was the first to explicitly infer specialized production from the specialized form, decoration, and function of Weeden Island pottery. In his work in Mounds D and E at Kolomoki, Sears (1951, 1953, 1956, 1973) recovered dozens of Weeden Island effigy vessels from east-side pottery caches, prompting his classification of these as a sacred
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SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 30(2) WINTER 2011
Figure 2. Examples of Weeden Island pottery: (ab) from McKeithen (reproduced courtesy of the Florida Museum of Natural History), (ce) from Kolomoki (reproduced courtesy of the Laboratory of Archaeology, Department of Anthropology, University of Georgia).
category of pottery distinct from the secular complicated stamped types more common in villages. The quality of the sacred vessels at Kolomoki convinced Sears (1956:98) that specialists must have been present, the persons with ultra-thorough training in
the techniques and style canons of sacred pottery manufacture. Searss argument for specialized production, however, was largely based on analogy and bound up with his interpretation of the Kolomoki as the center of a state-level society:
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Table 1. Kolomoki sample counts by pottery type and gross provenience.
Pottery Type Weeden Island Incised Weeden Island Plain Weeden Island Red Weeden Island Zoned Red Mercier Red on Buff Indian Pass Incised Carrabelle Incised Carrabelle Punctated Plain Swift Creek Complicated Stamped Blakely Complicated Stamped Napier Complicated Stamped Mound Field Net Marked Lamar Complicated Stamped Total Mound B 1 1 Mound C 1 1 Mound D 4 2 14 2 2 3 6 1 34 Mound D Submound 1 1 2 4 Mound F 1 1 2 Off-mound midden 14 4 18 2 2 1 11 85 85 1 1 4 228 Total 19 6 32 4 2 2 2 14 93 88 2 1 1 4 270
We should consider too, as another index of social complexity, the degree of craftsmanship apparent in some of the ceremonial vessels. I know of no way, except through a feel for craftsmanship, for mastery of materials and technique, and through the opinion of contemporary craftsmen in the medium, to appraise this kind of thing. As an example, in the opinion of national prize-winning ceramicists, some of the effigy vessels excavated at Kolomoki in Mound D are technically perfect, and even, in at least one instance, very nearly outside the state of the art as it exists today. These pots are not then the products of potters whose training and experience is limited to occasional production of cookpots for their own use, whether these potters be male or female. The mastery of medium and of technique call for complex training processes which must involve social support. (Sears 1973:39)
The possibility of specialized production of Weeden Island pottery was subject to more rigorous analysis in work at the McKeithen site. Kohler (1978; see also Milanich et al. 1997:4590) employed production step measures and diversity indices to delineate three categories of pottery at McKeithen: elite, tradewares, and utilitarian. Rice (1980) subjected pottery from McKeithen and other northern Florida sites to neutron activation analysis (NAA). Her work revealed support for a sacred-secular ceramic dichotomy at McKeithen, with sacred wares exhibiting greater relative frequencies of pastes distinct from those typical of utilitarian types and local clay sources. However, Rice argued for multiple centers of sacred Weeden Island pottery production rather than a model (derived from Sears) of specialized production at, and distribution from, Kolomoki. Cordell (1984; see also Milanich et al. 1997:120139) followed up on Rices (1980) study with a comparison of mound and midden samples at McKeithen and other sites in northern Florida. Her analysis, which focused primarily on paste and secondarily on other production-related attributes such as color, hardness, and porosity, revealed evidence for specialized pottery manufacture for six types associated with the Weeden Island series following criteria specified by Rice (1981). These six types were said to constitute a category of
elite or prestige pottery, based on the fact that they exhibited greater standardization of manufacture, more restricted occurrence (mainly in mound or ceremonial contexts), and greater standardization and elaboration in production (Cordell 1984:194195; Milanich et al. 1997:138). Cordell suggested that the manufacture of elite pottery may have been undertaken by a restricted number of individuals at McKeithen, perhaps for trade for elite types from elsewhere. However, Cordell (1984:195; see also Milanich et al. 1997:139) felt that occupational specialization was unlikely, given the hypothesized socio-economic level of the McKeithen Weeden Island population. Cordells research also supported Rices multicenter model for the manufacture of Weeden Island ceremonial pottery.
Identifying Paste Groups at Kolomoki The Pottery Sample Over 56,000 sherds and 195 restorable vessels were catalogued from the Kolomoki excavations in the 1940s and 1950s (Sears 1956:15). More recent work at Kolomoki has yielded more than 50,000 additional sherds (Pluckhahn 2003). From this combined assemblage, a sample of 270 sherds was selected from domestic and civic-ceremonial contexts. Kolomoki Mound D was the primary ceremonial context sampled, but a few sherds come from Mounds B, C, and F (Table 1). Our sample includes a variety of cultural historical and functional types. The cultural historical designations employed here follow the formal types established primarily on the basis of temper and surface decoration (e.g., Goggin 1952; Sears 1956; Willey 1945, 1949; Willey and Woodbury 1942). Following previous work, we consider three categories of functional types: cult or sacred (used interchangeably in previous studies; we employ the latter term here), prestige or elite (also mutually substitutable in prior work; we use the former), and utilitarian (Table 2) (Cordell 1983, 1984;
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Table 2. Count (and percentage) of pottery types by functional category.
Pottery Type Weeden Island Incised Weeden Island Plain Weeden Island Red Weeden Island Zoned Red Mercier Red on Buff Indian Pass Incised Carrabelle Incised Carrabelle Punctated Plain Swift Creek Complicated Stamped Blakely Complicated Stamped Napier Complicated Stamped Mound Field Net Marked Lamar Complicated Stamped Total Prestige 19 (100) 24 (75) 3 (75) 2 (100) 48 (18) Sacred 1 (17) 8 (25) 1 (25) 2 (2) 12 (4) Utilitarian 5 (83) 2 (100) 2 (100) 14 (100) 91 (98) 88 (100) 2 (100) 1 (100) 1 (100) 206 (76) Other 4 (100) 4 (2) Total 19 6 32 4 2 2 2 14 93 88 2 1 1 4 270
Kohler 1978; Milanich et al. 1997; Sears 1956, 1973). The sacred category is comprised of effigy vessels (many with excised geometric cut-outs), which at Kolomoki and other Weeden Island sites are invariably found only in mounds. Specimens assigned to this functional category include a variety of cultural historical types (most commonly Weeden Island Red and Weeden Island Incised), but distinguished by effigy forms and occurrence in mound contexts. The prestige category was defined at McKeithen on the basis of production characteristics (non-effigy forms, high frequency of nonlocal pastes, high production step measures, standardization in form and decoration) and provenience (mounds and limited off- mound contexts). As previously defined, this category includes the cultural historical types Weeden Island Zoned Red, Weeden Island Red, Weeden Island Incised, Weeden Island Punctated, Papys Bayou Punctated, and Indian Pass Incised; to this roster we add the Mercier Red on Buff type based on its similarity in decoration and distribution. Finally, again following the work at McKeithen, the utilitarian category includes a variety of other cultural historical types differentiated by wide distribution in off-mound contexts (less commonly in mounds), higher frequencies of local pastes, relatively low production step measures, and greater variability in form and decoration. In addition to the Woodland pottery, four Lamar period, Mississippian sherds were included in the sample for comparison. In addition to the ceramics, we analyzed four clay samples from the Kolomoki vicinity for comparison. It is important to note several limitations of the sample. We assume that the definitions of prestige and utilitarian types made at McKeithen are applicable to Kolomoki and the rest of the Weeden Island area, but this may not be the case. Further, these functional categories may not reflect the full use-lives of the pots. For example, Swift Creek pottery is classified as utilitarian, but it was also found in mounds at
Kolomoki (Sears 1956); previous work elsewhere suggests that it was often used both for utilitarian purposes and in mortuary-related rituals (Wallis 2011). The sample of sacred pottery is skewed to Mound D, mainly because more sherds from proveniences relating to this mound were available for study. Although we selected rim sherds when possible, much of the sample is comprised of body sherds and we thus cannot rule out duplication of some vessels. We have not controlled for variation in time; petrographic studies by Stoltman and Snow (1998:138139) suggest that the size of quartz grains may increase from Middle to Late Woodland. The sample size is small relative to the overall assemblage from Kolomoki. Nevertheless, we believe it offers a representative picture of the variability in locally made pottery, given the range of pottery types that are included. Pottery types are represented in the sample in proportions relatively similar to their occurrence overall. For example, plain and Swift Creek sherds make up 36.7 and 32.6 percent of the sample, respectively, generally consistent with their representation in Pluckhahns (2003) test units and excavation blocks. The Weeden Island types that are less common in recent excavations are represented by fewer sherds in our samples. Methods of Analysis Three methods of analysis were used to characterize paste: standard microscopy, refiring in an electric furnace, and petrographic analysis. The two former methods were conducted on the total sherd sample. Petrographic analysis was conducted on a subsample of 65 sherds. Standard microscopy entailed using a binocular stereomicroscope for gross paste analysis (i.e., to identify predominant constituents and to distinguish
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PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF KOLOMOKI POTTERY gross temper or texture groupings). The microscope was equipped with an eyepiece micrometer and fiber optic illuminator. A magnification of 303 was used because it was powerful enough for distinguishing very fine particle sizes (0.0625mm to , 0.125 mm) but low enough for estimation of size and relative abundance of the larger coarse and very coarse constituents (grit sizes, . 0.5 mm). Occasionally, higher magnifications (up to 703) were used when necessary. All initial observations were made on sherd edges that had been freshly cut with a lapidary saw. The textural integrity of the pastes was remarkably well preserved in the cut edges, which also provided larger and more uniform surface areas for examination. Size of aplastics was estimated with reference to the Wentworth Scale (Rice 1987:38). For purposes of the gross paste analysis, particle abundance was estimated with reference to a relative abundance scale.1 Refiring was conducted to standardize color comparisons between samples and we use this color to assess relative iron content, thus providing an additional means of distinguishing clay resource differences. Beck (2006) refers to this method as oxidation analysis. The lapidary saw was used to control the desired size of fragments for refiring in all but six sherds in the sample that were large enough to spare removal of pieces for analysis. Sherds were refired in an electric furnace at a temperature of 800uC for 30 minutes,2 conditions that most likely exceeded those of the original firings. A fresh break was made after refiring to note color changes and Munsell colors were recorded for core colors of a subsample of refired sherds. Four gross refired color ranges were specified, corresponding to relative iron oxide contents ranging from very low to high.3 Sixty-five sherds were thin-sectioned for petrographic compositional and point count analyses. The petrographic analysis was conducted to evaluate compositional homogeneity and differences within and between gross paste categories. Point counts were made for quantifying relative abundance of constituents. The point-counting procedure involved using a petrographic microscope with a mechanical stage and generally followed recommendations by Stoltman (1989, 1991, 2000).4 Point-count data were used to calculate a Sand Size Index [SSI] for each sample, following Stoltman (2000:314).5 All gross paste and petrographic analyses were carried out in the Florida Museum of Natural History Ceramic Technology Laboratory (FLMNH-CTL), where data recorded for all three analyses remain on file. SAS 9.2 for Windows (SAS Institute 2008) was used for computer analysis and statistical comparisons of data. Tri-Plot, an excel spreadsheet program (Graham and Midgley 2000) was used to create ternary diagrams of petrographic data. Results: Principal and Accessory Paste Constituents The principal constituents in the sample are quartz sand (0.0625 to , 0.5mm) and quartz and quartzite grit (. 0.5mm). Quartz occurs in all sherds in the sample, in varying sizes and abundances. Its status as an added temper or a naturally occurring constituent, or some combination of both, is uncertain. Quartz aplastics falling into silt and very fine Wentworth particle sizes are usually considered to be naturally occurring constituents of the clay source (Rice 1987:411; also see Stoltman 1989:149150, 1991:109111). Coarser particle sizes may be indicative of tempers (Rice 1987:411, Stoltman 1989:149, 1991:109111). Polycrystalline quartz or quartzite is present in most thin-sectioned cases and is the principal constituent of grit-tempered sherds in the thin section sample. Particles of quartz, quartzite, and other sand constituents in the present sample are predominantly subangular, but angular and subrounded particles are also present. This variability is consistent with particle shapes observed in the local clay samples (see later discussion). Mica, primarily muscovite, is a principal constituent of about half the sample and is considered a naturally occurring constituent of the clays rather than temper. Relative frequency of mica formed the basis for distinguishing the pottery in terms of micaceous versus low mica resources. Grog or clay lumps, ferric concretions, feldspars, and mafic (ferromagnesian) minerals were also observed in varying frequencies, in many cases with standard microscopy. Grog particles are generally subrounded clay lumps rather than recycled sherd temper. They are a rare to occasional constituent of many sherds in the sample but are frequent in only a few sherds. Clay lumps may have resulted from incomplete mixing during paste preparation in most cases. Ferric nodules or concretions are occasional constituents of many sherds but probably represent naturally occurring constituents of the clays rather than tempering materials. Grains of feldspars and dark, mafic minerals were observed in a few sherds during the preliminary analysis, but only because their frequencies were sufficient to be noticeable with standard microscopy. Petrographic analysis shows that feldspars, mostly microcline and plagioclase, are occasional constituents of most thin sections. Granitic rock fragments (polycrystalline grains composed of feldspars and/or feldspars and quartz) were observed in a few cases, but only in thin section. The mafic mineral detected during gross paste analysis was identified in thin section as amphibole, although epidote was also observed. Feldspars and mafic minerals are rare to occasional constituents of most of the thin-sectioned sherds and are thus interpreted as natural constituents of the clays or incidental to sand tempers. Frequent amphibole is observed in relatively few cases in the entire sample.
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Table 3. Bulk composition and sand particle abundance/size by gross paste texture for sherd samples and Kolomoki clay samples.
Bulk composition Paste texture Very fine sand Fine sand Sand/grit Grit Temperless Total Total sample n (%) 35 (13) 134 85 15 1 270 (50) (31) (6) (,1) Thin-section sample (n) 10 35 17 2 1 65 1 9ER1 1 9ER2 1 9ER3 1 9ER4
a b
Mean % sand particle sizes % silt 5 3 3 2 Very fine 14 10 6 5 N/A Fine 10 15 11 8 Medium 2 8 10 10 Coarse very coarse ,1 2 4 12 Mean 0.86 1.20 1.51 2.00
SSI Range 0.720.96 1.031.37 1.401.66 1.982.03
% matrix 67 61 63 62 90
% sanda 26 34 33 34
% otherb 12 10 8 26 10
Clay samples 30 22 41 72 70 78 56 26 4 6 6 3 1 1 1 3 2 7 7 4 2 38 31 10 14 25 16 8 51 9 2 4 2.86 1.52 1.29 1.58 2.86 1.52 1.29 1.58
Sand counts include quartz, polycrystalline quartz, and other non-opaque minerals, excluding micas. Other includes all other counted constituents.
Note: t-tests comparing texture categories in terms of mean sand particle sizes yielded statistically significant values at p ranging ,0.0001 to 0.002 for the following comparisons: very fine sand vs. fine sand (very fine, fine, medium, coarsevery coarse); very fine sand vs. sand/grit (very fine, medium, coarsevery coarse); very fine sand vs. grit (very fine, medium, coarsevery coarse); fine sand vs. sand/grit (very fine, fine, medium, coarsevery coarse); sand/grit vs. grit (coarsevery coarse).
Lesser accessory constituents include biotite mica and heavy minerals such as kyanite, tourmaline, rutile, and zircon, all of which are only detectable in thin section. An unidentified isotropic mineral, probably garnet, was observed in a few thin sections. Siliceous microfossils, including fragmented sponge spicules and opal phytoliths, were unexpected but possibly significant accessory constituents in some sherds. Sponge spicules are biosilicate needles or rods that formed the skeletal support for some freshwater sponges of the class Demospongiae, family Spongillidae (Borremans and Shaak 1986). In contrast to Floridas St. Johns pottery (Goggin 1952), with its abundant sponge spicules (Borremans and Shaak 1986), the frequency of sponge spicules in the Kolomoki samples is relatively low. Opal phytoliths are botanical microfossils composed of silica (Rapp and Mulholland 1992). These microfossils are considered natural constituents of the clay sources rather than incidental tempers or contaminants. They have been observed together in other pottery assemblages from Georgia and Florida and in a few coastal clays (Cordell 2006; Cordell and Deagan 2011; Wallis 2011; Wallis and Cordell 2011). Phytoliths and fragmented sponge spicules were observed only in thin section, at a magnification of 2503, but are considered significant for distinguishing resource groupings. Results: Pottery Groupings The pottery samples may be divided into various gross paste groupings on the basis of three criteria:
particle size, paste constituents, and relative iron oxide content. Particle size groupings may define textural, perhaps temper, groupings, whereas certain paste constituents and relative iron oxide content define resource groupings. Particle Size/Texture. The pottery sample was sorted into four gross textural groupings on the basis of particle size during the gross paste analysis: very fine sand, fine sand, fine-medium sand or sand/grit, and grit (Table 3). Fine sand and sand/grit categories are most abundant, making up 50 percent and 31 percent of the sample, respectively. Very fine sand and grittempered sherds make up 13 percent and 6 percent of the sample, respectively. One sherd is apparently temperless in terms of quartz or other crystalline constituents but does contain frequent clay lumps (it had been categorized as limestone-tempered in the original analysis). Point count data provide quantification for these textural categories (also included in Table 3), which are distinguished graphically in Figure 3. There are statistically significant differences between textural categories in terms of mean percentages of sand occurring in very fine through very coarse particle sizes (see Table 3 for test statistics). The textural distinctions within the sample become blurred when data on bulk composition (percentages of matrix, sand, and other constituents) are considered (Figure 4). The grit-tempered sherds and temperless sherd occurred primarily in off-mound contexts. Grit tempering occurs only in the plain and complicated stamped wares and in the four Lamar period sherds. Very fine sand and fine sand categories are modal in
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Figure 3. Ternary graph of sand particle size variation for gross textural categories (percentages within particle size categories were calculated with respect to total sand counts).
Figure 4. Ternary graph of variation in bulk composition for gross textural categories (other constituents are based on counts of silt, ferric concretions, clay lumps, micas, and other nonsand constituents).
some prestige types, whereas fine sand and sand/grit categories are modal in utilitarian types (Table 4). Graphical comparison of sand particle sizes (Figure 5) shows considerable overlap for sacred, prestige, and utilitarian categories, but utilitarian samples show greater variability, as might be expected. A similar pattern is evident when the functional categories are compared in terms of bulk composition (Figure 6). Other Paste Constituents. Of the principle paste constituents, mica, or rather its relative frequency, is considered a principal criterion for distinguishing resource groupings in the pottery sample. Forty-one percent of the sample (n 5 110) is made of micaceous clays, with the relative frequency of mica flecks ranging from frequent to common. Mica occurring in these relative frequencies is detectable on clean, uneroded sherd surfaces with low magnification and often even with the unaided eye. Petrographically, the percentages range from 3 to 7 percent and mica particle sizes tend to be relatively large, occurring in fine to medium Wentworth sizes. Mica is present but only rare or occasional in most of the remaining 59 percent of the sample (n 5 160). Occasional mica is sometimes detectable with low magnification, but trace presence is most often detectable only in thin section. The petrographically estimated percentage in most cases is about 1 percent, and mica particle sizes tend to range smaller, occurring in very fine to fine Wentworth sizes. Some degree of overlap between micaceous and low mica groupings may be possible, given the probable variability in mica frequency within clay deposits. In the present sample, there is an inverse relationship between mica frequency and gross texture (Figure 7). Most sherds with very fine texture are also micaceous. Mica is generally rare in grit-tempered sherds. Fine sand and sand-grit textures are not significantly different, but micaceous pastes are somewhat more
common in fine sand textures, whereas low mica pastes are somewhat more common in sand/grit textures. The differences between very fine texture and the other textures in terms of mica frequency were found to be statistically significant (X2 5 9.59 df 5 1 p 5 0.002 vs. fine sand; X2 5 12.48 df 5 1, p50.0004 vs. sand/grit; X2 5 12.02 df 5 1 p 5 0.0005 vs. grit). For pottery types with ten or more samples, there are no statistically significant tendencies in terms of mica frequency (Table 5). Micaceous paste comprises 35 50 percent of all such types. Prestige, sacred, and utilitarian categories are also basically similar in terms of micaceous versus low mica resources (see Table 5). The relative abundance of both micaceous and low mica sherds in the assemblage indicates both categories of resources are probably local to the Kolomoki vicinity. Gross compositional variability for the thin section subsample is described in Table 6. Very fine texture is distinguished from fine sand and sand/grit categories by lower mean percentages of monocrystalline quartz and higher mean percentages of micas. Fine sand and sand/grit textures are very similar in mean percentages of quartz and other constituents. Grit-tempered paste differs from the others in terms of having much higher mean percentages of quartzite and other crystalline grains (especially feldspars and amphibole), lower mean percentage of monocrystalline quartz, and lower diversity in accessory minerals (Table 6). Graphical comparison of the relative percentages of monocrystalline quartz, polycrystalline quartz, and other crystalline grains (Figure 8) shows considerable overlap between very fine sand and fine sand textures, and between fine sand and sand/grit textures. The sand/grit grouping shows less relative compositional heterogeneity than the former two textures. The grittempered cases are easily distinguished from the rest in
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Table 4. Count (and percentage) gross texture by pottery type and functional category for sherd samples and Kolomoki clay samples.
Very fine sand By pottery type (sherd samples) Weeden Island Incised Weeden Island Plain Weeden Island Red Weeden Island Zoned Red Mercier Red on Buff Indian Pass Incised Carrabelle Incised Carrabelle Punctated Plain Swift Creek Complicated Stamped Blakely Complicated Stamped Napier Complicated Stamped Mound Field Net Marked Lamar Complicated Stamped By functional category (sherd samples) Prestige Sacred Utilitarian Other (Lamar) Total sherd sample Kolomoki clay samples 9ER1 9ER2 9ER3 (calcareous) 9ER4 Fine sand Sand/grit Grit Untempered Total
5 2 1 1 1 1 13 10 1
(26) (33) (3) (25) (50) (7) (14) (11) (50) -
12 3 14 2 2 1 1 7 44 46
(63) (50) (44) (75) (100) (50) (50) (50) (47) (52) 1 (100) -
2 (11) 1 (17) 17 (53) 1 (50) 6 (43) 28 (30) 28 (32) 1 (50) 1 (100) 13 (27) 6 (50) 66 (32) 85 (32)
7 (8) 4 (5) 4 (100) 11 (5) 4 (100) 15 (6) X
1 (1) 1 (,1) 1 (,1)
19 6 32 4 2 2 2 14 93 88 2 1 1 4 48 12 206 4 270
7 (15) 1 (8) 27 (13) 35 (13)
28 (58) 5 (42) 101 (49) 134 (50)
X X X
Figure 8. The grit-tempered cases also contain frequent granitic grains, in contrast to the other samples (see Table 6). For these cases, granitic grains and amphibole may indicate a rare (to Kolomoki) temper choice or perhaps that this pottery is nonlocal to Kolomoki.6 This is supported by our analyses of local clay samples, in which granitic rock fragments were not present and amphibole was only a rare constituent (see later discussion). Compositional percentages for individual pottery types vary among and between functional categories, but samples sizes are too small to propose any trends. Mean percentages between functional
categories are fairly similar, but comparison of relative percentages of monocrystalline quartz, polycrystalline quartz, and other crystalline grains (Figure 9) shows that utilitarian samples exhibit somewhat greater compositional heterogeneity than prestige and sacred samples. The presence/frequency of siliceous microfossils formed the basis for defining two gross clay resource groupings for the thin section sample, Clay A and B (Table 7). Clay A (n 5 29, 45 percent of cases) is characterized by the general absence of siliceous microfossils: no sponge spicules and the absence or
Figure 5. Ternary graph of sand particle size variation for functional categories (percentages within particle size categories were calculated with respect to total sand counts).
Figure 6. Ternary graph of variation in bulk composition for functional categories (other constituents are based on counts of silt, ferric concretions, clay lumps, micas, and other nonsand constituents).
296

Table 5. Count (and percentage) of samples categorizes as low mica and micaceous by pottery type and functional category for sherd samples and Kolomoki clay samples.
Low mica By cultural historical type (sherd sample) Weeden Island Incised 11 (58) Weeden Island Plain 3 (50) Weeden Island Red 21 (66) Weeden Island Zoned Red 3 (75) Mercier Red on Buff Indian Pass Incised 2 (100) Carrabelle Incised 2 (100) Carrabelle Punctated 8 (57) Plain 60 (64) Swift Creek Complicated 44 (50) Stamped Blakely Complicated Stamped Napier Complicated Stamped 1 (100) Mound Field Net Marked 1 (100) Lamar Complicated Stamped 4 (100) By functional category (sherd sample) Prestige Sacred Utilitarian Other (Lamar) Total sherd sample Kolomoki clay samples 9ER1 9ER2 9ER3 calcareous 9ER4 30 8 118 4 160 (62) (67) (57) (100) (59) X X X X Micaceous Total
Figure 7. Relationship between mica frequency and gross texture.
(42) (50) (34) (25) (100) 6 (43) 33 (36) 44 (50) 2 (100) 18 (38) 4 (33) 88 (43) 110 (41)
8 3 11 1 2
19 6 32 4 2 2 2 14 93 88 2 1 1 4 48 12 206 4 270
extreme paucity of phytoliths. Clay B (n 5 36, 55 percent of cases) is characterized by occasional but consistent occurrence of siliceous microfossils: sponge spicules and/or phytoliths. Their differential presence may indicate different environments of deposition for the Clays A and B, perhaps lacustrine for Clay B, although it might be possible that naturally occurring variability within a given clay sample could explain such variability in the constituents. Clay B is only slightly more common in the sample than Clay A. This indicates both clay categories were probably local to the Kolomoki vicinity and were more or less equally accessible to Kolomoki potters, an assumption corroborated by our analysis of clay samples (described below). When compared to gross paste textures, Clay A occurs in all textural categories (Table 7). Clay B occurs in very fine through sand/grit categories but has no cases with grit-tempered paste. Clay A is more common in very fine and grit textures, whereas Clay B is more common in fine sand and sand/grit textures. However, the tendencies are not statistically significant at 95 percent confidence levels (X2 5 6.69, df 5 3, p 5 0.0825). In the present study, Clay A and Clay B occur in both micaceous and low mica categories, but there is a somewhat inverse relationship between mica frequency and presence of siliceous microfossils (see Table 7). Fifty-seven percent (n 5 17) of Clay A samples are micaceous, whereas 66 percent (n 5 23) of Clay B samples have low mica. The differences are statistically significant (X2 5 6.63, df 5 1, p 5 0.01). Prestige and sacred types generally have a higher percentage of cases made with Clay B paste, whereas utilitarian types have a higher percentage made with Clay A paste. However the trend is not statistically significant in this more limited sample (with prestige/sacred combined X2 5 1.78, df 5 1, p 5 0.1821). Relative Iron Oxide Content. Refiring indicates that 41 percent (n 5 108) of the total sample is made of clays relatively low in iron oxides (Figure 10). Clays with moderate and high iron oxides are also common in the
sample, whereas clays with very low iron oxide content are relatively rare. The relative abundance of low, moderate, and high iron oxide categories in the assemblage likely indicates variability in iron oxide content in the resources local to the Kolomoki vicinity. This is supported by our analysis of local clays (see later discussion). The low percentage of very low iron oxide content may indicate its relative scarceness in the region or restricted use in pottery manufacture. In terms of clay resources, there is likely to be some degree of overlap in relative iron oxide content within given clay deposits. In terms of gross paste texture (total sample), low iron oxide clays are modal for all texture categories, but very low iron oxide clays have higher representation in very fine and grit pastes (Table 8). Fine sand and sand/grit categories are very similar to each other, with low through high iron oxide categories well represented. There is a slight tendency for micaceous samples to have higher percentage with very low iron oxides, but the tendency is not statistically significant at 95 percent confidence levels (X2 5 7.42, df 5 3, p 5 0.0597). In terms of clay groupings based on siliceous microfossils (thin section sample), samples with very low iron oxides are restricted to Clay A, lacking in microfossils (see Table 8). Otherwise, the groupings are not significantly different. Low iron oxide clays are modal in all pottery types with greater than five cases except for Weeden Island Incised (see Table 8). High iron oxide clays are modal
297

Table 6. Compositional variability by gross paste texture, pottery type, and functional category for sherd samples and Kolomoki clay samples.
Pottery category % monocrystalline quartz % other crystalline grainsa Estimated % mica
b
% sand
% polyx quartz
Estimatedb % total feldspars
Estimatedb % mafic & heavy minerals
Heavy mineral species (n)
Presence (P) of granitic rock
By texture (thin-section sample) Very fine sand 10 26 Fine sand 35 34 Sand/grit 17 33 Grit 2 34 Temperless 1 -
21 29 29 12 -
6 6 4 22 5 5 5 9 9 6 4 6, 22 9 1
c
5 3 2 3 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 7 1
1 2 2 7 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 3 1 1
3 4 3 10 3 3 3 6 4 3 3 4 4 2
2 2 1 5 1 1 12 1 1 1 12 1,45c 1 1
7 8 6 4 7 8 7 7 10 8 6 6 6 6
P in 1/10 P in 10/35 P in 6/17 34% P in 2/9 P in 7/19 P in 1/3
By cultural historical type (thin-section sample) Weeden Island 9 34 30 Incised Weeden Island 4 34 31 Plain Weeden Island 19 32 28 Red Weeden Island 3 33 26 Zoned Red Mercier Red on 1 30 23 Buff Carrabelle 4 32.5 28 Punctated Plain 10 29 26 Swift Creek 13 32 24 Comp. St. Blakely Comp. 1 25 19 St. Napier Comp. 1 30 28 St. By functional category (thin-section sample) Prestige 26 33 28 Sacred 8 32 29 Utilitarian 31 31 25 Kolomoki clay samples 9ER1 1 9ER2 1 9ER3 1 9ER4 1
a b
P in 2/4 P in 2/11 P to 4% in 5/13 P
6 4.5 6 4 7 4 1
3 2 3 1 1 1
2 2 2 4 6 3 1
4 3 4 1 1 P
2 1 2 1 P 1
7 6 6 1 4 6 8
P in 6/26 P in 4/8 P to 4% in 10/31
70 78 56 26
66 72 53 25
Percentage is based on point count data and may be a bit low in some cases. Point count data underrepresented percentages for some constituents; estimates were made using a comparison chart of estimated percent particle abundance (Rice 1987:Figure 12.2). This accounts for sum of % of polycrystalline quartz and estimated percentages of mica, feldspars, mafic/heavies exceeding the percentage listed for % other crystalline grains. Two grit-tempered cases contain significantly more mafic/heavy constituents than any other pottery in the thin-section sample.
in this type. Very low iron oxide clays occur in a small percentage of Weeden Island Incised (prestige type) and utilitarian types. Very low iron oxide clays are absent in the sacred samples, but occur in all Lamar sherds in the sample.
Results: Clay Resource Groupings Relative iron oxide content, mica frequency, and presence of siliceous microfossils represent attributes useful for defining clay resource groupings in the Kolomoki sample (thin section sample). Refired color and mica frequency data alone indicate a minimum of four main potential clay resources. Low mica and micaceous wares each occur in relatively low and moderate to high iron oxide groupings. Particle size/ textural differences within the four groupings are most likely explained in terms of different tempering recipes or the natural variability in sand constituents within
discrete clay resources. This estimate of four is doubled when siliceous microfossils are considered, resulting in a minimum of eight main clay resources (Table 9 and Figure 11). Four are characterized by the absence of siliceous microfossils, of which two have low mica content and relatively low and high, respectively, iron oxide content, and two are micaceous with relatively low and high, respectively, iron oxide content. Four are characterized by the presence of noticeable siliceous microfossils, of which two have low mica content and relatively low and high, respectively, iron oxide content, and two are micaceous with relatively low and high, respectively, iron oxide content. The eight clay resource groupings are hereafter referred to as matrix categories and are interpreted as representing particular clay sources or groups of similar clays. Variation in percentage of silt and very fine sand in these matrix groupings may be explained in terms of variability within the clay sources. Variation in fine through larger sand may be attributed to tempering practices or even to variation in
298
Figure 8. Ternary graph of compositional variation in sand constituents for gross textural categories (percentages of quartz, polycrystalline quartz, and other crystalline grains were calculated with respect to total sand plus micas. Other crystalline grains include feldspars, mafic minerals, other non-opaque minerals, and micas).
Figure 9. Ternary graph of compositional variation in sand constituents for functional categories (percentages of quartz, polycrystalline quartz, and other crystalline grains were calculated with respect to total sand plus micas. Other crystalline grains include feldspars, mafic minerals, other non-opaque minerals, and micas).
naturally occurring sand. Five sherds in the thin section sample are outliers (Table 9). The thin section sample is quite variable in terms of matrix categories (Figure 12). Matrix B, characterized by low mica, low iron oxides, and presence of siliceous microfossils, is the modal grouping but accounts for only 25 percent of the samples. Five of the eight main matrix groupings are more or less equally represented, each accounting for 9 to 15 percent of the cases. Matrix C and Matrix H each account for 5 percent of the sample. The eight matrix categories are extremely variable in terms of texture (Table 10). Fine sand and sand/grit textures occur in all or most of the matrix groupings. Very fine textures occur only in micaceous matrix categories. Grit paste is represented by only two cases, but both are outliers. Individual pottery types also show considerable variability in matrix categories, despite, or perhaps owing to, small sample size (see Table 10). There are no striking differences between prestige, sacred, and utilitarian categories in terms of matrix paste. In sum, the results of our analysis show that a variety of resources and perhaps tempering recipes were acceptable and used routinely in making pottery at Kolomoki. Although the differential presence of siliceous microfossils indicates clay resource differences, the four matrix categories with siliceous microfossils are still outwardly very similar to the four matrix categories without siliceous microfossils. Perhaps other analytical approaches, such as NAA, can be used to corroborate the differences between matrix categories. We turn our focus now to the analysis of the four clay samples to determine the range of variability in mica, sand, siliceous microfossils, and other naturally present aplastics, as well as relative iron oxide content, of clays
in the vicinity of Kolomoki. Comparison to the four local clays may provide substantiation of implications of local versus nonlocal manufacture for certain aplastics and textural categories. Sample Clay Analyses and Comparison to Pottery Matrix Categories Four clay samples were collected from the vicinity of Kolomoki for comparison to the pottery samples. Clay Sample 9ER1 was collected from the toe of a graded and eroded ridge slope about 1.5 km east-southeast of the Kolomoki site. Clay Samples 9ER2 and 9ER3 were essentially from the site itself; these clays were retrieved from separate strata exposed in the bank of Little Kolomoki Creek, which adjoins the site to the east. Finally, Clay Sample 9ER4 was collected from a stream bank in the nearby town of Blakely, about 9 km south of Kolomoki. The sample clays were processed and analyzed to determine plasticity, shrinkage, and firing behavior, particle size and proportion (grain size analysis), and composition. Grain size analyses were conducted and test bars were formed and fired for gross comparison of physical properties (data on file, FLMNH-CTL). Fired samples were thin-sectioned for petrographic analysis. The physical properties of the clay samples were compared to the excavated pottery samples. Comparisons were made in terms the same properties used to characterize the matrix paste categories, that is, composition and relative iron oxide content. Comparisons of constituent abundance are based on a point count data. The results are included in Tables 38 and summarized in Table 9.
299

Table 7. Percentage of clay categories by gross paste texture, mica content, and pottery type for sherd samples and Kolomoki clay samples.
Clay A (siliceous microfossils absent) By texture (thin-section sample) Very fine sand Fine sand Sand/grit Grit Temperless Clay B (siliceous microfossils present)
Total
7 12 7 2 1
(70) (34) (41) (100) (100)
3 (30) 23 (66) 10 (59) -
10 35 17 2 1
By mica grouping (thin-section sample) Low mica (n 5 35) 12 (34) Micaceous (n 5 30) 17 (57) By cultural historical type (thin-section sample) Weeden Island Incised 2 (22) Weeden Island Plain 1 (25) Weeden Island Red 6 (32) Weeden Island Zoned Red 1 (33) Mercier Red on Buff 1 (100) Carrabelle Punctated Plain 7 (70) Swift Creek Complicated 9 (69) Stamped Blakely Complicated Stamped 1 (100) Napier Complicated Stamped 1 (100) By functional category (thin-section sample) Prestige 9 (35) Sacred 3 (38) Utilitarian 17 (55) Total thin-section sample 29 (45) Kolomoki clay samples 9ER1 9ER2 9ER3 calcareous 9ER4 X X X
23 (66) 13 (43)
35 30
Figure 10. Relative iron content of pottery samples.
7 3 13 2
(78) (75) (68) (67) 4 (100) 2 (30) 4 (31) -
9 4 19 3 1 4 10 13 1 1 26 8 31 65
17 5 14 36
(65) (62) (45) (55)
Quartz sand was the predominant constituent in three of the four samples. Polycrystalline quartz or quartzite was also occasionally observed. Grit, or coarse and very coarse particle sizes, were quite common in the clays but composed predominantly of quartz, with occasional quartzite compositions. No granitic rock fragments were observed. Particle size variability is within the range of some sand/grit and fine sand pottery samples, as shown in Figure 3. Particle shape was predominantly subangular to angular and subrounded in three of the four samples, much like particle shape in the pottery samples. Subrounded grains predominated in one sample, 9ER1. In terms of bulk composition (Figure 4), excessive sand constituents make three of the four samples unlikely matches to pottery samples unless manipulated to remove some of the sand. The predominance of quartz in the clay samples (Table 6) is also reflected in Figure 8, showing relative proportions of different sand constituents. Mica appeared to be occasional to frequent in the sieved sediments (from grain size analysis) of three of the clay samples but was only rare to occasional in thin section. This may indicate variability within the clay deposits, but for these samples, mica occurrence
appears to be low. Ferric nodules, feldspars, mafic minerals such as amphibole and epidote are rare to occasional constituents, usually in very fine particles sizes, consistent with observations in the pottery samples. Siliceous microfossils, sponge spicules, and phytoliths were occasional constituents in one of the samples, also characterized by low mica and low iron oxides. Clay Sample 9ER3 has a calcareous matrix and contains decomposed shell fragments along with quartz sand and occasional mica. Its calcareous composition excludes it as a possible match to the pottery matrix categories. Fired colors indicate the clay samples include examples of low, moderate, and high iron oxide clays (Table 8). Most of the clay samples share some physical properties (color, constituents) with matrix categories designated for the pottery samples. Clay Sample 9ER1 is characterized by high iron oxides, low mica, and the absence of siliceous microfossils, traits corresponding to Matrix C. However, excessive abundance of subrounded coarse and very coarse (grit sizes) lessen the likelihood of the match. Clay Sample 9ER2 is characterized by moderate iron oxide content, low mica, and the absence of siliceous microfossils; except for excessive sand constituents, it shares traits with some members of pottery Matrix A. Clay sample 9ER4 is characterized by low iron oxides, low mica, and the presence of siliceous microfossils and sand is not excessive. It represents a feasible match to many of the Kolomoki thin sections, specifically to pottery with Matrix B paste. Thus one of the clay samples (9ER4) matches the most abundant matrix category (Matrix B) within the context of the present thin-sectioned Kolomoki pottery sample. The analyses confirm that constituents that are prominent in the pottery samples occur locally. Our suggestion that micaceous and non-micaceous clay sources are locally available is, therefore, at least partially correct. It is curious that none of the samples could be considered micaceous. This does not necessarily indicate the absence of local micaceous
300

Table 8. Count (and percentage) of samples categorized to relative iron oxide content by gross paste texture, clay category, pottery type, and functional category for sherd samples and Kolomoki clay samples.
Very low iron oxides By texture (sherd sample) Very fine sand Fine sand Sand/grit Grit Temperless By mica grouping (sherd sample) Low mica Micaceous Total (n 5 264/270) By clay category (thin-section sample) Clay A (siliceous microfossils absent) Clay B (siliceous microfossils present) Total (n 5 63)b By pottery type (sherd sample) Weeden Island Incised Weeden Island Plain Weeden Island Red Weeden Island Zoned Red Mercier Red on Buff Indian Pass Incised Carrabelle Incised Carrabelle Punctated Plain Swift Creek Complicated Stamped Blakely Complicated Stamped Napier Complicated Stamped Mound Field Net Marked Lamar Complicated Stamped By functional category (sherd sample) Prestige (n 5 46) Sacred (n 5 12) Utilitarian (n 5 202) Other (Lamar) (n 5 4) Total sherd sample Kolomoki clay samples 9ER1 9ER2 9ER3 calcareous 9ER4
a b
Low iron oxides
Moderate iron oxides
High iron oxides
Total refired/total samplea
8 7 3 4
(24) (5) (4) (27) -
15 55 31 7
(45) (42) (37) (47) -
4 32 21 2
(12) (24) (25) (13) -
6 37 29 2 1
(18) (28) (34) (13) (100)
33/35 131/134 84/85 15 1 157/160 107/110 264a /270 29 34/36 63/65 19 6 30/32 4 2 2 2 10/14 93 88 2 1 1 4 46/48 12 202/206 4 264a /270
8 (5) 14 (13) 22 (8) 4 (14) 4 (6) 2 (10) 1 (10) 6 (6) 8 (9) 1 (50) 4 (100) 2 (4) 16 (8) 4 (100) 22 (8)
61 (39) 47 (44) 108 (41) 9 (31) 18 (53) 27 (43) (21) (50) (47) (75) (100) (100) 4 (40) 40 (43) 36 (41) 19 (41) 4 (33) 85 (42) 108 (41) 4 3 14 3 2 2
39 (25) 20 (19) 59 (22) 7 (24) 7 (21) 14 (22) 3 1 9 1 1 3 23 18 (16) (17) (30) (25) (50) (30) (25) (20) -
49 (31) 26 (24) 75 (28) 9 (31) 9 (26) 18 (29) 10 (53) 2 (33) 7 (23) 1 (50) 2 (20) 24 (26) 26 (30) 1 (50) 1 (100) 1 (100)
11 (24) 4 (33) 44 (22) 59 (22)
14 (30) 4 (33) 57 (28) 75 (28) X
X X X
Six sherds too small to spare removal of pieces for refiring. Two cases in thin-section sample too small to spare removal of pieces for refiring.
clays in the vicinity of Kolomoki. Instead, the absence of micaceous clays is likely an artifact of the small number of samples collected. Variability along horizontal or vertical dimensions within the clay deposits might yield sources of more micaceous deposits. The differential presence/absence of siliceous microfossils in the clays samples supports our earlier suggestion that clays with and without these constituents would be locally available. The absence of granitic rock fragments and frequent amphibole corroborate our earlier suggestion that these are rare (to Kolomoki) temper choices, or perhaps that they represent tempers or clay sources that are nonlocal to the vicinity of Kolomoki (most likely from the Piedmont region). The grit-tempered sherds in the thin section sample, which are Swift Creek Complicated Stamped, may be similar in composition to some grit-tempered Swift Creek pottery from the Hartford site (Stoltman and Snow 1998) or other sites with
pottery manufacturing origins closer to the Piedmont. Further investigation of clay sources in the vicinity of Kolomoki may document the occurrence of other clays that are consistent with more of the pottery in terms of particle size and composition.
Weeden Island Manufacturing Origins and Exchange: Comparing Paste Groups from Kolomoki and Other Weeden Island Sites With our initial goal of characterizing the range of variability in paste/resource groupings present in the Kolomoki assemblage accomplished, we turn our attention to the question of patterns of exchange and specialization in production of Weeden Island pottery. This task requires comparing Kolomoki data to petrographic data for Weeden Island pottery from other sites in northern and northwestern Florida. The
301

Table 9. Description of matrix categories and clay samples.
n Relative iron oxides Mica Siliceous microfossils Texture Similar categories
Matrix category (thin-section sample) A 6 Low to moderate B 16 Low to moderate C 3 High D 7 High E 9 Very low to low F 10 Low G 6 High H 3 High I (outlier) 1 High J (outlier) 1 High K (outlier) 2 Low L (outlier) 1 Low Kolomoki clay samples 9ER1 9ER2 9ER3 9ER4 High Moderate Low Low
Low Low Low Low High High High High High Low Low High Low Low Low Low
Absent Present Absent Present Absent Present Absent Present Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Present
Fine sand, sand/grit Fine sand, sand/grit Fine sand, sand/grit Very fine sand, fine sand Very fine sand, fine sand Very fine sand, fine sand, sand/grit Very fine sand, fine sand, sand/grit Fine sand, sand/grit Sand/grit Temperless Grit Silty to very fine sand Grit Sand/grit Fsand to sand/grit Sand/grit
Otherwise like B Otherwise like A Otherwise like D Otherwise like C Otherwise like F Otherwise like E Otherwise like H Otherwise like G Otherwise like G Otherwise like C Otherwise like A More silt, vf sand E Similar to matrix C Similar to matrix A/C Calcareous paste precludes any matches Matches matrix B
data currently available for comparison are limited to 22 thin sections from the McKeithen site and 20 thin sections from several other sites in the Weeden Island region (Cordell 2006). The question of manufacturing origins of Weeden Island series pottery from McKeithen has been previously addressed through standard microscopic compositional analysis, coupled with refiring to assess relative iron oxide content (Cordell 1983, 1984; Milanich et al. 1997; Rice and Cordell 1986). These studies focused on a sample of 33 vessels (or partial vessels) from Mounds B and C and 212 sherds from the surrounding contemporaneous midden. The mound sample was made up of prestige types primarily, of which at least nine are sacred wares. The midden sample included 47 sherds representing prestige types and 165 representing utilitarian types (Cordell 1984: Tables 3-1, 3-2). Cluster analysis was used to sort the
samples into groupings on the basis of similarity in a number of paste attributes including type, frequency and size of temper or aplastic constituents, and relative iron oxide content (based on refired paste colors). Local and nonlocal paste categories were identified on the basis of direct comparison to several local clay samples and conventional wisdom regarding recognition of tradewares in peninsular Florida. Northwestern Florida, southwestern Georgia, and southeastern Alabama make up the presumed manufacturing source region for micaceous paste pottery (Cordell 1983:8687; 1984:64, 199; also see Bullen 1971:8; Mitchem 1986:6869; Sears 1973:33). Clusters 1 and 3, with frequent to abundant mica, were thus interpreted as nonlocal to McKeithen (Cordell 1984:156). Cluster 4, with occasional mica, was interpreted as having uncertain manufacturing origins (Cordell 1984:156). Manufacturing origins of Weeden Island pottery at the McKeithen site have also been investigated through trace element analysis (Rice 1980). Rice concluded that Weeden Island Incised and Weeden Island Zoned Red
Figure 11. Diagram illustrating constitution of matrix categories.
Figure 12. Relative frequencies of matrix categories.
302

Table 10. Count (and percentage) of matrix categories by gross paste texture, pottery type, and functional category for sherd samples and Kolomoki clay samples.
A By texture (thin-section sample) Very fine sand Fine sand Sand/grit Grit Temperless B C D E F G H Outliers Total
3 (9) 3 (18) -
11 (31) 5 (29) 2 1 5 2 (22) (25) (26) (67)
1 (3) 2 (12) 1 (25) 1 (5) 1 (10) 1 (100)
6 (17) 1 (6) 4 (44) 2 (10) 1 (25) -
4 (40) 5 (14) 1 (11) 3 (16) 1 (100) 1 (10) 2 (15) 1 (100) -
3 (30) 4 (11) 3 (18) 1 (11) 1 (25) 4 (21) 1 (25) 1 (10) 2 (15) -
2 (20) 3 (9) 1 (6) 1 (11) 1 (33) 4 (31) -
2 (6) 1 (6) 1 (25) 2 (10) -
1 (10) 1 (6) 2 (100) 1 (100) 3 (30) 2 (15) -
10 35 17 2 1 9 4 19 3 1 4 10 13 1 1
By cultural historical type (thin-section sample) Weeden Island Incised Weeden Island Plain Weeden Island Red 2 (10) Weeden Island Zoned Red Mercier Red on Buff Carrabelle Punctated Plain 3 (30) Swift Creek Complicated 1 (8) Stamped Blakely Complicated Stamped Napier Complicated Stamped By functional category (thin-section sample) Prestige 2 (8) Sacred 1 (12) Utilitarian 3 (10) Total (thin-section sample) 6 (9) Kolomoki clay samples 9ER1 9ER2 9ER3 calcareous 9ER4
2 (50) 2 (20) 2 (15) -
7 2 7 16
(27) (25) (23) (24)
1 1 1 3
(4) (12) (3) (5) X? X?
5 1 1 7
(19) (12) (3) (11)
4 1 4 9
(15) (12) (13) (14)
4 1 5 10
(15) (12) (16) (15)
2 (8) 4 (13) 6 (9)
1 1 1 3
(4) (12) (3) (5)
5 (16) 5 (8)
26 8 31 65
X? X
pottery types were traded into McKeithen (Rice 1980:33). At McKeithen, these types were most frequently made of nonlocal micaceous clays (Cordell 1984:162; Milanich et al. 1997:123). Rice proposed a multicenter model of manufacture for pottery typically found in ceremonial or sacred contexts. Cordells data, which incorporated many of the sherds and clays used in Rices study, supported Rices multicenter model of pottery production, but with the McKeithen site being one of the centers (Cordell 1984:162164). Until recently, neither Rices nor Cordells conclusions had been corroborated/tested petrographically. A limited sample of thin sections was obtained from McKeithen pottery and pottery from several sites in northwestern Florida (Cordell 2006). This comparative sample consisted of 42 thin sections (Table 11). Twentytwo are McKeithen samples, of which six represent nonlocal (Clusters 1 and 3) or potentially nonlocal (Cluster 4) pastes. Seventeen thin sections are from several northwestern Florida sites, including familiar Weeden Island period sites such as Tucker, Carrabelle, Mound Field, and Hall. Finally, three thin sections are from non-Florida sites: one sherd from Kolomoki (which was not a part of the present study) and two from the Mitchell site in southeastern Alabama. Mitchell was a Weeden Island complex similar in size and scale to McKeithen (Earnest 1995; Sears 1959). Prestige types such as Weeden Island series Incised,
Zoned Red, and Red are the principal decorated types in the thin section sample. The results of the petrographic analysis led to changes in McKeithen cluster composition and definitions. Clusters 1 and 3 proved to be very similar in terms of many criteria and siliceous microfossils were observed in some members of each. The two clusters were therefore combined and the whole subdivided into three groupings on the basis of presence/absence and type of siliceous microfossil (Table 12). Cluster 1a is characterized by the presence of sponge spicules and phytoliths, whereas Cluster 1b is characterized by the absence of siliceous microfossils. Cluster 1c has not only sponge spicules and phytoliths but also fragmentary diatoms, unicellular algae with ornate cell walls made of silica. Despite these important differences, which indicate that Clusters 1a1c each represent a separate resource grouping, the three groupings are otherwise relatively homogeneous in mica frequency, sand particle size and frequency, and relative iron oxide content. Several thin sections from northwestern Florida sites were assigned to McKeithen Clusters 1a or 1b. In addition, one thin section from the Mitchell site in Alabama was assigned to Cluster 1b. Cluster 1c was not observed in the McKeithen sample. It is instead represented by a northwestern Florida site. Petrographic analysis revealed that McKeithen Cluster 4 may be a less micaceous version of Cluster 1a,
303

Table 11. Counts of pottery types represented in comparative thin-section sample from McKeithen and other sites in the Weeden Island region.
8CO17 Weeden Island Incised Weeden Island Zoned Red Weeden Island Red Weeden Island Plain Papys Bayou Punctated Indian Pass Incised Carrabelle Incised Carrabelle Punctated Keith Incised Tucker Ridge Pinched Unidentified incised Plain Total 2 5 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 7 22 1 1 3 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 8FR1 1 8FR2 8FR4 2 8LI1 1 1 8OK6 8OK239 8SA1 1 8WA4 1 1 1 1 1 1 8WA8 8WA34 8WA35 1CV32 9ER1 Total 8 8 6 4 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 7 42
with siliceous microfossils. Three thin sections from an equal number of sites in northwestern Florida were assigned to this McKeithen cluster. Two new micaceous groupings, reassigned Cluster 3 and newly assigned Cluster 6, were also defined from the inclusion of thin sections from other sites. New Cluster 3 paste is characterized by common mica, low iron oxides, and paucity of siliceous microfossils. New Cluster 6 paste is characterized by common minute mica and frequent ferric nodules. For clusters with four or more examples (Clusters 1a, 1b and 4), the groupings include samples from several different sites across the Weeden Island region. In addition to McKeithen, Cluster 1a includes samples from four sites in northwestern Florida. Cluster 1b includes samples from McKeithen and two sites from northwestern Florida, plus the Mitchell site. Cluster 4 has examples from McKeithen and three sites in northwestern Florida. Although sample sizes are very small, the pastes exhibit widespread geographic distribution. One possible interpretation of widespread geographic distribution is that it indicates widespread manufacture of pottery with these micaceous pastes across the Weeden Island region. This would presuppose similarity in micaceous clays across the region. Another explanation is that pottery with these pastes were widely distributed or exchanged across the region from one Weeden Island center, or at least a very limited number of Weeden Island centers. The latter explanation seems feasible when the present Kolomoki data are considered. The petrographic descriptions for most of these clusters are strikingly similar to some Kolomoki matrix data (see Table 12). Clusters 1a and 1b correspond to
Kolomoki Matrix categories H and F, respectively, characterized by relatively high iron oxides and the presence (Cluster 1a, Matrix H) or absence (Cluster 1B, Matrix F) of siliceous microfossils. The two members of new Cluster 3 grouping, one of which is actually from Kolomoki, are remarkably similar to Kolomoki Matrix E. Finally, Cluster 4 has counterparts in Kolomoki Matrix groupings D or H or both (mica frequency is somewhat intermediate between low mica Matrix D and micaceous Matrix H). This would seem to be strong evidence for Kolomoki manufacturing origins for pottery with these pastes. Cluster 1c, with fragmentary diatoms, is absent in the Kolomoki sample but is similar to two clays that were collected along the Altamaha River, Georgia, as part of another separate study (Wallis 2011; Wallis and Cordell 2011). One sample is from Telfair County, bordering the eastern edge of the Weeden Island region, and the other is from Wayne County, well east of the region. These clays are not necessarily matches to the pottery sample with this paste, but they certainly do show that comparable clay sources exist. New Cluster 6, characterized by common minute mica and ferric nodules also does not have any counterpart in the Kolomoki thin section sample. It may have western panhandle or southeastern Alabama manufacturing origins on the basis of its presence in sites from these areas.
Summary and Interpretation We can say with confidence that for McKeithen and other Weeden Island sites across the Gulf Coast, a relatively high proportion of the pottery previously
304
Table 12. Revised McKeithen paste clusters and presumed manufacturing origins (based on this analysis and Cordell 2009).
Summary of petrographic data Relative iron content Sites represented Otherwise similar to micaceous clusters 1b and 1c Otherwise similar to micaceous clusters 1a and 1c NW Florida/SE Alabama NW Florida Moderate to high Weeden Island Incised (n 5 5) Weeden Island Plain (n 5 2) 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Pottery types represented (thin-section sample) Relationship to other clusters
Revised McKeithen Cluster
Mica, other
Siliceous microfossils
Previously assumed manufacturing origin
Matching matrix paste at Kolomoki Matrix H
Updated manufacturing origin Kolomoki +
1a (n 5 7)
Frequent to common mica (35%) Moderate to high
Rare to occasional sponge spicules and phytoliths
1b (n 5 4)
None to rare phytoliths
8CO17 8FR1 8FR2 8FR4 8LI1 8CO17 8FR4 8WA8 1CV32
(n (n (n (n (n (n (n (n (n
2) 1) 1) 2) 1) 1) 1) 1) 1)
Matrix G
Kolomoki +
1c (n 5 1) 8WA34 (n 5 1)
Moderate to high Occasional sponge spicules, phytoliths and diatoms Very low to low 8OK6 (n 5 1) 9ER1 (n 5 1) 8CO17 8SA1 8WA8 8WA35 (n (n (n (n 5 5 5 5 3) 1) 1) 1) 8OK239 (n 5 1) 1CV32 (n 5 1)
Weeden Island Incised (n 5 1) Weeden Island Zoned Red (n 5 1) Weeden Island Red (n 5 1) Carrabelle Incised (n 5 1) Weeden Island Zoned Red (n 5 1) Otherwise similar to micaceous clusters 1a and 1b
NW Florida?
Not observed
305
Moderate to high Low to moderate Weeden Island Zoned Red (n 5 1) Weeden Island Red (n 5 1) Weeden Island Zoned Red Weeden Island Incised Weeden Island Red Keith Incised plain body sherd Carrabelle Punctate (n 5 1) Weeden Island Plain (n 5 1)
3 (n 5 2)
Common (35%) mica
Rare phytoliths
W Florida/SW Georgia NW Florida?
Matrix E
Not Kolomoki; similar to clays from Telfair and Wayne counties, GA Kolomoki +
4 (n 5 6)
13% mica
Rare to occasional sponge spicules and phytoliths
Much lower iron content than micaceous clusters 1a1c Possibly related to some sherds of sand/grit 1,3
Matrix D or D/H
Kolomoki and/or multiple
6 (n 5 2)
5% very fine mica; 3% ferric nodules
Rare sponge spicules, phytoliths in 1CV32; rare phytoliths in 8OK239
Unrelated to any other paste cluster
W Florida/SE Alabama
Not observed
Not Kolomoki; western panhandle/SE Alabama
SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 30(2) WINTER 2011 identified as sacred or prestige based largely on their nonlocal pastes (Cordell 1984; Milanich et al. 1997) were produced on pastes that appear to be local to Kolomoki. In our sample alone, 82 percent (n 5 18) of the 22 sherds belonging to these functional categories from sites other than Kolomoki exhibit pastes consistent with those local to Kolomoki. As compelling as the evidence is, however, until other studies are undertaken our conclusions regarding Kolomoki manufacturing origins of some Weeden Island pottery must be considered provisional. Comparative pottery and clay samples from the Weeden Island region are few in number. Ideally, the range of paste variability in pottery at least a few other Weeden Island sites, as well as variability in clay sources across the Weeden Island culture area, should be documented. Bearing in mind these caveats, the petrographic data support the notion that some prestige and sacred Weeden Island pottery was produced and widely distributed or exchanged across the region from a single Weeden Island center, namely Kolomoki. We do not argueas Sears (1973) seemed to suggestthat all of the Weeden Island sacred pottery was produced at Kolomoki; in fact, the analysis of paste groups at McKeithen clearly argues that a portion of such vessels found there were produced locally. Nevertheless, because the production of these types seems to have been somewhat spatially restricted, and because these types were widely used in communal mortuary ceremonies, we believe that the evidence rises to the level of specialization as defined by Costin (2001:276); that is, fewer people were producing sacred and prestige Weeden Island vessels than were using them. Specifically, we suggest that potters at Kolomoki, or perhaps a subset of the local pottery-making community, produced vessels that were used in relatively distant communities elsewhere in the Weeden Island region (in some cases, such as McKeithen, more than 200 km straight-line distance). Spielmann (2002:198) cites ethnographic and archaeological evidence for specialization at the level of the community among some small-scale societies. In the case of Motu potters of the south coast of Papua New Guinea, for example, some villages made all of the pottery for a distance of 400 km. Such a high degree and intensity of specialization clearly does not seem to be the case for Kolomoki and the Weeden Island societies of the Gulf Coast. Instead, we believe future analyses should look for specialization among a subset of the community at Kolomoki and other centers. Given that the prestige and sacred Weeden Island types are associated largely or exclusively (respectively) with ceremonial contexts, it would seem plausible that they were produced by a segment of the community that had privileged access to rituals and the esoteric knowledge associated with them, or perhaps with artisans who were attached to such ritual specialists or other leaders. Spielmann (1998:158), based on a review of the ethnographic literature on ritually related production in the native Southwest and Northwest Coast, has posited the existence of three kinds of craft specialists in middle-range societies. First, where ritual performance is relatively open, she predicts the presence of skilled, independent craft specialists. Where ritual knowledge and performance are important to achieving and maintaining status, Spielmann suggests that craft specialists are likely to be the ritual leaders themselves, thus greatly limiting the ability of any uninitiated to perform ceremonies. Finally, Spielmann argues that where ritual knowledge and performance were only one of several means for achieving status, skilled artisans may be embedded in contexts controlled by ritual specialists (such as households or ritual societies), thus allowing for control by the ritual practitioner over access to goods necessary for ritual performance and building prestige. A case could be made for each of these three possibilities at Kolomoki. Elsewhere, Pluckhahn (2003, 2010a, 2010b) has made the case that the ceremonies at Kolomoki appear to have been relatively open, given that they took place in full view of a plaza that was both unrestricted by other architectural features and large enough to easily accommodate the sites population (potentially hundreds of visitors in addition). Likewise, the ceramic caches on the eastern sides of the mounds appear to have been placed for the dead in common (Moore 1902:161; see also Willey 1949:405) rather than with specific individuals. Finally, the themes that were represented on sacred vessels appear to have followed general cosmological principles that are widespread on more utilitarian Swift Creek pottery. Following this logic, and applying it to the first scenario within Spielmanns tripartite model, especially gifted, independent potters at Kolomoki may have produced sacred vessels as ritual paraphernalia or grave offeringsjust as other artisans produced ornaments of stone, shell, and mica for the same purposesin addition to producing more quotidian pots used for everyday purposes. In this case, part-time specialists may have produced sacred and elite pottery as part of a seasonal cycle of domestic activities, as Cobb (2003:70) suggests for the manufacture of chert hoes during the Mississippian period. The relative homogeneity of pastes across functional categories of pottery at Kolomoki would be consistent with this model of specialization; so too is the fact that Swift Creek vessels of presumed Kolomoki origin have been found at sites some distance away (Stoltman and Snow 1998:152), suggesting the export of ceramic vessels was not limited to sacred and prestige wares. On the other hand, as Sears (1973:39) noted, it is reasonable to suggest that there were artisans as well
306
PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF KOLOMOKI POTTERY as priests, or priests who were artisans, whose ceramic efforts were primarily devoted to service of the supernatural, consistent with Spielmanns second mode of specialization in middle-range societies. Specifically, Pluckhahn (2010a) has pointed to elements of Mounds D and E at Kolomokirepeated at other mounds throughout the Weeden Island regionthat are suggestive of a liturgical order (Rappaport 1999:3536), or a formal sequence of ritual acts of the sort typically directed by a religious specialist. For example, Moore (1902:334) noted that the pots in eastside caches often seemed to be deliberately placed such that the finest effigies were positioned to the exterior and would have been the most conspicuous. In a number of cases, some of the pots appear to have been deliberately broken and the fragments scattered in different areas of the cache (Lazarus 1979:1718; Moore 1902:130; Sears 1953:26). Extending this line of thinking to Spielmanns second mode of specialization, religious specialists at Kolomoki and other Weeden Island ceremonial centers may have produced sacred vessels for use in the rituals they directed. In possible support of this interpretation, it is worth noting the existence of a subclass of Weeden Island effigy vessels that depict human figures. These human figures, all of whom appear to have been male, are portrayed in relatively consistent dress and pose, the latter often resembling the stances adopted by shaman (Pluckhahn 2010a). Connections with avian imagery reinforce the shamanistic theme: one of the human effigy vessels from Kolomoki has a hairlock in the form of a roseate spoonbill, while the other has a wood ibis on each shoulder. If this was the case, however, the individuals at Kolomoki who manufactured such sacred vessels appear to have obtained their clay from the same sources as those making utilitarian vessels. Moreover, as we argued above, there is a relative paucity of individual markers of status in the burial mounds at Kolomoki and other Weeden Island sites, as well as in the remains of ordinary domestic activities in the village middens, that would seem to argue against the suggestion that leadership was vested in individuals. This suggests that ritual authority was shared among members of a more collective social formation, such as a moiety or sodality. Consistent with Spielmanns third mode of specialization, skilled artisans may have been embedded within these more collective social contexts. A general analogy might be provided by the religious sodalities of western Puebloan groups such as the Hopi and Zuni. Many of these societies cross-cut kin groups, thus integrating and reinforcing communal relations within villages (Kantner 2004:252). Puebloan sodalities also integrated communities across larger regions (Adams and Lamotta 2006; Schaafsma et al. 2002; Walker and Skibo 2002; Ware and Blinman 2000). Prospective members of borrowed sodalities were traditionally trained and initiated in the communities where those sodalities originated (Ware and Blinman 2000:393). Such a scenario could account for the movement of pots from Kolomoki to other Weeden Island ceremonial centers, such as McKeithen. Identifying the production system behind elite Weeden Island vesselsthe artisans, means of production, social relations of production, and relationships of distribution (Costin 2001: 277)will require considerably more effort. The three possibilities considered above offer hypotheses for additional research. Whether or not any of these possibilities ultimately proves valid, they offer more interesting opportunities for research than sterile debates regarding the association of specialization with particular forms or types of social complexity.
Notes
Acknowledgments. Thin sections from Kolomoki were paid for by a Faculty Research and Development Grant, College of Arts and Sciences, University of South Florida. The collections from Kolomoki are curated at the Laboratory of Archaeology at the University of Georgia; samples from other sites mentioned in the paper are curated at the Florida Museum of Natural History. Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology and the Southeastern Archaeological Conference in 2010. We thank Editor Charlie Cobb, as well as Keith Stephenson, Jim Stoltman, and one anonymous reviewer, for thoughtful comments that significantly improved the quality of our paper.
1 The relative abundance scale is as follows: abundant, common, frequent, occasional, rare, and none. 2 The kiln temperature was initially set at 275uC and held for 10 minutes (with kiln door slightly open to allow for escape of water vapor). Then the kiln door was shut completely and the temperature was raised to 800uC. After 20 minutes, the 800uC temperature was achieved and was maintained for 30 minutes. The total firing time was approximately 77 minutes. 3 Very low iron oxide content is represented by white to very pale brown refired colors. Low iron oxide content is represented by light yellowish brown refired colors. Reddish yellow to light reddish brown refired colors represent moderate iron oxide content and yellowish red to red refired colors represent high relative iron oxide content. 4 The counting interval was 1 mm by 0.5 mm. Each point or stop of the stage was assigned to one of the following categories: clay matrix, void (including channel voids, closed pores, and micropores [Rice 1987:350]), silt particles, and very fine through very coarse quartz and other aplastics of varying compositions. Most of the counts were made using the 103 objective, but the 253 objective (with plane-polarized light) was used to confirm the occurrence of siliceous microfossils. Size of aplastics was estimated with reference to the Wentworth Scale (Rice 1987:38). A comparison chart of estimated percent particle abundance (Rice 1987:Figure 12.2) was also used for estimating relative abundance of silt, sponge spicules, and other constituents occurring in low frequency.
307

For cases in which fewer than 200 points were counted (n 5 10 of 65), the thin sections were rotated 180 degrees on the mechanical stage and counted a second time (after Stoltman 2000:306). 5 Sand counts include quartz, polycrystalline quartz, feldspars, and other non-opaque minerals (excluding micas). Counts of silt, ferric concretions, clay lumps, and other matrix constituents were excluded from this calculation. The sandsize index listed takes into account the size difference between very fine and fine sand inclusions. In this index, very fine grains are given a value of 0.5, whereas fine grains have a value of 1. 6 The two grit-tempered thin sections in the sample may not be representative of grit tempering in the larger Kolomoki sample, at least in terms of the Lamar cases, which seem to contain predominantly of monocrystalline quartz. Site, St. Augustine, Florida. Paper presented at Life Among the Tides: Recent Archaeology on the Georgia Bight, the Sixth Caldwell Conference, organized by Victor D. Thompson and David Hurst Thomas, May 20 22. St. Catherines Island, GA. Costin, Cathy Lynne 1991 Craft Specialization: Issues in Defining, Documenting, and Explaining the Organization of Production. In Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 3, edited by Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 156. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. 2001 Craft Production Systems. In Archaeology at the Millennium: A Sourcebook, edited by Gary M. Feinman and T. Douglas Price, pp. 273314. Kluwer Academic/ Plenum, New York. Earnest, Tray G. 1995 The History and Results of Archaeological Investigations at 1CV32, the Mitchell Site, in Covington County, Alabama. Unpublished masters thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa. Goggin, John M. 1952 Space and Time Perspective in Northern St. Johns Archaeology. Publications in Anthropology No. 40. Yale University Press, New Haven. Graham, David J., and Nicholas G. Midgley 2000 Graphical Representation of Particle Shape using Triangular Diagrams: An Excel Spreadsheet Method. Technical Communication in Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 25:4731477. Kantner, John 2004 Ancient Puebloan Southwest. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Kohler, Timothy A. 1978 The Social and Chronological Dimensions of Village Occupation at a North Florida Weeden Island Period Site. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville. Lazarus, Yulee W. 1979 The Buck Burial Mound: A Mound of the Weeden Island Culture. Temple Mound Museum, Fort Walton Beach, FL. Milanich, Jerald T. 2002 Weeden Island Cultures. In The Woodland Southeast, edited by D. G. Anderson and R. C. Mainfort, Jr., pp. 352372. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa. Milanich, Jerald T., Ann S. Cordell, Vernon J. Knight, Jr., Timothy A. Kohler, and Brenda J. Sigler-Lavelle 1997 Archaeology of Northern Florida A.D. 200900: The McKeithen Weeden Island Culture. University of Florida Press, Gainesville. Milner, George R. 1990 The Late Prehistoric Cahokia Cultural System of the Mississippi River Valley: Foundations, Florescence, and Fragmentation. Journal of World Prehistory 4:143. Mitchem, Jeffrey M. 1986 Comments on Some Ceramic Pastes of Central Peninsular Gulf Coast. Florida Anthropologist 39(12): 6874. Moore, Clarence Bloomfield 1900 Certain Antiquities of the Florida West-Coast. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Second Series 11(3):35094.
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PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF WEEDEN ISLAND POTTERY FROM KOLOMOKI AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR SPECIALIZED PRODUCTION

Thomas J. Pluckhahn and Ann S. Cordell

PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF KOLOMOKI POTTERY

Figure 1. Location of Kolomoki and other sites mentioned in the text.

SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 30(2) WINTER 2011

PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF KOLOMOKI POTTERY

SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 30(2) WINTER 2011

SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 30(2) WINTER 2011

SSI Range 0.720.96 1.031.37 1.401.66 1.982.03

PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF KOLOMOKI POTTERY

SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 30(2) WINTER 2011

(26) (33) (3) (25) (50) (7) (14) (11) (50) -

7 (8) 4 (5) 4 (100) 11 (5) 4 (100) 15 (6) X

1 (1) 1 (,1) 1 (,1)

7 (15) 1 (8) 27 (13) 35 (13)

28 (58) 5 (42) 101 (49) 134 (50)

PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF KOLOMOKI POTTERY

Figure 7. Relationship between mica frequency and gross texture.

SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 30(2) WINTER 2011

Estimatedb % total feldspars

Estimatedb % mafic & heavy minerals

Heavy mineral species (n)

Presence (P) of granitic rock

P in 1/10 P in 10/35 P in 6/17 34% P in 2/9 P in 7/19 P in 1/3

P in 2/4 P in 2/11 P to 4% in 5/13 P

P in 6/26 P in 4/8 P to 4% in 10/31

PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF KOLOMOKI POTTERY

SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 30(2) WINTER 2011

(70) (34) (41) (100) (100)

3 (30) 23 (66) 10 (59) -

Figure 10. Relative iron content of pottery samples.

(78) (75) (68) (67) 4 (100) 2 (30) 4 (31) -

(65) (62) (45) (55)

PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF KOLOMOKI POTTERY

Low iron oxides

Moderate iron oxides

High iron oxides

Total refired/total samplea

(24) (5) (4) (27) -

(45) (42) (37) (47) -

(12) (24) (25) (13) -

(18) (28) (34) (13) (100)

11 (24) 4 (33) 44 (22) 59 (22)

14 (30) 4 (33) 57 (28) 75 (28) X

SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 30(2) WINTER 2011

Figure 11. Diagram illustrating constitution of matrix categories.

Figure 12. Relative frequencies of matrix categories.

PASTE CHARACTERIZATION OF KOLOMOKI POTTERY

11 (31) 5 (29) 2 1 5 2 (22) (25) (26) (67)

1 (3) 2 (12) 1 (25) 1 (5) 1 (10) 1 (100)

6 (17) 1 (6) 4 (44) 2 (10) 1 (25) -

4 (40) 5 (14) 1 (11) 3 (16) 1 (100) 1 (10) 2 (15) 1 (100) -

3 (30) 4 (11) 3 (18) 1 (11) 1 (25) 4 (21) 1 (25) 1 (10) 2 (15) -

2 (20) 3 (9) 1 (6) 1 (11) 1 (33) 4 (31) -

2 (6) 1 (6) 1 (25) 2 (10) -

1 (10) 1 (6) 2 (100) 1 (100) 3 (30) 2 (15) -

2 (50) 2 (20) 2 (15) -

(27) (25) (23) (24)

(4) (12) (3) (5) X? X?

(19) (12) (3) (11)

(15) (12) (13) (14)

(15) (12) (16) (15)

2 (8) 4 (13) 6 (9)