GSM SYSTEM TUTERIAL GSM GSM basics tutorial and overview [1]

- a tutorial, description, overview about the basics of GSM - Global System for Mobile communications with details of its radio interface, infrastructure technology, network and operation.

GSM tutorial includes: GSM basics tutorial and overview GSM history GSM network architecture GSM interfaces GSM radio access network GSM frames GSM frequency bands and allocations GSM power class, control & amplifiers GSM physical & logical channels GSM codecs / vocoders GSM handover or handoff

The GSM system is the most widely used cellular technology in use in the world today. It has been a particularly successful cellular phone technology for a variety of reasons including the

ability to roam worldwide with the certainty of being able to be able to operate on GSM networks in exactly the same way - provided billing agreements are in place. The letters GSM originally stood for the words Groupe Speciale Mobile, but as it became clear this cellular technology was being used world wide the meaning of GSM was changed to Global System for Mobile Communications. Since this cellular technology was first deployed in 1991, the use of GSM has grown steadily, and it is now the most widely cell phone system in the world. GSM reached the 1 billion subscriber point in February 2004, and is now well over the 3 billion subscriber mark and still steadily increasing.

GSM system overview

The GSM system was designed as a second generation (2G) cellular phone technology. One of the basic aims was to provide a system that would enable greater capacity to be achieved than the previous first generation analogue systems. GSM achieved this by using a digital TDMA (time division multiple access approach). By adopting this technique more users could be accommodated within the available bandwidth. In addition to this, ciphering of the digitally encoded speech was adopted to retain privacy. Using the earlier analogue cellular technologies it was possible for anyone with a scanner receiver to listen to calls and a number of famous personalities had been "eavesdropped" with embarrassing consequences.

GSM services
Speech or voice calls are obviously the primary function for the GSM cellular system. To achieve this the speech is digitally encoded and later decoded using a vocoder. A variety of vocoders are available for use, being aimed at different scenarios. In addition to the voice services, GSM cellular technology supports a variety of other data services. Although their performance is nowhere near the level of those provided by 3G, they are nevertheless still important and useful. A variety of data services are supported with user data rates up to 9.6 kbps. Services including Group 3 facsimile, videotext and teletex can be supported. One service that has grown enormously is the short message service. Developed as part of the GSM specification, it has also been incorporated into other cellular technologies. It can be thought of as being similar to the paging service but is far more comprehensive allowing bidirectional messaging, store and forward delivery, and it also allows alphanumeric messages of a reasonable length. This service has become particularly popular, initially with the young as it provided a simple, low fixed cost.

GSM basics
The GSM cellular technology had a number of design aims when the development started:

It should offer good subjective speech quality It should have a low phone or terminal cost Terminals should be able to be handheld The system should support international roaming It should offer good spectral efficiency The system should offer ISDN compatibility

The resulting GSM cellular technology that was developed provided for all of these. The overall system definition for GSM describes not only the air interface but also the network or infrastructure technology. By adopting this approach it is possible to define the operation of the whole network to enable international roaming as well as enabling network elements from different manufacturers to operate alongside each other, although this last feature is not completely true, especially with older items. GSM cellular technology uses 200 kHz RF channels. These are time division multiplexed to enable up to eight users to access each carrier. In this way it is a TDMA / FDMA system. The base transceiver stations (BTS) are organised into small groups, controlled by a base station controller (BSC) which is typically co-located with one of the BTSs. The BSC with its associated BTSs is termed the base station subsystem (BSS). Further into the core network is the main switching area. This is known as the mobile switching centre (MSC). Associated with it is the location registers, namely the home location register (HLR) and the visitor location register (VLR) which track the location of mobiles and enable calls to be routed to them. Additionally there is the Authentication Centre (AuC), and the Equipment Identify Register (EIR) that are used in authenticating the mobile before it is allowed onto the network and for billing. The operation of these are explained in the following pages. Last but not least is the mobile itself. Often termed the ME or mobile equipment, this is the item that the end user sees. One important feature that was first implemented on GSM was the use of a Subscriber Identity Module. This card carried with it the users identity and other information to allow the user to upgrade a phone very easily, while retaining the same identity on the network. It was also used to store other information such as "phone book" and other items. This item alone has allowed people to change phones very easily, and this has fuelled the phone manufacturing industry and enabled new phones with additional features to be launched. This has allowed mobile operators to increase their average revenue per user (ARPU) by ensuring that users are able to access any new features that may be launched on the network requiring more sophisticated phones.

GSM system overview

The table below summarises the main points of the GSM system specification, showing some of the highlight features of technical interest. Specification Summary for GSM Cellular System Multiple access technology FDMA / TDMA Duplex technique FDD 890 - 915 MHz Uplink frequency band (basic 900 MHz band only) 933 -960 MHz Downlink frequency band (basic 900 MHz band only) Channel spacing 200 kHz Modulation GMSK Various - original was RPESpeech coding LTP/13 Speech channels per RF 8 channel Channel data rate 270.833 kbps Frame duration 4.615 ms

GSM History [2]

- a description of the development or history of GSM, Global System for Mobile communications developed out of the original Groupe Special Mobile pan_european system.

Today the GSM cell or mobile phone system is the most popular in the world. GSM handsets are widely available at good prices and the networks are robust and reliable. The GSM system is also feature-rich with applications such as SMS text messaging, international roaming, SIM cards and the like. It is also being enhanced with technologies including GPRS and EDGE. To achieve this level of success has taken many years and is the result of both technical development and international cooperation. The GSM history can be seen to be a story of cooperation across Europe, and one that nobody thought would lead to the success that GSM is today. The first cell phone systems that were developed were analogue systems. Typically they used frequency-modulated carriers for the voice channels and data was carried on a separate shared

control channel. When compared to the systems employed today these systems were comparatively straightforward and as a result a vast number of systems appeared. Two of the major systems that were in existence were the AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) that was used in the USA and many other countries and TACS (Total Access Communications System) that was used in the UK as well as many other countries around the world. Another system that was employed, and was in fact the first system to be commercially deployed was the Nordic Mobile Telephone system (NMT). This was developed by a consortium of companies in Scandinavia and proved that international cooperation was possible. The success of these systems proved to be their downfall. The use of all the systems installed around the globe increased dramatically and the effects of the limited frequency allocations were soon noticed. To overcome these a number of actions were taken. A system known as E-TACS or Extended-TACS was introduced giving the TACS system further channels. In the USA another system known as Narrowband AMPS (NAMPS) was developed.

New approaches
Neither of these approaches proved to be the long-term solution as cellular technology needed to be more efficient. With the experience gained from the NMT system, showing that it was possible to develop a system across national boundaries, and with the political situation in Europe lending itself to international cooperation it was decided to develop a new Pan-European System. Furthermore it was realized that economies of scale would bring significant benefits. This was the beginnings of the GSM system. To achieve the basic definition of a new system a meeting was held in 1982 under the auspices of the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT). They formed a study group called the Groupe Special Mobile ( GSM ) to study and develop a pan-European public land mobile system. Several basic criteria that the new cellular technology would have to meet were set down for the new GSM system to meet. These included: good subjective speech quality, low terminal and service cost, support for international roaming, ability to support handheld terminals, support for range of new services and facilities, spectral efficiency, and finally ISDN compatibility. With the levels of under-capacity being projected for the analogue systems, this gave a real sense of urgency to the GSM development. Although decisions about the exact nature of the cellular technology were not taken at an early stage, all parties involved had been working toward a digital system. This decision was finally made in February 1987. This gave a variety of advantages. Greater levels of spectral efficiency could be gained, and in addition to this the use of digital circuitry would allow for higher levels of integration in the circuitry. This in turn would result in cheaper handsets with more features. Nevertheless significant hurdles still needed to be overcome. For example, many of the methods for encoding the speech within a sufficiently narrow bandwidth needed to be developed, and this posed a significant risk to the project. Nevertheless the GSM system had been started.

GSM launch dates

Work continued and a launch date for the new GSM system of 1991 was set for an initial launch of a service using the new cellular technology with limited coverage and capability to be followed by a complete roll out of the service in major European cities by 1993 and linking of the areas by 1995. Meanwhile technical development was taking place. Initial trials had shown that time division multiple access techniques offered the best performance with the technology that would be available. This approach had the support of the major manufacturing companies which would ensure that with them on board sufficient equipment both in terms of handsets, base stations and the network infrastructure for GSM would be available. Further impetus was given to the GSM project when in 1989 the responsibility was passed to the newly formed European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Under the auspices of ETSI the specification took place. It provided functional and interface descriptions for each of the functional entities defined in the system. The aim was to provide sufficient guidance for manufacturers that equipment from different manufacturers would be interoperable, while not stopping innovation. The result of the specification work was a set of documents extending to more than 6000 pages. Nevertheless the resultant phone system provided a robust, feature-rich system. The first roaming agreement was signed between Telecom Finland and Vodafone in the UK. Thus the vision of a pan-European network was fast becoming a reality. However this took place before any networks went live. The aim to launch GSM by 1991 proved to be a target that was too tough to meet. Terminals started to become available in mid 1992 and the real launch took place in the latter part of that year. With such a new service many were sceptical as the analogue systems were still in widespread use. Nevertheless by the end of 1993 GSM had attracted over a million subscribers and there were 25 roaming agreements in place. The growth continued and the next million subscribers were soon attracted.

Global GSM usage

Originally GSM had been planned as a European system. However the first indication that the success of GSM was spreading further a field occurred when the Australian network provider, Telstra signed the GSM Memorandum of Understanding.

Frequencies

Originally it had been intended that GSM would operate on frequencies in the 900 MHz cellular band. In September 1993, the British operator Mercury One-to-One launched a network. Termed DCS 1800 it operated at frequencies in a new 1800 MHz band. By adopting new frequencies new operators and further competition was introduced into the market apart from allowing additional spectrum to be used and further increasing the overall capacity. This trend was followed in many countries, and soon the term DCS 1800 was dropped in favour of calling it GSM as it was purely the same cellular technology but operating on a different frequency band. In view of the higher frequency used the distances the signals travelled was slightly shorter but this was compensated for by additional base stations. In the USA as well a portion of spectrum at 1900 MHz was allocated for cellular usage in 1994. The licensing body, the FCC, did not legislate which technology should be used, and accordingly this enabled GSM to gain a foothold in the US market. This system was known as PCS 1900 (Personal Communication System).

GSM success
With GSM being used in many countries outside Europe this reflected the true nature of the name which had been changed from Groupe Special Mobile to Global System for Mobile communications. The number of subscribers grew rapidly and by the beginning of 2004 the total number of GSM subscribers reached 1 billion. Attaining this figure was celebrated at the Cannes 3GSM conference held that year. Figures continued to rise, reaching and then well exceeding the 3 billion mark. In this way the history of GSM has shown it to be a great success.

GSM Network Architecture

- a tutorial or overview of the basics of the GSM network architecture design and technology with details of the base-stations, controllers, MSC, AuC, HLR and VLR.

The GSM technical specifications define the different elements within the GSM network architecture. It defines the different elements and the ways in which they interact to enable the overall network operation to be maintained. The GSM network architecture is now well established and with the other later cellular systems now established and other new ones being deployed, the basic GSM network architecture has been updated to interface to the network elements required by these systems. Despite the developments of the newer systems, the basic GSM network architecture has been maintained,

and the elements described below perform the same functions as they did when the original GSM system was launched in the early 1990s.

GSM network architecture elements

The GSM network architecture as defined in the GSM specifications can be grouped into four main areas:

Mobile station (MS) Base-station subsystem (BSS) Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

Simplified GSM Network Architecture

Mobile station
Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely known, cell or mobile phones are the section of a GSM cellular network that the user sees and operates. In recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the level of functionality has greatly increased. A further advantage is that the time between charges has significantly increased.

There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements are the main hardware and the SIM. The hardware itself contains the main elements of the mobile phone including the display, case, battery, and the electronics used to generate the signal, and process the data receiver and to be transmitted. It also contains a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is installed in the phone at manufacture and "cannot" be changed. It is accessed by the network during registration to check whether the equipment has been reported as stolen. The SIM or Subscriber Identity Module contains the information that provides the identity of the user to the network. It contains are variety of information including a number known as the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the GSM network architecture that is fundamentally associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network. It consists of two elements:

Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the radio transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas that transmit and receive to directly communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the defining element for each cell. The BTS communicates with the mobiles and the interface between the two is known as the Um interface with its associated protocols. Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources and controls items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates channels and the like. It communicates with the BTSs over what is termed the Abis interface.

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The GSM network subsystem contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed the core network. It provides the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The major elements within the core network include:

Mobile Switching services Centre (MSC): The main element within the core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is the Mobile switching Services Centre (MSC). The MSC acts like a normal switching node within a PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional functionality to enable the requirements of a mobile user to be supported. These include registration, authentication, call location, inter-MSC handovers

and call routing to a mobile subscriber. It also provides an interface to the PSTN so that calls can be routed from the mobile network to a phone connected to a landline. Interfaces to other MSCs are provided to enable calls to be made to mobiles on different networks. Home Location Register (HLR): This database contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the relevant base station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the phone registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which BTS it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even when the phone is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position. There is one HLR per network, although it may be distributed across various sub-centres to for operational reasons. Visitor Location Register (VLR): This contains selected information from the HLR that enables the selected services for the individual subscriber to be provided. The VLR can be implemented as a separate entity, but it is commonly realised as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate entity. In this way access is made faster and more convenient. Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each mobile equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during registration. Dependent upon the information held in the EIR, the mobile may be allocated one of three states - allowed onto the network, barred access, or monitored in case its problems. Authentication Centre (AuC): The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key also contained in the user's SIM card. It is used for authentication and for ciphering on the radio channel. Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC): The GMSC is the point to which a ME terminating call is initially routed, without any knowledge of the MS's location. The GMSC is thus in charge of obtaining the MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number) from the HLR based on the MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN number, the "directory number" of a MS) and routing the call to the correct visited MSC. The "MSC" part of the term GMSC is misleading, since the gateway operation does not require any linking to an MSC. SMS Gateway (SMS-G): The SMS-G or SMS gateway is the term that is used to collectively describe the two Short Message Services Gateways defined in the GSM standards. The two gateways handle messages directed in different directions. The SMSGMSC (Short Message Service Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) is for short messages being sent to an ME. The SMS-IWMSC (Short Message Service Inter-Working Mobile Switching Centre) is used for short messages originated with a mobile on that network. The SMS-GMSC role is similar to that of the GMSC, whereas the SMS-IWMSC provides a fixed access point to the Short Message Service Centre.

Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM network architecture that is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC. It is used to control and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to control the traffic load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of BS increases with the scaling of the subscriber population some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS, allowing savings in the cost of ownership of the system.

GSM Network Interfaces [4]

- a summary or tutorial of the different interfaces used to provide communication between various elements in a GSM cell phone network
The network structure is defined within the GSM standards. Additionally each interface between the different elements of the GSM network is also defined. This facilitates the information interchanges can take place. It also enables to a large degree that network elements from different manufacturers can be used. However as many of these interfaces were not fully defined until after many networks had been deployed, the level of standardisation may not be quite as high as many people might like. 1. Um interface The "air" or radio interface standard that is used for exchanges between a mobile (ME) and a base station (BTS / BSC). For signalling, a modified version of the ISDN LAPD, known as LAPDm is used. 2. Abis interface This is a BSS internal interface linking the BSC and a BTS, and it has not been totally standardised. The Abis interface allows control of the radio equipment and radio frequency allocation in the BTS. 3. A interface The A interface is used to provide communication between the BSS and the MSC. The interface carries information to enable the channels, timeslots and the like to be allocated to the mobile equipments being serviced by the BSSs. The messaging required within the network to enable handover etc to be undertaken is carried over the interface. 4. B interface The B interface exists between the MSC and the VLR . It uses a protocol known as the MAP/B protocol. As most VLRs are collocated with an MSC, this makes the interface purely an "internal" interface. The interface is used whenever the MSC needs access to data regarding a MS located in its area. 5. C interface The C interface is located between the HLR and a GMSC or a SMS-G. When a call originates from outside the network, i.e. from the PSTN or another mobile network it ahs to pass through the gateway so that routing information required to complete the call may be gained. The protocol used for communication is MAP/C, the letter "C" indicating that the protocol is used for the "C" interface. In addition to this, the MSC may optionally forward billing information to the HLR after the call is completed and cleared down.

6. D interface The D interface is situated between the VLR and HLR. It uses the MAP/D protocol to exchange the data related to the location of the ME and to the management of the subscriber. 7. E interface The E interface provides communication between two MSCs. The E interface exchanges data related to handover between the anchor and relay MSCs using the MAP/E protocol. 8. F interface The F interface is used between an MSC and EIR. It uses the MAP/F protocol. The communications along this interface are used to confirm the status of the IMEI of the ME gaining access to the network. 9. G interface The G interface interconnects two VLRs of different MSCs and uses the MAP/G protocol to transfer subscriber information, during e.g. a location update procedure. 10. H interface The H interface exists between the MSC the SMS-G. It transfers short messages and uses the MAP/H protocol. 11. I interface The I interface can be found between the MSC and the ME. Messages exchanged over the I interface are relayed transparently through the BSS. Although the interfaces for the GSM cellular system may not be as rigorouly defined as many might like, they do at least provide a large element of the definition required, enabling the functionality of GSM network entities to be defined sufficiently.

GSM Radio Air Interface, GSM Slot and Burst [5]

- tutorial, overview of the GSM air interface or GSM signal with details of carrier, slot structure and transmission burst and duplex scheme and power class.
One of the key elements of the development of the GSM, Global System for Mobile Communications was the development of the GSM air interface. There were many requirements that were placed on the system, and many of these had a direct impact on the air interface. Elements including the modulation, GSM slot structure, burst structure and the like were all devised to provide the optimum performance. During the development of the GSM standard very careful attention was paid to aspects including the modulation format, the way in which the system is time division multiplexed, all had a considerable impact on the performance of the system as a whole. For example, the modulation format for the GSM air interface had a direct impact on battery life and the time division format adopted enabled the cellphone handset costs to be considerably reduced as detailed later.

GSM signal and GMSK modulation characteristics

The core of any radio based system is the format of the radio signal itself. The carrier is modulated using a form of phase sift keying known as Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK). GMSK was used for the GSM system for a variety of reasons:

It is resilient to noise when compared to many other forms of modulation. Radiation outside the accepted bandwidth is lower than other forms of phase shift keying. It has a constant power level which allows higher efficiency RF power amplifiers to be used in the handset, thereby reducing current consumption and conserving battery life.

Note on GMSK:
GMSK, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying is a form of phase modulation that is used in a number of portable radio and wireless applications. It has advantages in terms of spectral efficiency as well as having an almost constant amplitude which allows for the use of more efficient transmitter power amplifiers, thereby saving on current consumption, a critical issue for battery power equipment. Click on the link for a GMSK tutorial

The nominal bandwidth for the GSM signal using GMSK is 200 kHz, i.e. the channel bandwidth and spacing is 200 kHz. As GMSK modulation has been used, the unwanted or spurious emissions outside the nominal bandwidth are sufficiently low to enable adjacent channels to be used from the same base station. Typically each base station will be allocated a number of carriers to enable it to achieve the required capacity. The data transported by the carrier serves up to eight different users under the basic system by splitting the carrier into eight time slots. The basic carrier is able to support a data throughput of approximately 270 kbps, but as some of this supports the management overhead, the data rate allotted to each time slot is only 24.8 kbps. In addition to this error correction is required to overcome the problems of interference, fading and general data errors that may occur. This means that the available data rate for transporting the digitally encoded speech is 13 kbps for the basic vocoders.

GSM slot structure and multiple access scheme

GSM uses a combination of both TDMA and FDMA techniques. The FDMA element involves the division by frequency of the (maximum) 25 MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier frequencies spaced 200 kHz apart as already described. The carriers are then divided in time, using a TDMA scheme. This enables the different users of the single radio frequency channel to be allocated different times slots. They are then able to use the same RF channel without mutual interference. The slot is then the time that is allocated to the particular user, and the GSM burst is the transmission that is made in this time. Each GSM slot, and hence each GSM burst lasts for 0.577 mS (15/26 mS). Eight of these burst periods are grouped into what is known as a TDMA frame. This lasts for approximately 4.615 ms (i.e.120/26 ms) and it forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One physical channel is one burst period allocated in each TDMA frame. There are different types of frame that are transmitted to carry different data, and also the frames are organised into what are termed multiframes and superframes to provide overall synchronisation.

GSM slot structure

These GSM slot is the smallest individual time period that is available to each mobile. It has a defined format because a variety of different types of data are required to be transmitted. Although there are shortened transmission bursts, the slots is normally used for transmitting 148 bits of information. This data can be used for carrying voice data, control and synchronisation data.

GSM slots showing offset between transmit and receive

It can be seen from the GSM slot structure that the timing of the slots in the uplink and the downlink are not simultaneous, and there is a time offset between the transmit and receive. This offset in the GSM slot timing is deliberate and it means that a mobile that which is allocated the same slot in both directions does not transmit and receive at the same time. This considerably reduces the need for expensive filters to isolate the transmitter from the receiver. It also provides a space saving.

GSM burst
The GSM burst, or transmission can fulfil a variety of functions. Some GSM bursts are used for carrying data while others are used for control information. As a result of this a number of different types of GSM burst are defined.

Normal burst uplink and downlink Synchronisation burst downlink Frequency correction burst downlink Random Access (Shortened Burst) uplink

GSM normal burst

This GSM burst is used for the standard communications between the basestation and the mobile, and typically transfers the digitised voice data. The structure of the normal GSM burst is exactly defined and follows a common format. It contains data that provides a number of different functions: 1. 3 tail bits: These tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to ramp up its power 2. 57 data bits: This block of data is used to carry information, and most often contains the digitised voice data although on occasions it may be replaced with signalling information in the form of the Fast Associated Control CHannel (FACCH). The type of data is indicated by the flag that follows the data field 3. 1 bit flag: This bit within the GSM burst indicates the type of data in the previous field. 4. 26 bits training sequence: This training sequence is used as a timing reference and for equalisation. There is a total of eight different bit sequences that may be used, each 26 bits long. The same sequence is used in each GSM slot, but nearby base stations using the same radio frequency channels will use different ones, and this enables the mobile to differentiate between the various cells using the same frequency. 5. 1 bit flag Again this flag indicates the type of data in the data field. 6. 57 data bits Again, this block of data within the GSM burst is used for carrying data.

7. 3 tail bits These final bits within the GSM burst are used to enable the transmitter power to ramp down. They are often called final tail bits, or just tail bits. 8. 8.25 bits guard time At the end of the GSM burst there is a guard period. This is introduced to prevent transmitted bursts from different mobiles overlapping. As a result of their differing distances from the base station.

GSM Normal Burst

GSM synchronisation burst

The purpose of this form of GSM burst is to provide synchronisation for the mobiles on the network. 1. 3 tail bits: Again, these tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to ramp up its power 2. 39 bits of information: 3. 64 bits of a Long Training Sequence: 4. 39 bits Information: 5. 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down. 6. 8.25 bits guard time: to act as a guard interval.

GSM Synchronisation Burst

GSM frequency correction burst

With the information in the burst all set to zeros, the burst essentially consists of a constant frequency carrier with no phase alteration. 1. 3 tail bits: Again, these tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to ramp up its power. 2. 142 bits all set to zero: 3. 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down.

4. 8.25 bits guard time: to act as a guard interval.

GSM Frequency Correction Burst

GSM random access burst

This form of GSM burst used when accessing the network and it is shortened in terms of the data carried, having a much longer guard period. This GSM burst structure is used to ensure that it fits in the time slot regardless of any severe timing problems that may exist. Once the mobile has accessed the network and timing has been aligned, then there is no requirement for the long guard period. 1. 7 tail bits: The increased number of tail bits is included to provide additional margin when accessing the network. 2. 41 training bits: 3. 36 data bits: 4. 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down. 5. 69.25 bits guard time: The additional guard time, filling the remaining time of the GSM burst provides for large timing differences.

GSM Random Access Burst

GSM discontinuous transmission (DTx)

A further power saving and interference reducing facility is the discontinuous transmission (DTx) capability that is incorporated within the specification. It is particularly useful because there are long pauses in speech, for example when the person using the mobile is listening, and during these periods there is no need to transmit a signal. In fact it is found that a person speaks for less than 40% of the time during normal telephone conversations. The most important element of DTx is the Voice Activity Detector. It must correctly distinguish between voice and noise inputs, a task that is not trivial. If a voice signal is misinterpreted as noise, the transmitter is turned off an effect known as clipping results and this is particularly annoying to the person listening to the speech. However if noise is misinterpreted as a voice signal too often, the efficiency of DTX is dramatically decreased.

It is also necessary for the system to add background or comfort noise when the transmitter is turned off because complete silence can be very disconcerting for the listener. Accordingly this is added as appropriate. The noise is controlled by the SID (silence indication descriptor).

GSM Frame Structure

- tutorial, overview of the basics of GSM frame structure including the multiframe, superframe and hyperframe.

The GSM system has a defined GSM frame structure to enable the orderly passage of information. The GSM frame structure establishes schedules for the predetermined use of timeslots. By establishing these schedules by the use of a frame structure, both the mobile and the base station are able to communicate not only the voice data, but also signalling information without the various types of data becoming intermixed and both ends of the transmission knowing exactly what types of information are being transmitted. The GSM frame structure provides the basis for the various physical channels used within GSM, and accordingly it is at the heart of the overall system.

Basic GSM frame structure

The basic element in the GSM frame structure is the frame itself. This comprises the eight slots, each used for different users within the TDMA system. As mentioned in another page of the tutorial, the slots for transmission and reception for a given mobile are offset in time so that the mobile does not transmit and receive at the same time.

GSM frame consisting of eight slots The basic GSM frame defines the structure upon which all the timing and structure of the GSM messaging and signalling is based. The fundamental unit of time is called a burst period and it lasts for approximately 0.577 ms (15/26 ms). Eight of these burst periods are grouped into what is known as a TDMA frame. This lasts for approximately 4.615 ms (i.e.120/26 ms) and it forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One physical channel is one burst period allocated in each TDMA frame. In simplified terms the base station transmits two types of channel, namely traffic and control. Accordingly the channel structure is organised into two different types of frame, one for the traffic on the main traffic carrier frequency, and the other for the control on the beacon frequency.

GSM multiframe
The GSM frames are grouped together to form multiframes and in this way it is possible to establish a time schedule for their operation and the network can be synchronised. There are several GSM multiframe structures:

Traffic multiframe: The Traffic Channel frames are organised into multiframes consisting of 26 bursts and taking 120 ms. In a traffic multiframe, 24 bursts are used for traffic. These are numbered 0 to 11 and 13 to 24. One of the remaining bursts is then used to accommodate the SACCH, the remaining frame remaining free. The actual position used alternates between position 12 and 25. Control multiframe: the Control Channel multiframe that comprises 51 bursts and occupies 235.4 ms. This always occurs on the beacon frequency in time slot zero and it may also occur within slots 2, 4 and 6 of the beacon frequency as well. This multiframe is

subdivided into logical channels which are time-scheduled. These logical channels and functions include the following: o Frequency correction burst o Synchronisation burst o Broadcast channel (BCH) o Paging and Access Grant Channel (PACCH) o Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)

GSM Superframe
Multiframes are then constructed into superframes taking 6.12 seconds. These consist of 51 traffic multiframes or 26 control multiframes. As the traffic multiframes are 26 bursts long and the control multiframes are 51 bursts long, the different number of traffic and control multiframes within the superframe, brings them back into line again taking exactly the same interval.

GSM Hyperframe
Above this 2048 superframes (i.e. 2 to the power 11) are grouped to form one hyperframe which repeats every 3 hours 28 minutes 53.76 seconds. It is the largest time interval within the GSM frame structure. Within the GSM hyperframe there is a counter and every time slot has a unique sequential number comprising the frame number and time slot number. This is used to maintain synchronisation of the different scheduled operations with the GSM frame structure. These include functions such as:

Frequency hopping: Frequency hopping is a feature that is optional within the GSM system. It can help reduce interference and fading issues, but for it to work, the transmitter and receiver must be synchronised so they hop to the same frequencies at the same time. Encryption: The encryption process is synchronised over the GSM hyperframe period where a counter is used and the encryption process will repeat with each hyperframe. However, it is unlikely that the cellphone conversation will be over 3 hours and accordingly it is unlikely that security will be compromised as a result.

GSM Frame Structure Summary

GSM Frequencies and Frequency Bands [7]

- a tabular summary of the frequencies and frequency bands allocations and spectrum used by the GSM cellular telecommunications system.
Although it is possible for the GSM cellular system to work on a variety of frequencies, the GSM standard defines GSM frequency bands and frequencies for the different spectrum allocations that are in use around the globe. For most applications the GSM frequency allocations fall into three or four bands, and therefore it is possible for phones to be used for global roaming.

While the majority of GSM activity falls into just a few bands, for some specialist applications, or in countries where spectrum allocation requirements mean that the standard bands cannot be used, different allocations may be required. Accordingly for most global roaming dual band, triband or quad-band phones will operate in most countries, although in some instances phones using other frequencies may be required.

GSM band allocations

There is a total of fourteen different recognised GSM frequency bands. These are defined in 3GPP TS 45.005. Band 380 410 450 480 710 750 810 850 900 Uplink (MHz) 380.2 389.8 410.2 419.8 450.4 457.6 478.8 486.0 698.0 716.0 747.0 762.0 806.0 821.0 824.0 849.0 890.0 915.0 880.0 915.0 Downlink (MHz) 390.2 - 399.8 420.2 - 429.8 460.4 - 467.6 488.8 - 496.0 728.0 - 746.0 777.0 - 792.0 851.0 - 866.0 869.0 - 894.0 935.0 - 960.0 Comments

P-GSM, i.e. Primary or standard GSM allocation E-GSM, i.e. Extended GSM 900 925.0 - 960.0 allocation R-GSM, i.e. Railway GSM 900 876.0 - 915 921.0 - 960.0 allocation 870.4 900 915.4 - 921.0 T-GSM 876.0 1710.0 1805.0 1800 1785.0 1880.0 1850.0 1930.0 1900 1910.0 1990.0

GSM frequency band usage

The usage of the different frequency bands varies around the globe although there is a large degree of standardisation. The GSM frequencies available depend upon the regulatory

requirements for the particular country and the ITU (International Telecommunications Union) region in which the country is located. As a rough guide Europe tends to use the GSM 900 and 1800 bands as standard. These bands are also generally used in the Middle East, Africa, Asia and Oceania. For North America the USA uses both 850 and 1900 MHz bands, the actual band used is determined by the regulatory authorities and is dependent upon the area. For Canada the 1900 MHz band is the primary one used, particularly for urban areas with 850 MHz used as a backup in rural areas. For Central and South America, the GSM 850 and 1900 MHz frequency bands are the most widely used although there are some areas where other frequencies are used.

GSM multiband phones

In order that cell phone users are able to take advantage of the roaming facilities offered by GSM, it is necessary that the cellphones are able to cover the bands of the countries which are visited. Today most phones support operation on multiple bands and are known as multi-band phones. Typically most standard phones are dual-band phones. For Europe, Middle east, Asia and Oceania these would operate on GSM 900 and 1800 bands and for North America, etc dual band phones would operate on GSM 850 and 1900 frequency bands. To provide better roaming coverage, tri-band and quad-band phones are also available. European triband phones typically cover the GSM 900, 1800 and 1900 bands giving good coverage in Europe as well as moderate coverage in North America. Similarly North America tri-band phones use the 900, 1800 and 1900 GSM frequencies. Quad band phones are also available covering the 850, 900, 1800 and 1900 MHz GSM frequency bands, i.e. the four major bands and thereby allowing global use.

GSM Power Control and Power Class [8]

- tutorial, overview of the GSM power control, GSM power levels, power class and power amplifier design.

The power levels and power control of GSM mobiles is of great importance because of the effect of power on the battery life. Also to group mobiles into groups, GSM power class designations have been allocated to indicate the power capability of various mobiles. In addition to this the power of the GSM mobiles is closely controlled so that the battery of the mobile is conserved, and also the levels of interference are reduced and performance of the basestation is not compromised by high power local mobiles.

GSM power levels

The base station controls the power output of the mobile, keeping the GSM power level sufficient to maintain a good signal to noise ratio, while not too high to reduce interference, overloading, and also to preserve the battery life. A table of GSM power levels is defined, and the base station controls the power of the mobile by sending a GSM "power level" number. The mobile then adjusts its power accordingly. In virtually all cases the increment between the different power level numbers is 2dB. The accuracies required for GSM power control are relatively stringent. At the maximum power levels they are typically required to be controlled to within +/- 2 dB, whereas this relaxes to +/- 5 dB at the lower levels. The power level numbers vary according to the GSM band in use. Figures for the three main bands in use are given below: Power level number 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Power output level dBm 39 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 21 19 17 15 13

Power level number 16 17 18 19

Power output level dBm 11 9 7 5 GSM power level table for GSM 900

Power level number Power output level dBm 29 36 30 34 31 32 0 30 1 28 2 26 3 24 4 22 5 20 6 18 7 16 8 14 9 12 10 10 11 8 12 6 13 4 14 2 15 0 GSM power level table for GSM 1800

Power level number 30 31 0 1 2

Power output level dBm 33 32 30 28 26

Power level number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Power output level dBm 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 GSM power level table for GSM 1900

GSM Power class

Not all mobiles have the same maximum power output level. In order that the base station knows the maximum power level number that it can send to the mobile, it is necessary for the base station to know the maximum power it can transmit. This is achieved by allocating a GSM power class number to a mobile. This GSM power class number indicates to the base station the maximum power it can transmit and hence the maximum power level number the base station can instruct it to use. Again the GSM power classes vary according to the band in use. GSM Power Class Number

GSM 900

GSM 1800

GSM 1900 Maximum power output 30 dBm / 1W 24 dBm / 250 mW 33 dBm / 2W

1 2 3

Power Maximum Power Maximum Power level power level power level number output number output number 30 dBm / PL0 PL0 1W 39dBm / 24 dBm/ PL2 PL3 PL3 8W 250 mW 37dBm / 36 dBm / PL3 PL29 PL30 5W 4W

GSM Power Class Number 4 5 PL4 PL5

GSM 900 33dBm / 2W 29 dBm / 800 mW

GSM 1800

GSM 1900

GSM power amplifier design considerations

One of the main considerations for the RF power amplifier design in any mobile phone is its efficiency. The RF power amplifier is one of the major current consumption areas. Accordingly, to ensure long battery life it should be as efficient as possible. It is also worth remembering that as mobiles may only transmit for one eighth of the time, i.e. for their allocated slot which is one of eight, the average power is an eighth of the maximum.

GSM logical and physical channels [9]

- a tutorial, description, overview of GSM channels including transport and logical channels, SACCH, SDCCH, FACCH, etc.
GSM uses a variety of channels in which the data is carried. In GSM, these channels are separated into physical channels and logical channels. The Physical channels are determined by the timeslot, whereas the logical channels are determined by the information carried within the physical channel. It can be further summarised by saying that several recurring timeslots on a carrier constitute a physical channel. These are then used by different logical channels to transfer information. These channels may either be used for user data (payload) or signalling to enable the system to operate correctly.

Common and dedicated channels

The channels may also be divided into common and dedicated channels. The forward common channels are used for paging to inform a mobile of an incoming call, responding to channel requests, and broadcasting bulletin board information. The return common channel is a random access channel used by the mobile to request channel resources before timing information is conveyed by the BSS.

The dedicated channels are of two main types: those used for signalling, and those used for traffic. The signalling channels are used for maintenance of the call and for enabling call set up, providing facilities such as handover when the call is in progress, and finally terminating the call. The traffic channels handle the actual payload. The following logical channels are defined in GSM: TCHf - Full rate traffic channel. TCH h - Half rate traffic channel. BCCH - Broadcast Network information, e.g. for describing the current control channel structure. The BCCH is a point-to-multipoint channel (BSS-to-MS). SCH - Synchronisation of the MSs. FCHMS - frequency correction. AGCH - Acknowledge channel requests from MS and allocate a SDCCH. PCHMS - terminating call announcement. RACHMS - access requests, response to call announcement, location update, etc. FACCHt - For time critical signalling over the TCH (e.g. for handover signalling). Traffic burst is stolen for a full signalling burst. SACCHt - TCH in-band signalling, e.g. for link monitoring. SDCCH - For signalling exchanges, e.g. during call setup, registration / location updates. FACCHs - FACCH for the SDCCH. The SDCCH burst is stolen for a full signalling burst. Function not clear in the present version of GSM (could be used for e.g. handover of an eightrate channel, i.e. using a "SDCCH-like" channel for other purposes than signalling). SACCHs - SDCCH in-band signalling, e.g. for link monitoring.

GSM Audio Codec / Vocoder [10]

- an overview, description or tutorial detailing the basics of GSM audio codecs or vocoders including LPC-RPE, EFR, Full Rate, Half Rate, AMR codec and AMRWB codec as well as CELP, ACELP, VSELP, speech codec technologies.
Audio codecs or vocoders are universally used within the GSM system. They reduce the bit rate of speech that has been converted from its analogue for into a digital format to enable it to be

carried within the available bandwidth for the channel. Without the use of a speech codec, the digitised speech would occupy a much wider bandwidth then would be available. Accordingly GSM codecs are a particularly important element in the overall system. A variety of different forms of audio codec or vocoder are available for general use, and the GSM system supports a number of specific audio codecs. These include the RPE-LPC, half rate, and AMR codecs. The performance of each voice codec is different and they may be used under different conditions, although the AMR codec is now the most widely used. Also the newer AMR wideband (AMR-WB) codec is being introduced into many areas, including GSM Voice codec technology has advanced by considerable degrees in recent years as a result of the increasing processing power available. This has meant that the voice codecs used in the GSM system have large improvements since the first GSM phones were introduced.

Vocoder / codec basics

Vocoders or speech codecs are used within many areas of voice communications. Obviously the focus here is on GSM audio codecs or vocoders, but the same principles apply to any form of codec. If speech were digitised in a linear fashion it would require a high data rate that would occupy a very wide bandwidth. As bandwidth is normally limited in any communications system, it is necessary to compress the data to send it through the available channel. Once through the channel it can then be expanded to regenerate the audio in a fashion that is as close to the original as possible. To meet the requirements of the codec system, the speech must be captured at a high enough sample rate and resolution to allow clear reproduction of the original sound. It must then be compressed in such a way as to maintain the fidelity of the audio over a limited bit rate, errorprone wireless transmission channel. Audio codecs or vocoders can use a variety of techniques, but many modern audio codecs use a technique known as linear prediction. In many ways this can be likened to a mathematical modelling of the human vocal tract. To achieve this the spectral envelope of the signal is estimated using a filter technique. Even where signals with many non-harmonically related signals are used it is possible for voice codecs to give very large levels of compression. A variety of different codec methodologies are used for GSM codecs:

CELP: The CELP or Code Excited Linear Prediction codec is a vocoder algorithm that was originally proposed in 1985 and gave a significant improvement over other voice codecs of the day. The basic principle of the CELP codec has been developed and used as the basis of other voice codecs including ACELP, RCELP, VSELP, etc. As such the CELP codec methodology is now the most widely used speech coding algorithm.

Accordingly CELP is now used as a generic term for a particular class of vocoders or speech codecs and not a particular codec. The main principle behind the CELP codec is that is uses a principle known as "Analysis by Synthesis". In this process, the encoding is performed by perceptually optimising the decoded signal in a closed loop system. One way in which this could be achieved is to compare a variety of generated bit streams and choose the one that produces the best sounding signal. ACELP codec: The ACELP or Algebraic Code Excited Linear Prediction codec. The ACELP codec or vocoder algorithm is a development of the CELP model. However the ACELP codec codebooks have a specific algebraic structure as indicated by the name. VSELP codec: The VSELP or Vector Sum Excitation Linear Prediction codec. One of the major drawbacks of the VSELP codec is its limited ability to code non-speech sounds. This means that it performs poorly in the presence of noise. As a result this voice codec is not now as widely used, other newer speech codecs being preferred and offering far superior performance.

GSM audio codecs / vocoders

A variety of GSM audio codecs / vocoders are supported. These have been introduced at different times, and have different levels of performance.. Although some of the early audio codecs are not as widely used these days, they are still described here as they form part of the GSM system.

Codec name Full rate EFR Half rate AMR AMR-WB

Bit rate (kbps) 13 12.2 5.6 12.2 - 4.75 23.85 - 6.60

Compression technology RTE-LPC ACELP VSELP ACELP ACELP

GSM Full Rate / RPE-LPC codec

The RPE-LPC or Regular Pulse Excited - Linear Predictive Coder. This form of voice codec was the first speech codec used with GSM and it chosen after tests were undertaken to compare it with other codec schemes of the day. The speech codec is based upon the regular pulse excitation LPC with long term prediction. The basic scheme is related to two previous speech codecs, namely: RELP, Residual Excited Linear Prediction and to the MPE-LPC, Multi Pulse Excited LPC. The advantages of RELP are the relatively low complexity resulting from the use of

baseband coding, but its performance is limited by the tonal noise produced by the system. The MPE-LPC is more complex but provides a better level of performance. The RPE-LPC codec provided a compromise between the two, balancing performance and complexity for the technology of the time. Despite the work that was undertaken to provide the optimum performance, as technology developed further, the RPE-LPC codec was viewed as offering a poor level of voice quality. As other full rate audio codecs became available, these were incorporated into the system.

GSM EFR - Enhanced Full Rate codec

Later another vocoder called the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) vocoder was added in response to the poor quality perceived by the users of the original RPE-LPC codec. This new codec gave much better sound quality and was adopted by GSM. Using the ACELP compression technology it gave a significant improvement in quality over the original LPC-RPE encoder. It became possible as the processing power that was available increased in mobile phones as a result of higher levels of processing power combined with their lower current consumption.

GSM Half Rate codec

The GSM standard allows the splitting of a single full rate voice channel into two sub-channels that can maintain separate calls. By doing this, network operators can double the number of voice calls that can be handled by the network with very little additional investment. To enable this facility to be used a half rate codec must be used. The half rate codec was introduced in the early years of GSM but gave a much inferior voice quality when compared to other speech codecs. However it gave advantages when demand was high and network capacity was at a premium. The GSM Half Rate codec uses a VSELP codec algorithm. It codes the data around 20 ms frames each carrying 112 bits to give a data rate of 5.6 kbps. This includes a 100 bps data rate for a mode indicator which details whether the system believes the frames contain voice data or not. This allows the speech codec to operate in a manner that provides the optimum quality. The Half Rate codec system was introduced in the 1990s, but in view of the perceived poor quality, it was not widely used.

GSM AMR Codec

The AMR, Adaptive Multi-rate codec is now the most widely used GSM codec. The AMR codec was adopted by 3GPP in October 1988 and it is used for both GSM and circuit switched UMTS / WCDMA voice calls. The AMR codec provides a variety of options for one of eight different bit rates as described in the table below. The bit rates are based on frames that are 20 millisceonds long and contain 160 samples. The AMR codec uses a variety of different techniques to provide the data compression. The ACELP codec is used as the basis of the overall speech codec, but other techniques are used in addition to this. Discontinuous transmission is employed so that when there is no speech activity the transmission is cut. Additionally Voice Activity Detection (VAD) is used to indicate when there is only background noise and no speech. Additionally to provide the feedback for the user that the connection is still present, a Comfort Noise Generator (CNG) is used to provide some background noise, even when no speech data is being transmitted. This is added locally at the receiver. The use of the AMR codec also requires that optimized link adaptation is used so that the optimum data rate is selected to meet the requirements of the current radio channel conditions including its signal to noise ratio and capacity. This is achieved by reducing the source coding and increasing the channel coding. Although there is a reduction in voice clarity, the network connection is more robust and the link is maintained without dropout. Improvement levels of between 4 and 6 dB may be experienced. However network operators are able to prioritise each station for either quality or capacity. The AMR codec has a total of eight rates: eight are available at full rate (FR), while six are available at half rate (HR). This gives a total of fourteen different modes.

Mode AMR 12.2 AMR 10.2 AMR 7.95 AMR 7.40 AMR 6.70 AMR 5.90 AMR 5.15 AMR 4.75

Bit rate (kbps) 12.2 10.2 7.95 7.40 6.70 5.90 5.15 4.75

Full Rate (FR) / Half rate (HR) FR FR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR AMR codec data rates

AMR-WB codec
Adaptive Multi-Rate Wideband, AMR-WB codec, also known under its ITU designation of G.722.2, is based on the earlier popular Adaptive Multi-Rate, AMR codec. AMR-WB also uses

an ACELP basis for its operation, but it has been further developed and AMR-WB provides improved speech quality as a result of the wider speech bandwidth that it encodes. AMR-WB has a bandwidth extending from 50 - 7000 Hz which is significantly wider than the 300 - 3400 Hz bandwidths used by standard telephones. However this comes at the cost of additional processing, but with advances in IC technology in recent years, this is perfectly acceptable. The AMR-WB codec contains a number of functional areas: it primarily includes a set of fixed rate speech and channel codec modes. It also includes other codec functions including: a Voice Activity Detector (VAD); Discontinuous Transmission (DTX) functionality for GSM; and Source Controlled Rate (SCR) functionality for UMTS applications. Further functionality includes in-band signaling for codec mode transmission, and link adaptation for control of the mode selection. The AMR-WB codec has a 16 kHz sampling rate and the coding is performed in blocks of 20 ms. There are two frequency bands that are used: 50-6400 Hz and 6400-7000 Hz. These are coded separately to reduce the codec complexity. This split also serves to focus the bit allocation into the subjectively most important frequency range. The lower frequency band uses an ACELP codec algorithm, although a number of additional features have been included to improve the subjective quality of the audio. Linear prediction analysis is performed once per 20 ms frame. Also, fixed and adaptive excitation codebooks are searched every 5 ms for optimal codec parameter values. The higher frequency band adds some of the naturalness and personality features to the voice. The audio is reconstructed using the parameters from the lower band as well as using random excitation. As the level of power in this band is less than that of the lower band, the gain is adjusted relative to the lower band, but based on voicing information. The signal content of the higher band is reconstructed by using an linear predictive filter which generates information from the lower band filter.

Bit rate (kbps)

Notes

This is the lowest rate for AMR-WB. It is used for circuit switched connections for GSM and UMTS and is intended to be used only 6.60 temporarily during severe radio channel conditions or during network congestion. This gives improved quality over the 6.6 kbps rate, but again, its use is 8.85 only recommended for use in periods of congestion or when during severe radio channel conditions. This is the main bit rate used for circuit switched GSM and UMTS, 12.65 offering superior performance to the original AMR codec. Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when 14.25 ambient audio noise levels are high.

Bit rate (kbps) 15.85 18.25 19.85 23.05 23.85

Notes Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio noise levels are high. Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio noise levels are high. Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio noise levels are high. Not suggested for full rate GSM channels. Not suggested for full rate GSM channels, and provides speech quality similar to that of G.722 at 64 kbps.

Not all phones equipped with AMR-WB will be able to access all the data rates - the different functions on the phone may not require all to be active for example. As a result, it is necessary to inform the network about which rates are available and thereby simplify the negotiation between the handset and the network. To achieve this there are three difference AMR-WB configurations that are available:

Configuration A: 6.6, 8.85, and 12.65 kbit/s Configuration B: 6.6, 8.85, 12.65, and 15.85 kbit/s Configuration C: 6.6, 8.85, 12.65, and 23.85 kbit/s

It can be seen that only the 23.85, 15.85, 12.65, 8.85 and 6.60 kbit/s modes are used. Based on listening tests, it was considered that these five modes were sufficient for a high quality speech telephony service. The other data rates were retained and can be used for other purposes including multimedia messaging, streaming audio, etc.

GSM handover or handoff [11]

- tutorial or overview of the essentials of GSM handover or handoff from one cell to another and detailing types of handover and methodologies used.
One of the key elements of a mobile phone or cellular telecommunications system, is that the system is split into many small cells to provide good frequency re-use and coverage. However as the mobile moves out of one cell to another it must be possible to retain the connection. The process by which this occurs is known as handover or handoff. The term handover is more widely used within Europe, whereas handoff tends to be use more in North America. Either way, handover and handoff are the same process.

Requirements for GSM handover

The process of handover or handoff within any cellular system is of great importance. It is a critical process and if performed incorrectly handover can result in the loss of the call. Dropped calls are particularly annoying to users and if the number of dropped calls rises, customer dissatisfaction increases and they are likely to change to another network. Accordingly GSM handover was an area to which particular attention was paid when developing the standard.

Types of GSM handover

Within the GSM system there are four types of handover that can be performed for GSM only systems:

Intra-BTS handover: This form of GSM handover occurs if it is required to change the frequency or slot being used by a mobile because of interference, or other reasons. In this form of GSM handover, the mobile remains attached to the same base station transceiver, but changes the channel or slot. Inter-BTS Intra BSC handover: This for of GSM handover or GSM handoff occurs when the mobile moves out of the coverage area of one BTS but into another controlled by the same BSC. In this instance the BSC is able to perform the handover and it assigns a new channel and slot to the mobile, before releasing the old BTS from communicating with the mobile. Inter-BSC handover: When the mobile moves out of the range of cells controlled by one BSC, a more involved form of handover has to be performed, handing over not only from one BTS to another but one BSC to another. For this the handover is controlled by the MSC. Inter-MSC handover: This form of handover occurs when changing between networks. The two MSCs involved negotiate to control the handover.

GSM handover process

Although there are several forms of GSM handover as detailed above, as far as the mobile is concerned, they are effectively seen as very similar. There are a number of stages involved in undertaking a GSM handover from one cell or base station to another. In GSM which uses TDMA techniques the transmitter only transmits for one slot in eight, and similarly the receiver only receives for one slot in eight. As a result the RF section of the mobile could be idle for 6 slots out of the total eight. This is not the case because during the slots in which it is not communicating with the BTS, it scans the other radio channels looking for beacon

frequencies that may be stronger or more suitable. In addition to this, when the mobile communicates with a particular BTS, one of the responses it makes is to send out a list of the radio channels of the beacon frequencies of neighbouring BTSs via the Broadcast Channel (BCCH). The mobile scans these and reports back the quality of the link to the BTS. In this way the mobile assists in the handover decision and as a result this form of GSM handover is known as Mobile Assisted Hand Over (MAHO). The network knows the quality of the link between the mobile and the BTS as well as the strength of local BTSs as reported back by the mobile. It also knows the availability of channels in the nearby cells. As a result it has all the information it needs to be able to make a decision about whether it needs to hand the mobile over from one BTS to another. If the network decides that it is necessary for the mobile to hand over, it assigns a new channel and time slot to the mobile. It informs the BTS and the mobile of the change. The mobile then retunes during the period it is not transmitting or receiving, i.e. in an idle period. A key element of the GSM handover is timing and synchronisation. There are a number of possible scenarios that may occur dependent upon the level of synchronisation.

Old and new BTSs synchronised: In this case the mobile is given details of the new physical channel in the neighbouring cell and handed directly over. The mobile may optionally transmit four access bursts. These are shorter than the standard bursts and thereby any effects of poor synchronisation do not cause overlap with other bursts. However in this instance where synchronisation is already good, these bursts are only used to provide a fine adjustment. Time offset between synchronised old and new BTS: In some instances there may be a time offset between the old and new BTS. In this case, the time offset is provided so that the mobile can make the adjustment. The GSM handover then takes place as a standard synchronised handover. Non-synchronised handover: When a non-synchronised cell handover takes place, the mobile transmits 64 access bursts on the new channel. This enables the base station to determine and adjust the timing for the mobile so that it can suitably access the new BTS. This enables the mobile to re-establish the connection through the new BTS with the correct timing.

Inter-system handover
With the evolution of standards and the migration of GSM to other 2G technologies including to 3G UMTS / WCDMA as well as HSPA and then LTE, there is the need to handover from one technology to another. Often the 2G GSM coverage will be better then the others and GSM is often used as the fallback. When handovers of this nature are required, it is considerably more

complicated than a straightforward only GSM handover because they require two technically very different systems to handle the handover. These handovers may be called intersystem handovers or inter-RAT handovers as the handover occurs between different radio access technologies. The most common form of intersystem handover is between GSM and UMTS / WCDMA. Here there are two different types:

UMTS / WCDMA to GSM handover: There are two further divisions of this category of handover: o Blind handover: This form of handover occurs when the base station hands off the mobile by passing it the details of the new cell to the mobile without linking to it and setting the timing, etc of the mobile for the new cell. In this mode, the network selects what it believes to be the optimum GSM based station. The mobile first locates the broadcast channel of the new cell, gains timing synchronisation and then carries out non-synchronised intercell handover. o Compressed mode handover: using this form of handover the mobile uses the gaps I transmission that occur to analyse the reception of local GSM base stations using the neighbour list to select suitable candidate base stations. Having selected a suitable base station the handover takes place, again without any time synchronisation having occurred. Handover from GSM to UMTS / WCDMA: This form of handover is supported within GSM and a "neighbour list" was established to enable this occur easily. As the GSM / 2G network is normally more extensive than the 3G network, this type of handover does not normally occur when the mobile leaves a coverage area and must quickly find a new base station to maintain contact. The handover from GSM to UMTS occurs to provide an improvement in performance and can normally take place only when the conditions are right. The neighbour list will inform the mobile when this may happen.

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EDGE TUTERIAL

GSM EDGE cellular evolution technology

- summary, overview or tutorial about the basics of GSM EDGE cellular evolution technology providing enhanced data rates for GSM.

GSM EDGE tutorial includes: GSM EDGE technology EDGE network architecture Modulation, slot, & burst EDGE MCS coding schemes and classes Evolved EDGE

EDGE is an evolution to the GSM mobile cellular phone system. The name EDGE stands for Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution and it enables data to be sent over a GSM TDMA system at speeds up to 384 kbps. In some instances GSM EDGE evolution systems may also be known as EGPRS, or Enhanced General Packet Radio Service systems. Although strictly speaking a "2.5G" system, the GSM EDGE cellular technology is capable of providing data rates that are a distinct increase on those that could be supported by GPRS. EDGE evolution is intended to build on the enhancements provided by the addition of GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) where packet switching is applied to a network. It then enables a three-fold increase in the speed at which data can be transferred by adopting a new form of modulation. GSM uses a form of modulation known as Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK), but EDGE evolution changes the modulation to 8PSK and thereby enabling a significant increase in data rate to be achieved.

GSM EDGE basics

GSM EDGE cellular technology is an upgrade to the existing GSM / GPRS networks, and can often be implemented as a software upgrade to existing GSM / GPRS networks. This makes it a particularly attractive option proving virtually 3G data rates for a small upgrade to an existing GPRS network. GSM EDGE evolution can provide data rates of up to 384 kbps, and this means that it offers a significantly higher data rate than GPRS. There are a number of key elements in the upgrade from GSM or GPRS to EDGE. The GSM EDGE technology requires a number of new elements to be added to the system:

Use of 8PSK modulation: In order to achieve the higher data rates within GSM EDGE, the modulation format can be changed from GMSK to 8PSK. This provides a significant advantage in being able to convey 3 bits per symbol, thereby increasing the maximum data rate. This upgrade requires a change to the base station. Sometimes hardware upgrades may be required, although it is often simply a software change. Base station: Apart from the upgrade to incorporate the 8PSK modulation capability, other small changes are required to the base station. These are normally relatively small and can often be accomplished by software upgrades. Upgrade to network architecture: GSM EDGE provides the capability for IP based data transfer. As a result, additional network elements are required. These are the same as those needed for GPRS and later for UMTS. In this way the introduction of EDGE technology is part of the overall migration path from GSM to UMTS. The two main additional nodes required for the network are the Gateway GPRS Service Node (GGSN) and the Serving GPRS Service Node (SGSN). The GGSN connects to packet-switched networks such as the Internet and other GPRS networks. The SGSN provides the packet-switched link to mobile stations. Mobile stations: It is necessary to have a GSM EDGE handset that is EDGE compatible. As it is not possible to upgrade handsets, this means that the user needs to buy a new GSM EDGE handset.

Despite the number of changes that need to be made, the cost of the upgrade to move to GSM EDGE cellular technology is normally relatively small. The elements in the core network are required for GPRS which may already be available on the network, and hence these elements will already be present. The new network entities are also needed for UMTS and therefore they are on the overall upgrade and migration path. Other changes to the base stations are comparatively small and can often be achieved very easily.

GSM EDGE evolution specification overview

It is worth summarizing the key parameters of GSM EDGE cellular technology. Parameter Details

Parameter Details Multiple Access Technology FDMA / TDMA Duplex Technique FDD Channel Spacing 200 kHz Modulation GMSK, 8PSK Slots per channel 8 Frame duration 4.615 ms Latency Below 100 ms Overall symbol rate 270 k symbols / s Overall modulation bit rate 810 kbps Radio data rate per time slot 69.2 kbps Max user data rate per time slot 59.2 kbps (MCS-9) Max user data rate when using 8 time slots 473.6 kbps ** GSM EDGE specification highlights

Note: ** A maximum user data rate of 384 kbps is often seen quoted as the data rate for GSM EDGE. This data rate corresponds to the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) definition of the data rate limit required for a service to fulfill the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) standard(i.e. 3G) in a pedestrian environment.

GSM EDGE network architecture

- a summary, overview or tutorial about the basics of the enhancements required for the GSM EDGE network architecture including the GGSN and SGSN.

In order that the GSM EDGE upgrade can be implemented, additions are required within the EDGE network architecture to be able to cater for the packet data that is carried by the system. The additional network entities required are the same as those used for GPRS and also for UMTS. With the introduction of the new entities within the network, it was still necessary for the new EDGE network elements and those from the existing GSM elements to work along side one another. Accordingly the introduction of GPRS and EDGE technology saw the addition of some new entities within the over network architecture.

The two main elements that are required by the GSM EDGE network architecture are the GGSN and SGSN. These enable the network to be able to cater for the packet data that is passed over the network.

GSM EDGE network architecture upgrades

Although in practice a variety of elements are required within the network architecture, the main new network architecture entities that are needed for the EDGE upgrade are:

SGSN: GPRS Support Node - this forms a gateway to the services within the network. GGSN: Gateway GPRS Support Node which forms the gateway to the outside world. PCU: Packet Control Unit which differentiates whether data is to be routed to the packet switched or circuit switched networks.

A simplified view of the GSM EDGE network architecture can be seen in the diagram below. From this it can be seen that it is very similar to the more basic GSM network architecture, but with additional elements.

GSM EDGE network architecture

SGSN
The SGSN or Serving GPRS Support Node element of the GPRS network provides a number of takes focussed on the IP elements of the overall system. It provides a variety of services to the mobiles:

Packet routing and transfer Mobility management Authentication Attach/detach Logical link management Charging data

There is a location register within the SGSN and this stores location information (e.g., current cell, current VLR). It also stores the user profiles (e.g., IMSI, packet addresses used) for all the GPRS users registered with the particular SGSN.

GGSN
The GGSN, Gateway GPRS Support Node is one of the most important entities within the GSM EDGE network architecture. The GGSN organises the inter-working between the GPRS / EDGE network and external packet switched networks to which the mobiles may be connected. These may include both Internet and X.25 networks. The GGSN can be considered to be a combination of a gateway, router and firewall as it hides the internal network to the outside. In operation, when the GGSN receives data addressed to a specific user, it checks if the user is active, then forwarding the data. In the opposite direction, packet data from the mobile is routed to the right destination network by the GGSN.

PCU
The PCU or Packet Control Unit is a hardware router that is added to the BSC. It differentiates data destined for the standard GSM network (circuit switched data) and data destined for the EDGE network (Packet Switched Data). The PCU itself may be a separate physical entity, or more often these days it is incorporated into the base station controller, BSC, thereby saving additional hardware costs.

GSM EDGE network upgrading

One of the key elements for any network operator is the cost of capital expenditure (capex) to buy and establish a network. Capex costs are normally very high for a new network, and operators endeavour to avoid this and use any existing networks they may have to make the optimum use of any capital. In addition to the capex, there are the operational costs, (opex). These costs are for general maintenance and other operational costs that may be incurred. Increasing efficiency and reliability will reduce the opex costs. Any upgrade such as that from GSM to EDGE will require new investment and operators are keen to keep this to the minimum. The upgrades for the EDGE network are not as large as starting from scratch and rolling out a new network. The EDGE network adds to the existing GSM network. The main new entities required within the network are the SGSN and GGSN, and these are required as the starting point. The base station subsystems require some updates. The main one is the addition of the PCU described above. Some modifications may be required to the BTS, but often only a software upgrade is required, and this may often be achieved remotely. In this way costs are kept to a minimum.

GSM EDGE Modulation, Slot, Burst and Air Interface

- summary, overview or tutorial about the basics of GSM EDGE air interface including the modulation scheme, slot, burst configurations.

The air interface for GSM EDGE, including the modulation, as well as the slot and burst structures, have been developed to be compatible with the overall GSM concept. In this way EDGE cellular technology is able to operate alongside the existing GSM systems by adding an EDGE upgrade. In addition to this EDGE technology re-uses many of the features of the existing systems allowing both technologies to utilise the same base stations, etc. This provides a lower cost option to upgrade the network rather than having to deploy a completely new system. With EDGE operating alongside GSM and GPRS, it has been necessary for the air interface to accommodate all signals, often catering for all three simultaneously. This approach, while

proving some technical challenges has been very successful, as demonstrated by the number of operators whose networks are able to accommodate all three signals.

GSM EDGE modulation characteristics

One of the ways in which EDGE is able to provide higher data rates is to use a different modulation scheme for higher data rates. However the GMSK modulation scheme used for the basic GSM system is still used for the lower data rates. GMSK was chosen for the original GSM system for a variety of reasons:

It is resilient to noise when compared to many other forms of modulation. Radiation outside the accepted bandwidth is lower than other forms of phase shift keying. It has a constant power level which allows higher efficiency RF power amplifiers to be used in the handset, thereby reducing current consumption and conserving battery life.

The GMSK modulation format is is used for the lower data rate transfers. The advantages mean that it is well suited for situations where lower data rates can be tolereated.

Note on GMSK:
GMSK, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying is a form of phase modulation that is used in a number of portable radio and wireless applications. It has advantages in terms of spectral efficiency as well as having an almost constant amplitude which allows for the use of more efficient transmitter power amplifiers, thereby saving on current consumption, a critical issue for battery power equipment. Click on the link for a GMSK tutorial

In order to enable data to be transmitted a form of phase modulation known as Octonary Phase Shift Keying, 8PSK was used. This form of modulation has a number of advantages that meant it was chosen for carrying high speed EDGE data:

Able to operate within the existing GSM / GPRS channel structure. Able to operate within the existing GSM / GPRS channel bandwidth. Able to operate within the existing GSM / GPRS channel coding structure. Provides a higher data capability than the existing GSM GMSK modulation scheme.

The 8-PSK modulation scheme fulfils these requirements. It has the equivalent bandwidth and adjacent channel interference levels to GMSK. This makes it possible to integrate EDGE

channels into the existing GSM / GPRS network and frequency plan as well as keeping the same channel coding structure.

Note on PSK:
Phase shift Keying, PSK is a form of modulation used particularly for data transmissions. If offers an effective way of transmitting data. By altering the number of different phase states which can be adopted, the data speeds that can be achieved within a given channel can be increased, but at the cost of lower resilience to noise an interference. Click on the link for a PSK tutorial

The 8PSK modulation method is a linear method in which three consecutive bits are mapped onto one symbol in the I/Q plane as shown below

8PSK Modulation Constellation Using 8-PSK, the rate at which symbols are sent remains the same. However each symbol now represents three bits instead of one. This means that the actual data rate is increased by a factor of three. The "distance" between the different positions on the constellation diagram is shorter using 8PSK modulation than when using GMSK. This means that there is an increased risk of any of the symbols being misinterpreted, especially in the presence of interference or noise. This occurs because it is more difficult for the radio receiver to detect which symbol it has received. To overcome this, additional error coding may be required to protect against the possibility of errors. However increased levels of error protection require additional data to be sent and this reduces the data throughput of the required data.

In view of this, it is found that when the signal is poor GMSK can be more effective than 8PSK, and as a result, the overall EDGE modulation scheme is a mixture of GMSK and 8PSK.

GSM EDGE time slots

EDGE, GPRS and GSM have to all operate along side each other in a network. It is a primary requirement that the evolutionary technologies are able to all operate on the same network. This ensures the service offered to existing customers using older phones along with those paying additional rates for the premium EDGE services. This means that the network has to support both services operating simultaneously. Accordingly different slots within the traffic frames will need to be able to support different structures and different types of modulation dependent upon the phones being used, the calls being made and the prevailing conditions. It is quite possible that one slot may be supporting a GSM call, the next a GPRS data connection, and the third an EDGE connection using GMSK or 8PSK.

GPRS network architecture

- a summary, overview or tutorial about the basics of the GSM EDGE data coding and error correction and MCS classes.

Most of the data being sent over an EDGE link will consist of TCP/IP packets. These packets are longer than a single EDGE packet payload and therefore it is necessary to split the TCP/IP packets into smaller section and these are known as "chunks". These chunks have defined sizes and may consist of one of 22, 28, 34, or 37 bytes or "octets". The 37 octet chunk may be made directly of data to be transmitted, or it may be a 34 octet chunk which is then padded by adding three dummy octets. There are nine different Modulation and Coding Schemes (MCS) that can be used with EDGE. Each one is designated a number in the region 1 to 9. These allow different degrees of error protection (and coding rate) and this results in a change in the net data throughput. The system detects the number of bit errors and adjusts the coding scheme accordingly. It naturally endeavours to adopt the scheme that will result in the highest throughput, but will adjust itself according to the prevailing conditions, changing as required. The different coding schemes are grouped into three classes or families which are referred to by letters, as classes A, B and C. The coding schemes within a class are used together and complement each other. Family A consists of MCS-3, MCS-6, MCS-8, and MCS-9. Family B

consists of MCS-2, MCS-5, and MCS-7. Finally family C consists of MCS-1, and MCS- 4. The advantage of grouping the families together in this way is that if a block transmitted in one of the coding schemes is not acknowledged, then it can be sent as two blocks, for example with a coding scheme in the same family. For example if a block transmitted using MCS-7 is corrupted then it can be re-sent as two blocks using MCS-5 or four using MCS-2.

MCS Scheme Name MCS-1 MCS-2 MCS-3 MCS-4 MCS-5 MCS-6 MCS-7 MCS-8 MCS-9

Effective Coding rate 0.53 0.66 0.8 1.0 0.37 0.49 0.76 0.92 1

Modulation Format GMSK GMSK GMSK GMSK 8PSK 8PSK 8PSK 8PSK 8PSK

Data Rate for One Slot (kbps) 8.8 11.2 14.8 17.6 22.4 29.6 44.8 54.4 59.2

Evolved EDGE
- summary, overview or tutorial about the basics of Evolved EDGE, the upgrade to EDGE to provide further improvements.

Evolved EDGE or E-EDGE is an upgrade that has been developed to enable GSM EDGE networks to be upgraded to provide similar performance levels to those provided by the more traditional 3G technologies including UMTS and CDMA20001x EVDO. In view of the performance of Evolved EDGE, it has been seen as a route for operators not wanting the additional investment needed for 3G, while still needing the higher levels of performance offered by new technology. As far as the user is concerned, the vanilla form of EDGE provides a speed increase of around three times over GPRS and it is usually possible to achieve speeds of up to 220 kbps. Using Evolved EDGE, speeds of around 1 Mbps are anticipated. Despite the advantages of deploying Evolved EDGE, the take-up has been small. Operators have sent he majority of the market moving to 3G and beyond and with factors such as availability of handsets, and roaming mobility, the operator enthusiasm has not reached sufficient critical mass to for it to take off.

Evolved EDGE, E-EDGE basics

There are a number of new elements that are incorporated onto the original form of EDGE. A number of ideas have been introduced to provide the upgrades required. These include the following:

Higher Order Modulation: In order to be able to provide its increase in speed over GPRS, the vanilla version of EDGE uses 8PSK modulation to enable a speed increase. This works by enabling 3 bits to be encoded per symbol. Evolved EDGE, E-EDGE uses higher orders of Quadrature Amplitude Modulation in the forms of 16QAM, which encodes 4 bits per symbol and 32QAM which encodes 5 bits per symbol. That said, 32QAM is only able to be used under ideal conditions because there is a trade-off using higher modulation orders. While they are able to provide higher data rates, they require a greater signal to noise ratio to provide error-free reception. Receiver diversity: The Evolved EDGE system provides for a scheme known as receiver diversity where a second receiver is used to decode the incoming signal a way that can receive it with different characteristics, e.g. position or polarisation. In this way, if the signal on one receiver is poor, there is a chance the signal on the second one is better and can be received with fewer errors. Simultaneous channels: The Evolved EDGE standard allows for the use of two channels, thereby providing the possibility of doubling the throughput. Simultaneous transmission and reception: One key element within GSM, and then GPRS and EDGE, was that to save costs, the Time Division Multiplexing scheme would ensure that the transmitter and receiver in a mobile handset were never active at the same time. This was achieved by using one slot for transmission, and a different time slot for reception. Even when multiple slots are used, one either side of the reception slot(s) was kept clear to allow for transmit / receive settling. Evolved EDGE allows for simultaneous transmission and reception as the cost of more effective filtering between the transmitter and receiver. Most EDGE mobiles on the market are restricted to four timeslots per carrier due to this phenomenon, having independent transmission and reception chains could allow mobiles to use all eight timeslots of a carrier.

Evolved EDGE take-up

While Evolved EDGE seems to tick many of the boxes for operators and users alike, take-up has been very poor. While the scheme can offer data rates of around 1 Mbps, many of the more up to date technologies such as HSPA and further on LTE offer much higher data rates. Operators are unlikely to want to invest in Evolved EDGE if they will ultimately need to introduce the newer technologies that offer far greater levels of performance. In addition to this, another major factor

affecting the deployment of Evolved EDGE is the availability of handsets. With a lack of handsets it is not possible for the system to gain any headway. Despite this, the orginal form of EDGE is still in widespread use. read

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UMTS / WCDMA basics tutorial & UMTS Overview

- a tutorial, or overview of the basics of UMTS, Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, using WCDMA technology run under the auspices of 3GPP.

UMTS WCDMA tutorial includes:

UMTS WCDMA Tutorial UMTS 3G history UMTS WCDMA network architecture UMTS / WCDMA radio or air interface CDMA multiple access technology

UMTS / WCDMA modulation schemes UMTS WCDMA channels UMTS TDD TD-SCDMA UMTS WCDMA handover / handoff

3GPP UMTS, the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System is the third generation (3G) successor to the second generation GSM based cellular technologies which also include GPRS, and EDGE. Although UMTS uses a totally different air interface, the core network elements have been migrating towards the UMTS requirements with the introduction of GPRS and EDGE. In this way the transition from GSM to the 3G UMTS architecture did not require such a large instantaneous investment. UMTS uses Wideband CDMA (WCDMA or W-CDMA) to carry the radio transmissions, and often the system is referred to by the name WCDMA. It is also gaining a third name. Some are calling it 3GSM because it is a 3G migration for GSM.

3GPP UMTS Specifications and Management

In order to create and manage a system as complicated as UMTS or WCDMA it is necessary to develop and maintain a large number of documents and specifications. For UMTS or WCDMA, these are now managed by a group known as 3GPP - the Third Generation Partnership Programme. This is a global co-operation between six organisational partners - ARIB, CCSA, ETSI, ATIS, TTA and TTC. The scope of 3GPP was to produce globally applicable Technical Specifications and Technical Reports for a 3rd Generation Mobile Telecommunications System. This would be based upon the GSM core networks and the radio access technologies that they support (i.e., Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA) both Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) modes). Since it was originally formed, 3GPP has also taken over responsibility for the GSM standards as well as looking at future developments including LTE (Long Term Evolution) and the 4G technology known as LTE Advanced.

UMTS Capabilities
UMTS uses Wideband CDMA - WCDMA - as the radio transmission standard. It employs a 5 MHz channel bandwidth. Using this bandwidth it has the capacity to carry over 100 simultaneous voice calls, or it is able to carry data at speeds up to 2 Mbps in its original format.

However with the later enhancements of HSDPA and HSUPA (described in other articles accessible from the cellular telecommunications menu page ) included in later releases of the standard the data transmission speeds have been increased to 14.4 Mbps. Many of the ideas that were incorporated into GSM have been carried over and enhanced for UMTS. Elements such as the SIM have been transformed into a far more powerful USIM (Universal SIM). In addition to this, the network has been designed so that the enhancements employed for GPRS and EDGE can be used for UMTS. In this way the investment required is kept to a minimum. A new introduction for UMTS is that there are specifications that allow both Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) modes. The first modes to be employed are FDD modes where the uplink and downlink are on different frequencies. The spacing between them is 190 MHz for Band 1 networks being currently used and rolled out. However the TDD mode where the uplink and downlink are split in time with the base stations and then the mobiles transmitting alternately on the same frequency is particularly suited to a variety of applications. Obviously where spectrum is limited and paired bands suitably spaced are not available. It also performs well where small cells are to be used. As a guard time is required between transmit and receive, this will be smaller when transit times are smaller as a result of the shorter distances being covered. A further advantage arises from the fact that it is found that far more data is carried in the downlink as a result of internet surfing, video downloads and the like. This means that it is often better to allocate more capacity to the downlink. Where paired spectrum is used this is not possible. However when a TDD system is used it is possible to alter the balance between downlink and uplink transmissions to accommodate this imbalance and thereby improve the efficiency. In this way TDD systems can be highly efficient when used in picocells for carrying Internet data. The TDD systems have not been widely deployed, but this may occur more in the future. In view of its character, it is often referred to as TD-CDMA (Time Division CDMA).

UMTS WCDMA specification summary

the UMTS WCDMA system offered a significant improvement in capability over the previous 2G services.

Parameter

Specification 2048 kbps low range 384 kbps urban and outdoor

Data rate

Parameter RF channel bandwidth 5 MHz Multiple access scheme Duplex schemes CDMA

Specification

FDD and also TDD

UMTS 3G History
- summary of the history of how IMT-2000 was developed and lead to 3G UMTS and CDMA2000 and overview of 3GPP releases.
With GSM being developed and deployed, the eyes of the development community started to look at the next cellular developments which would provide greater more functionality and greater levels of efficiency. The UMTS 3G history shows how these basic ideas turned into reality and changed the way in which mobile telecommunications was used. The UMTS 3G history shows that despite many set backs, UMTS was able to become established as the major 3G technology providing new standards in cellular telecommunications performance, functionality, and convenience. The 3G history shows that UMTS became the dominant 3G technology, setting the foundations for a single worldwide 4G standard in future years.

3G beginnings and IMT-2000

The International Mobile Telecommunications-2000, IMT-2000 standard is actually a family of standards for third generation (3G) wireless communications. It defines the broad outlines and requirements for standards that can be called 3G standards. It was set in place by the International Telecommunications Union (Radio Communications section), ITU-R. In the 1980s work started on looking at, what was termed in the ITU-R the "Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunications System". However with the deployment on GSM and other 2G technologies the impetus for the development of the next generation system was not present. It was not until the early 1990s that progress was seen. A working group was set up and also the 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC'92) allocated 230 MHz of spectrum between 1885 and 2025 and 2110 and 2200 MHz.

A number of organizations recognized the need for a global standard for the next generation of mobile telecommunications services. ETSI in Europe moving towards what they termed their Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, UMTS and in Japan the forerunner of the Association of Radio Industries and Businesses, ARIB undertaking a study. To enable a single standard to be adopted the ITU-R requested each regional Standards Development Organisation (SDO) to submit proposals for a Radio Transmission Technology. As a result, between 1996 and 1998 companies and regional SDOs worked towards their proposal submissions. A total of 17 different proposals were submitted. Of these eleven were for terrestrial systems and the remain six were for satellite systems. The evaluation of the proposals was completed during 1998 but during early 1999 it was necessary to gain some form of consensus. Once this was complete, by the end of 1999 the specification for the radio Transmission Technology was released by the end of 1999. Although many proposals were submitted there were several that were considerably more important than others. These included:

UMTS / WCDMA: The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System using wideband CDMA was the successor to the highly successful GSM system that was initially deployed around Europe, but was spreading rapidly worldwide. CDMA2000: This scheme was the successor to the cdmaOne system defined under Interim Standard IS-95 which was the first system to be deployed using CDMA technology. TDS-CDMA: This was a scheme developed in China that adopted many elements of the GSM / UMTS technology but was optimised for Time Division Duplex.

NB: The GSM evolution, EDGE also complied to the IMT-2000 definition for a 3G standard, although it was more commonly referred to as a 2.75G standard. Of the main IMT-2000 systems, history has shown that UMTS has became the most widely deployed of the 3G systems. It offered global roaming as well as being designed to enable more applications than many of its competitors. Also as it followed on from GSM, it had a very wide base on which to build.

3GPP and 3GPP2 history

In 1998 the various SDOs interested in UMTS banded together to form the 3rd Generation Partnership Programme, 3GPP by signing the 3rd Generation Partnership Project Agreement. Historically, the scope of 3GPP was to produce technical specifications and reports for a 3G system based on evolved GSM core networks, and the resulting radio access technology, i.e. both FDD and TDD versions of UMTS.

The work on the UMTS standard progressed rapidly and the first release, known as Release 99 took place in 1999. Further releases have appeared periodically since then to incorporate additional changes and additions to the standards including High Speed Packet Downlink Access - HSDPA, High Speed Packet Uplink Access - HSUPA and Long Term Evolution - LTE. The success of 3GPP subsequently lead to the organisation taking on the maintenance and development the GSM, GPRS and EDGE technical specifications and reports. Ore recently it has undertaken the development of the 3G LTE and LTE Advanced technical specifications and reports. A similar organisation, known as the 3rd Generation Partnership Programme 2, 3GPP2, was set up to develop and manage the standards and reports for the CDMA2000 cellular telecommunications system.

3GPP release dates and contents

The first release for the 3GPP standard took place in 1999. Since then a number of further releases have taken place, each introducing changes to correct problems, but more importantly adding further functionality. These 3GPP releases are summarised below:

3GPP Release

Release date

Summary

3GPP Release 1999 99 3GPP 2001 Release 4 3GPP 2002 Release 5

First release of the UMTS standard

This release added features including an all-IP core network. It was originally referred to as Release 2000 This 3GPP release introduced the IP Multimedia Subsystem, IMS and High Speed Packet Downlink Access, HSDPA This release of the standard integrated the operation of UMTS with wireless LAN networks and added enhancements to IMS (including Push to talk over Cellular), Generic Access Network, GAN, and it added High Speed Packet Uplink Access, HSUPA. This Release of the 3GPP standard detailed improvements to QoS for applications such as VoIP. The release also detailed upgrades for High

3GPP 2004 Release 6

3GPP

2007

3GPP Release Release 7

Release date

Summary Speed Packet Access Evolution, HSPA+, as well as changes for EDGE Evolution and it also provided interfaces to enable operation with Near Field Communication, NFC technology. 3GPP Release 8 provided the details for the LTE System Architecture Evolution, SAE, an all-IP network architecture providing the capacity and low latency required for LTE and future evolutions.

3GPP 2008 Release 8

3GPP This added further enhancements to the SAE as well as allowing for End 2009 Release 9 WiMax and LTE/UMTS interoperability. 3GPP Estimated This release of the 3GPP standard detailed the 4G LTE Advanced Release 2010 technology. 10

Note: Pre-Release 98 releases refer to pre 3G, i.e. GSM, GPRS, EDGE standards.

3G spectrum auctions
One of the main disasters that took place within the telecommunications industry was the sale of spectrum for the 3G licences within Europe. With operators moving towards the development and ultimate deployment of the forthcoming 3G services cellular telecommunications operators within Europe 3G spectrum auctions were set up at the beginning of 2000. Although a similar 3G spectrum auction had been abandoned previously in the USA because it was felt the costs were too high for the operators to bear, nevertheless Europe still went ahead. However the European governments, in particular the UK and Germany looked at the sale as an opportunity for levying a windfall tax. The 3G spectrum auction was offered on a sealed bid basis. Knowing that in order to continue their operations, the cellular operators would need to secure a licence for the 3G spectrum, this forced the prices very high bids. Accordingly the network operators took risks and also incurred high levels of debt. In the UK a total of British pounds, GBP 22.5 billion was raised and around GBP 30 billion in Germany. This meant that the operators were saddled with huge debts that would take many years to pay off even assuming that 3G was a great success.

On top of the crippling debts incurred for the spectrum, network operators also had to invest in the 3G infrastructure and its deployment. As a result the network operators were very keen to see 3G developments speeded up so that they could start to see a return on their investment and the interest charges they were paying. However the delays in the development of 3G handsets proved to be a major hurdle. Subsequent auctions in other areas of the world met with much lower bids. Network operators could not afford the amounts they paid for spectrum in Europe. In particular those auctions in Australia and New Zealand raised much smaller amounts. Other countries used other more tenable business models. For example in Hong Kong a profit sharing approach was adopted. This avoided the huge up-front costs of the auctions elsewhere.

UMTS 3G deployments history

With the success of GSM building, and reaching the 1 billion subscriber mark, the first deployments of UMTS started. One of the holding factors in some of the deployments was the fact that few handsets were available. Using CDMA technology as well as having many new features, developers had experienced difficulty in matching the handset requirements and functionality to the IC technology that was available. Battery consumption was one major resulting issue. As a result, many operators had to delay their deployments. Some milestones were achieved to show that progress was being made:

1998 - September 1998 The first call was completed in DoCoMo's trial network at the Nokia R&D establishment near Tokyo, Japan. 1999 - February Nokia successfully it has tested what was claimed to be the first WCDMA call through the public switched telephone network in the world at the Nokia test network in Finland using a WCDMA terminal, WCDMA base station subsystem and Nokia GSM Mobile with switching centres connected to the PSTN. 2001 - April Ericsson and Vodafone UK claimed to have made the world's first WCDMA voice call over commercial network 2001 - June NTT DoCoMo launched a trial 3G service.

With the development milestones showing significant progress, the first deployments started. These were slow at first, but the momentum soon started to increase:

2001 - October NTT DoCoMo launched the first commercial WCDMA 3G mobile network. 2001 - December The first commercial European network was opened for business by Telenor, although no handsets were available immediately. 2003 - March On 3rd March 2003, (03-03-03), the UK operator 3 launched the first 3G service in the UK.

UMTS / WCDMA Network Architecture

- the UMTS / WCDMA network architecture including the User Equipment - UE -, the Radio Network Subsystem, and the Core Network.
The UMTS network architecture is required to provide a greater level of performance to that of the original GSM network. However as many networks had migrated through the use of GPRS and EDGE, they already had the ability to carry data. Accordingly many of the elements required for the WCDMA / UMTS network architecture were seen as a migration. This considerably reduced the cost of implementing the UMTS network as many elements were in place or needed upgrading. With one of the major aims of UMTS being to be able to carry data, the UMTS network architecture was designed to enable a considerable improvement in data performance over that provided for GSM.

UMTS network constituents

The UMTS network architecture can be divided into three main elements:
1. User Equipment (UE): The User Equipment or UE is the name given to what was previous termed the mobile, or cellphone. The new name was chosne because the considerably greater functionality that the UE could have. It could also be anything between a mobile phone used for talking to a data terminal attached to a computer with no voice capability. 2. Radio Network Subsystem (RNS): The RNS is the equivalent of the previous Base Station Subsystem or BSS in GSM. It provides and manages the air interface fort he overall network. 3. Core Network: The core network provides all the central processing and management for the system. It is the equivalent of the GSM Network Switching Subsystem or NSS.

The core network is then the overall entity that interfaces to external networks including the public phone network and other cellular telecommunications networks.

UMTS Network Architecture Overview

User Equipment, UE
The USER Equipment or UE is a major element of the overall UMTS network architecture. It forms the final interface with the user. In view of the far greater number of applications and facilities that it can perform, the decision was made to call it a user equipment rather than a mobile. However it is essentially the handset (in the broadest terminology), although having access to much higher speed data communications, it can be much more versatile, containing many more applications. It consists of a variety of different elements including RF circuitry, processing, antenna, battery, etc. There are a number of elements within the UE that can be described separately:

UE RF circuitry: The RF areas handle all elements of the signal, both for the receiver and for the transmitter. One of the major challenges for the RF power amplifier was to reduce the power consumption. The form of modulation used for W-CDMA requires the use of a linear amplifier. These inherently take more current than non linear amplifiers which can be used for the form of modulation used on GSM. Accordingly to maintain battery life, measures were introduced into many of the designs to ensure the optimum efficiency. Baseband processing: The base-band signal processing consists mainly of digital circuitry. This is considerably more complicated than that used in phones for previous generations. Again this has been optimised to reduce the current consumption as far as possible.

Battery: While current consumption has been minimised as far as possible within the circuitry of the phone, there has been an increase in current drain on the battery. With users expecting the same lifetime between charging batteries as experienced on the previous generation phones, this has necessitated the use of new and improved battery technology. Now Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries are used. These phones to remain small and relatively light while still retaining or even improving the overall life between charges. Universal Subscriber Identity Module, USIM: The UE also contains a SIM card, although in the case of UMTS it is termed a USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity Module). This is a more advanced version of the SIM card used in GSM and other systems, but embodies the same types of information. It contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity number (IMSI) as well as the Mobile Station International ISDN Number (MSISDN). Other information that the USIM holds includes the preferred language to enable the correct language information to be displayed, especially when roaming, and a list of preferred and prohibited Public Land Mobile Networks (PLMN). The USIM also contains a short message storage area that allows messages to stay with the user even when the phone is changed. Similarly "phone book" numbers and call information of the numbers of incoming and outgoing calls are stored.

The UE can take a variety of forms, although the most common format is still a version of a "mobile phone" although having many data capabilities. Other broadband dongles are also being widely used.

UMTS Radio Network Subsystem

This is the section of the UMTS / WCDMA network that interfaces to both the UE and the core network. The overall radio access network, i.e. collectively all the Radio Network Subsystem is known as the UTRAN UMTS Radio Access Network. The Radio Network Subsystem comprises two main components:

Radio Network Controller, RNC: This element of the radio network subsystem controls the Node Bs that are connected to it. The RNC undertakes the radio resource management and some of the mobility management functions, although not all. It is also the point at which the data encryption / decryption is performed to protect the user data from eavesdropping. Node B: Node B is the term used within UMTS to denote the base station transceiver. It contains the transmitter and receiver to communicate with the UEs within the cell.

In order to facilitate effective handover between Node Bs under the control of different RNCs, the RNC not only communicates with the Core Network, but also with neighbouring RNCs.

UMTS Radio Network Subsystem Architecture

UMTS Core Network

The UMTS core network architecture is a migration of that used for GSM with further elements overlaid to enable the additional functionality demanded by UMTS. In view of the different ways in which data may be carried, the UMTS core network may be split into two different areas:

Circuit switched elements: These elements are primarily based on the GSM network entities and carry data in a circuit switched manner, i.e. a permanent channel for the duration of the call. Packet switched elements: These network entities are designed to carry packet data. This enables much higher network usage as the capacity can be shared and data is carried as packets which are routed according to their destination.

Some network elements, particularly those that are associated with registration are shared by both domains and operate in the same way that they did with GSM.

UMTS Core Network

Circuit switched elements The circuit switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the following network entities:

Mobile switching centre (MSC): This is essentially the same as that within GSM, and it manages the circuit switched calls under way. Gateway MSC (GMSC): This is effectively the interface to the external networks.

Packet switched elements The packet switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the following network entities:

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): As the name implies, this entity was first developed when GPRS was introduced, and its use has been carried over into the UMTS network architecture. The SGSN provides a number of functions within the UMTS network architecture. o Mobility management When a UE attaches to the Packet Switched domain of the UMTS Core Network, the SGSN generates MM information based on the mobile's current location. o Session management: The SGSN manages the data sessions providing the required quality of service and also managing what are termed the PDP (Packet data Protocol) contexts, i.e. the pipes over which the data is sent. o Interaction with other areas of the network: The SGSN is able to manage its elements within the network only by communicating with other areas of the network, e.g. MSC and other circuit switched areas.

Billing: The SGSN is also responsible billing. It achieves this by monitoring the flow of user data across the GPRS network. CDRs (Call Detail Records) are generated by the SGSN before being transferred to the charging entities (Charging Gateway Function, CGF). Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): Like the SGSN, this entity was also first introduced into the GPRS network. The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is the central element within the UMTS packet switched network. It handles inter-working between the UMTS packet switched network and external packet switched networks, and can be considered as a very sophisticated router. In operation, when the GGSN receives data addressed to a specific user, it checks if the user is active and then forwards the data to the SGSN serving the particular UE.
o

Shared elements The shared elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the following network entities:

Home location register (HLR): This database contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the UMTS network is able to route calls to the relevant RNC / Node B. When a user switches on their UE, it registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which Node B it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even when the UE is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position with their current or last known location on the network. Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given UE equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each UE equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during registration. Authentication centre (AuC) : The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key also contained in the user's USIM card.

UMTS / WCDMA radio air interface

- the air interface, frequencies and power control used within UMTS or Wideband CDMA, WCDMA, cellular telecommunications system

Physical layer within UMTS / WCDMA is totally different to that employed by GSM. It employs a spread spectrum transmission in the form of CDMA rather than the TDMA transmissions used for GSM. Additionally it currently uses different frequencies to those allocated for GSM.

UMTS Uplink and Downlink

When looking at the radio air interface and its associated properties, it is necessary to define the directions in which the transmissions are occurring. Being a full duplex system, i.e. transmitting simultaneously in both directions, it is necessary to be able to define which direction is which.

Uplink; This may also sometimes be known as the reverse link, and it is the link from the User Equipment (UE) to the Node B or base station. Downlink; This may also sometimes be known as the forward link, and it is the link from the Node B or base station to the User Equipment (UE).

The terms Uplink and Downlink are the terms that are used with UMTS, and especially within Europe. The terms forward link and reverse link are more commonly used with the CDMA2000 technologies and also within North America.

Uplink and downlink transmission directions

UMTS frequencies
There are currently six bands that are specified for use for UMTS / WCDMA although operation on other frequencies is not precluded. However much of the focus for UMTS is currently on frequency allocations around 2 GHz. At the World Administrative radio Conference in 1992, the bands 1885 - 2025 and 2110 - 2200 MHz were set aside for use on a world wide basis by administrations wishing to implement International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT2000). The aim was that allocating spectrum on a world wide basis would facilitate easy roaming for UMTS / WCDMA users. Within these bands the portions have been reserved for different uses:

1920-1980 and 2110-2170 MHz Frequency Division Duplex (FDD, W-CDMA) Paired uplink and downlink, channel spacing is 5 MHz and raster is 200 kHz. An Operator needs 3 - 4 channels (2x15 MHz or 2x20 MHz) to be able to build a high-speed, high-capacity network. 1900-1920 and 2010-2025 MHz Time Division Duplex (TDD, TD/CDMA) Unpaired, channel spacing is 5 MHz and raster is 200 kHz. Transmit and receive transmissions are not separated in frequency. 1980-2010 and 2170-2200 MHz Satellite uplink and downlink.

UMTS carrier frequencies are designated by a UTRA Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number (UARFCN). This can be calculated from: UARFCN = 5 x (frequency in MHz) UMTS uses wideband CDMA as the radio transport mechanism. The UMTS channels are spaced by 5 MHz.

Synchronisation
The level of synchronisation required for the WCDMA system to operate is provided from the Primary Synchronisation Channel (P-SCH) and the Secondary Synchronisation Channel (SSCH). These channels are treated in a different manner to the normal channels and as a result they are not spread using the OVSFs and PN codes. Instead they are spread using synchronisation codes. There are two types that are used. The first is called the primary code and is used on the P-SCH, and the second is named a secondary code and is used on the S-SCH. The primary code is the same for all cells and is a 256 chip sequence that is transmitted during the first 256 chips of each time slot. This allows the UE to synchronise with the base station for the time slot. Once the UE has gained time slot synchronisation it only knows the start and stop of the time slot, but it does not know information about the particular time slot, or the frame. This is gained using the secondary synchronisation codes. There is a total of sixteen different secondary synchronisation codes. One code is sent at the beginning of the time slot, i.e. the first 256 chips. It consists of 15 synchronisation codes and there are 64 different scrambling code groups. When received, the UE is able to determine before which synchronisation code the overall frame begins. In this way the UE is able to gain complete synchronisation. The scrambling codes in the S-SCH also enable the UE to identify which scrambling code is being used and hence it can identify the base station. The scrambling codes are divided into 64 code groups, each having eight codes. This means that after achieving frame synchronisation, the UE only has a choice of one in eight codes and it can therefore try to decode the CPICH channel. Once it has achieved this it is able to read the BCH information and achieve better timing and it is able to monitor the P-CCPCH.

UMTS power control

As with any CDMA system it is essential that the base station receives all the UEs at approximately the same power level. If not, the UEs that are further away will be lower in strength than those closer to the node B and they will not be heard. This effect is often referred to as the near-far effect. To overcome this the node B instructs those stations closer in, to reduce their transmitted power, and those further away to increase theirs. In this way all stations will be received at approximately the same strength. It is also important for node Bs to control their power levels effectively. As the signals transmitted by the different node Bs are not orthogonal to one another it is possible that signals from different ones will interfere. Accordingly their power is also kept to the minimum required by the UEs being served. To achieve the power control there are two techniques that are employed: open loop; and closed loop. Open loop techniques are used during the initial access before communication between the UE and node B has been fully established. It simply operates by making a measurement of the received signal strength and thereby estimating the transmitter power required. As the transmit and receive frequencies are different, the path losses in either direction will be different and therefore this method cannot be any more than a good estimate. Once the UE has accessed the system and is in communication with the node B, closed loop techniques are used. A measurement of the signal strength is taken in each time slot. As a result of this a power control bit is sent requesting the power to be stepped up or down. This process is undertaken on both the up and downlinks. The fact that only one bit is assigned to power control means that the power will be continually changing. Once it has reached approximately the right level then it would step up and then down by one level. In practice the position of the mobile would change, or the path would change as a result of other movements and this would cause the signal level to move, so the continual change is not a problem.

UMTS CDMA technology

- tutorial, or overview of the basics of CDMA, code division multiple access scheme used within UMTS, or Wideband CDMA, WCDMA.

The use of CDMA, code division multiple access, in the form of Wideband CDMA, WCDMA for use with the 3G UMTS telecommunications system marked a distinct change in the type of technology used for the multiple access scheme for a telecommunications system. However it offered many advantages for both users and operators and as a result, it has provided many benefits. The use of CDMA for UMTS and other cellular formats was made possible by the fact that semiconductor technology had moved forward sufficiently. At the time the first cellular

technologies were introduced sufficient processing power could be provided to enable the coding and decoding of CDMA to be accomplished within a mobile handset. CDMA as a form of multiple access scheme was first used on the cdmaOne system that was first deployed in the USA in 1995, and has successors that were marketed under the CDMA2000 banner. The use of a CDMA based technology for UMTS represented a further step forward in the use of CDMA.

CDMA for UMTS

The choice of CDMA for use with the third generation, 3G UMTS telecommunications system arose from a variety of technical reasons. It offers significant advantages over the schemes used in the previous 2G systems that were predominantly TDMA based schemes. The main benefits of the use of CDMA as a multiple access scheme are:

Improved spectral efficiency: The use of CDMA as the multiple access technology, combined with the QPSK modulation format used provides significant improvements in terms of the spectral efficiency. Figures for the performance improvements gained vary considerably dependent upon the conditions, but the scheme gives some significant benefits. Some calculated estimates give figures as high as three or four times that of technologies such as GSM, although in reality the benefits may be a bit less. Adjacent cells may use the same channel frequency: As a result of the way in which spread spectrum signals such as CDMA operate. Improved handover: Within CDMA it is possible to do what is termed a "soft handover" where the UE communicates with two base stations at the same time. This significantly improves handover reliability. Enhanced security: The use of spread spectrum and the multiple spreading codes for CDMA significantly reduces the possibility of eavesdropping, although within GSM eavesdropping of the transmitted signal was not the problem it was for the original analogue systems where anyone with a scanner radio receiver could listen to telephone conversations.

Note on CDMA:
CDMA, Code Division Multiple Access, is a multiple access scheme used by many 3G cellular technologies, and other forms of wireless technology. It uses a process called Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum where spreading codes are used to spread a signal out over a given bandwidth and then reconstituting the data in the receiver by using the same spreading code. By supplying different spreading codes to different users, several users are able to utilises the same frequency without mutual interference. Click on the link for a CDMA tutorial

UMTS CDMA format

The data to be transmitted is encoded using a spreading code particular to a given user. In this way only the desired recipient is able to correlate and decode the signal, all other signals appearing as noise. This allows the physical RF channel to be used by several users simultaneously. The data of a CDMA signal is multiplied with a chip or spreading code to increase the bandwidth of the signal. For WCDMA, each physical channel is spread with a unique and variable spreading sequence. The overall degree of spreading varies to enable the final signal to fill the required channel bandwidth. As the input data rate may vary from one application to the next, so the degree of spreading needs to be varied accordingly. For the downlink the transmitted symbol rate is 3.84 M symbols per second. As the form of modulation used is QPSK this enables two bits of information to be transmitted for every symbol, thereby enabling a maximum data rate of twice the symbol rate or 7.68 Mbps. Therefore if the actual rate of the data to be transmitted is 15 kbps then a spreading factor of 512 is required to bring the signal up to the required chip rate for transmission in the required bandwidth. If the data to be carried has a higher data rate then a lower spreading rate is required to balance this out. It is worth remembering that altering the chip rate does alter the processing gain of the overall system and this needs to be accommodated in the signal processing as well. Higher spreading factors are more easily correlated by the receiver and therefore a lower transmit power can be used for the same symbol error rate. The codes required to spread the signal must be orthogonal if they are to enable multiple users and channels to operate without mutual interference. The codes used in W-CDMA are Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) codes, and they must remain synchronous to operate. As it is not possible to retain exact synchronisation for this, a second set of scrambling codes is used to ensure that interference does not result. This scrambling code is a pseudo random number (PN) code. Thus there are two stages of spreading. The first using the OSVF code and the second using a scrambling PN code. These codes are used to provide different levels of separation. The OVSF spreading codes are used to identify the user services in the uplink and user channels in the downlink whereas the PN code is used to identify the individual node B or UE. On the uplink there is a choice of millions of different PN codes. These are processed to include a masked individual code to identify the UE. As a result there are more than sufficient codes to accommodate the number of different UEs likely to access a network. For the downlink a short code is used. There are a total of 512 different codes that can be used, one of which will be assigned to each node B.

UMTS / WCDMA modulation

- tutorial, or overview of the basics of the UMTS, WCDMA modulation formats or schemes used

The modulation schemes used within the CDMA signal format have been chosen to optimise the performance of the overall UMTS, WCDMA system. One major driver that influenced the choice of the UMTS modulation formats was experience gained from 2G systems. By using a careful choice of modulation scheme it has been possible to overcome the problems experienced in 2G. However there many other requirements that need to be met in addition to this.

UMTS modulation schemes

There are several considerations that were taken into account when making the choice for the overall format for the UMTS WCDMA modulation formats. Some of the considerations were:

It is necessary to ensure that the data is carried efficiently over the available spectrum, and therefore maximum use is made of the available spectrum, and hence the capacity of the system is maximised. The modulation scheme should be chosen to ensure that the efficiency of the RF power amplifier in the handset or UE is made as high as possible. By enabling the power amplifier to be maximised, less battery power is consumed for the same transmitted power. As battery power is of particular importance to users, this is a key requirement. The modulation format should be chosen to avoid the audio interference caused to many nearby electronics equipment resulting from the pulsed transmission format used on many 2G systems such as GSM

As the uplink and downlink have different requirements, the exact format for the modulation format used on either direction is slightly different. UMTS modulation schemes for both uplink and downlink, although somewhat different are both based around phase shift keying formats. This provides many advantages over other schemes that could be used in terms of spectral efficiency and other requirements.

Note on PSK:
Phase shift Keying, PSK is a form of modulation used particularly for data transmissions. If offers an effective way of transmitting data. By altering the number of different phase states

which can be adopted, the data speeds that can be achieved within a given channel can be increased, but at the cost of lower resilience to noise an interference. Click on the link for a PSK tutorial

Downlink modulation
The UMTS modulation format for the downlink is more straightforward than that used in the uplink. The downlink uses quadrature phase shift keying, QPSK. The QPSK modulation used in the downlink is used with time-multiplexed control and data streams. While time multiplexing would be a problem in the uplink, where the transmission in this format would give rise to interference in local audio systems, this is not relevant for the downlink where the NodeB is sufficiently remote from any local audio related equipment to ensure that interference is not a problem.

Uplink modulation
However the uplink uses two separate channels so that the cycling of the transmitter on and off does not cause interference on the audio lines, a problem that was experienced on GSM. The dual channels (dual channel phase shift keying) are achieved by applying the coded user data to the I or In-phase input to the DQPSK modulator, and control data which has been encoded using a different code to the Q or quadrature input to the modulator.

UMTS / WCDMA channels

- tutorial, or overview of the basics of UMTS / WCDMA logical, physical and transport channels.
There are many UMTS channells that are used within the UMTS system. The data carried by the UMTS / WCDMA transmissions is organised into frames, slots and channels. In this way all the payload data as well as the control and status data can be carried in an efficient manner.

UMTS uses CDMA techniques (as WCDMA) as its multiple access technology, but it additionally uses time division techniques with a slot and frame structure to provide the full channel structure. A channel is divided into 10 ms frames, each of which has fifteen time slots each of 666 microseconds length. On the downlink the time is further subdivided so that the time slots contain fields that contain either user data or control messages. On the uplink dual channel modulation is used so that both data and control are transmitted simultaneously. Here the control elements contain a pilot signal, Transport Format Combination Identifier (TFCI), FeedBack Information (FBI) and Transmission Power Control (TPC). The channels carried are categorised into three: logical, transport and physical channels. The logical channels define the way in which the data will be transferred, the transport channel along with the logical channel again defines the way in which the data is transferred, the physical channel carries the payload data and govern the physical characteristics of the signal. The channels are organised such that the logical channels are related to what is transported, whereas the physical layer transport channels deal with how, and with what characteristics. The MAC layer provides data transfer services on logical channels. A set of logical channel types is defined for different kinds of data transfer services.

Logical Channels:
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH), (downlink). This channel broadcasts information to UEs relevant to the cell, such as radio channels of neighbouring cells, etc. Paging Control Channel (PCCH), (downlink). This channel is associated with the PICH and is used for paging messages and notification information. Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH), (up and downlinks) This channel is used to carry dedicated control information in both directions. Common Control Channel (CCCH), (up and downlinks). This bi-directional channel is used to transfer control information. Shared Channel Control Channel (SHCCH), (bi-directional). This channel is bi-directional and only found in the TDD form of WCDMA / UMTS, where it is used to transport shared channel control information. Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH), (up and downlinks). This is a bidirectional channel used to carry user data or traffic.

Common Traffic Channel (CTCH), (downlink) A unidirectional channel used to transfer dedicated user information to a group of UEs.

Transport Channels:
Dedicated Transport Channel (DCH), (up and downlink). This is used to transfer data to a particular UE. Each UE has its own DCH in each direction. Broadcast Channel (BCH), (downlink). This channel broadcasts information to the UEs in the cell to enable them to identify the network and the cell. Forward Access Channel (FACH),(down link). This is channel carries data or information to the UEs that are registered on the system. There may be more than one FACH per cell as they may carry packet data. Paging Channel (PCH) (downlink). This channel carries messages that alert the UE to incoming calls, SMS messages, data sessions or required maintenance such as re-registration. Random Access Channel (RACH), (uplink). This channel carries requests for service from UEs trying to access the system Uplink Common Packet Channel (CPCH), (uplink). This channel provides additional capability beyond that of the RACH and for fast power control. Downlink Shared Channel (DSCH) (downlink).This channel can be shared by several users and is used for data that is "bursty" in nature such as that obtained from web browsing etc.

Physical Channels:
Primary Common Control Physical Channel (PCCPCH) (downlink). This channel continuously broadcasts system identification and access control information. Secondary Common Control Physical Channel (SCCPCH) (downlink) This channel carries the Forward Access Channel (FACH) providing control information, and the Paging Channel (PACH) with messages for UEs that are registered on the network. Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH) (uplink). This channel enables the UE to transmit random access bursts in an attempt to access a network. Dedicated Physical Data Channel (DPDCH) (up and downlink). This channel is used to transfer user data.

Dedicated Physical Control Channel (DPCCH) (up and downlink). This channel carries control information to and from the UE. In both directions the channel carries pilot bits and the Transport Format Combination Identifier (TFCI). The downlink channel also includes the Transmit Power Control and FeedBack Information (FBI) bits. Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH) (downlink). This channel shares control information to UEs within the coverage area of the node B. Physical Common Packet Channel (PCPCH). This channel is specifically intended to carry packet data. In operation the UE monitors the system to check if it is busy, and if not it then transmits a brief access burst. This is retransmitted if no acknowledgement is gained with a slight increase in power each time. Once the node B acknowledges the request, the data is transmitted on the channel. Synchronisation Channel (SCH) The synchronisation channel is used in allowing UEs to synchronise with the network. Common Pilot Channel (CPICH) This channel is transmitted by every node B so that the UEs are able estimate the timing for signal demodulation. Additionally they can be used as a beacon for the UE to determine the best cell with which to communicate. Acquisition Indicator Channel (AICH) The AICH is used to inform a UE about the Data Channel (DCH) it can use to communicate with the node B. This channel assignment occurs as a result of a successful random access service request from the UE. Paging Indication Channel (PICH) This channel provides the information to the UE to be able to operate its sleep mode to conserve its battery when listening on the Paging Channel (PCH). As the UE needs to know when to monitor the PCH, data is provided on the PICH to assign a UE a paging repetition ratio to enable it to determine how often it needs to 'wake up' and listen to the PCH. CPCH Status Indication Channel (CSICH) This channel, which only appears in the downlink carries the status of the CPCH and may also be used to carry some intermittent, or "bursty" data. It works in a similar fashion to PICH. Collision Detection/Channel Assignment Indication Channel (CD/CA-ICH) This channel, present in the downlink is used to indicate whether the channel assignment is active or inactive to the UE.

UMTS TDD / TD WCDMA

- a summary or tutorial about the basics of UMTS TDD, the time division duplex cellular technology sometimes called TD WCDMA, part of the UMTS 3G system.

UMTS TDD (Universal mobile telecommunications system - time division duplex) is a growing cellular technology. Although UMTS TDD or TD WCDMA is not as widely deployed as the more popular UMTS FDD which is being deployed for the 3G mobile phone systems, UMTS TDD is nevertheless being widely used and providing a viable service for many applications. In particular it is being used to provide mobile broadband data services, and other applications may include its use in providing mobile TV applications. In this way, UMTS is a growing cellular technology which will be far more widely used in the years to come

TDD - time division duplex

A communications system requires that communication is possible in both directions: to and from the base station to the remote station. There are a number of ways in which this can be achieved. The most obvious is to transmit on one frequency and receive on another. The frequency difference between the two transmissions being such that the two signals do not interfere. This is known as frequency division duplex (FDD) and it is one of the most commonly used schemes, and it is used by most cellular schemes. It is also possible to use a single frequency and rather than using different frequency allocations, use different time allocations. If the transmission times are split into slots, then transmissions in one direction take place in one time slot, and those in the other direction take place in another. It is this scheme that is known as time division duplex, TDD, and it is used for UMTS-TDD.

Note on TDD and FDD duplex schemes:

In order for radio communications systems to be able to communicate in both directions it is necessary to have what is termed a duplex scheme. A duplex scheme provides a way of organizing the transmitter and receiver so that they can transmit and receive. There are several methods that can be adopted. For applications including wireless and cellular telecommunications, where it is required that the transmitter and receiver are able to operate simultaneously, two schemes are in use. One known as FDD or frequency division duplex uses two channels, one for transmit and the other for receiver. Another scheme known as TDD, time division duplex uses one frequency, but allocates different time slots for transmission and reception.

Click on the link for more information on TDD FDD duplex schemes

When using a TDD system, there are a number of characteristics that are pertinent for TDD systems. These characteristics need to be accommodated when developing or using TDD systems.

Utilisation of unpaired bands: Typically there is more traffic in the downlink (network to the mobile) than in the uplink (mobile to network). Accordingly the operator is able to allocate more time to the downlink transmission than the uplink. This is not possible with the paired spectrum required for FDD systems where it is not possible to re-allocate the use of the different bands. As a result of this, it is possible to make very efficient use of the available spectrum. Discontinuous transmission: In any TDD system it is necessary to switch between transit and receive. This takes a certain amount of time. Not only does it take time for the mobile and the base station to change between transmit and receive in terms of ramping up or down the power, along with the settling of any transients. In addition to this the time is required between transmit and receive to accommodate the transmission time between the mobile and the base station. As a result a guard band is required. Uplink / downlink interference: As both uplink and downlink share the same channel there can be interference between the two transmission directions. To overcome this, base stations are synchronised to ensure that they do not transmit when an adjacent base station is receiving, otherwise the better siting and possible higher power level will cause interference. Equivalent conditions for uplink and downlink: As both uplink and downlink use the same channel, they are subject to the same propagation conditions. With FDD systems using different frequencies for the uplink and downlink there are significant differences. By using the same frequency fading conditions can be counteracted more effectively.

UMTS TDD / FDD comparison

While UMTS TDD and UMTS FDD are both specified in the same standard and share very many properties, there are naturally some differences.

Parameter

UMTS TDD CDMA FDD 5 MHz

UMTS FDD

Multiple access method TDMA, CDMA Duplex method Channel spacing Carrier chip rate TDD 5 MHz[1] 3.84 Mcps

3.84 Mcps

Parameter Time slot structure Frame length (ms) Multirate concept

UMTS TDD 15 / 14 slots / frame 10 Multicode, multislot and OVSF[2] (1) traffic bursts (2) random access burst (3) synchronisation burst Coherent based on midamble

UMTS FDD 15 slots / frame 10 Multicode, and OVSF[2]

Burst types

N/A

Detection

Coherent based on pilot symbols

Dedicated channel power control

Uplink: open loop 100 Hz or 200 Hz rate Fast closed loop 1500 Hz Downlink: closed loop max 800 rate Hz rate 1 .. 16 4 .. 512

Spreading factors

Notes [1] for TD-SCDMA the channel spacing is 1.6 MHz [2] OVSF = Orthogonal variable Spreading Factor

UMTS TDD within 3GPP

All the standards for UMTS 3G systems have been defined under the auspices of 3GPP - the third generation partnership project. The standards not only define the FDD systems, but also the TDD system. In these specifications, it was the original intent of UMTS that the TDD spectrum would be used to provide high data rates in selected areas forming what could be termed 3G hot zones.

UMTS TDD details

UMTS TDD uses many of the same basic parameters as UMTS FDD. The same 5 MHz channel bandwidths are used. UMTS TDD also uses direct sequence spread spectrum and different users and what can be termed "logical channels" are separated using different spreading codes. Only when the receiver uses the same code in the correlation process, is the data recovered. In WCDMA all other logical channels using different spreading codes appear as noise on the channel and ultimately limit the capacity of the system. In UMTS TDD, a scheme known as multi user detection (MUD) is employed in the receiver and improves the removal of the interfering codes, allowing higher data rates and capacity. In addition to the separation of users by using different logical channels as a result of the different spreading codes, further separation between users may be provided by allocating different time slots. There are 15 time slots in UMTS TDD. Of these, three are used for overhead such as signalling, etc and this leaves twelve time slots for user traffic. In each timeslot there can be 16 codes. Capacity is allocated to users on demand, using a two dimensional matrix of timeslots and codes. In order for UMTS TDD to achieve the best overall performance, the transport format, i.e. the modulation and forward error correction can be altered for each user. The schemes are chosen by the network, and will depend on the signal characteristics in both directions. Higher order forms of modulation enable higher data speeds to be accommodated, but they are less resilient to noise and interference, and this means that the higher data rate modulation schemes are only used when signal strengths are high. Additionally the levels of forward error correction can be changed. When errors are likely, i.e. when signal strengths are low or interference levels are high, Similarly higher levels of forward error correction are needed under low require additional data to be sent and this slows the payload transfer rate. Thus it is possible to achieve much higher data transfer rates when signals are strong and interference levels are low.

Spectrum allocations for UMTS TDD

Standard allocations of radio spectrum have been made for 3G telecommunications systems in most countries around the globe. In Europe and many other areas spectrum has been allocated for UMTS FDD between 1920MHz to 1980MHz and 2110MHz to 2170MHz. For UMTS TDD spectrum is primarily located between 1900MHz and 1920MHz and between 2010MHz and 2025MHz. In addition to this there are some other allocations around 3 GHz.

UMTS TDD performance

UMTS TDD is able to support high peak data rates. Release 5 of the UMTS standard provides HSDPA (high-speed downlink packet access). The scheme allows the use of a higher order modulation scheme called 16-QAM (16 point quadrature amplitude modulation), which enables peak rates of 10 Mbps per sector in commercial deployments. The next release increases the

modulation to 64-QAM, and introduces intercell interference cancellation (called Generalized MUD) and MIMO (multiple in, multiple out). In combination, these increase the peak rate to 31 Mbps per sector.

3G TD-SCDMA Tutorial
- overview or tutorial of the basics of TD-SCDMA, the 3G UMTS TDD system that has been widely deployed in China.
TD-SCDMA is an additional TDD version of UMTS. Devised in China, the system provides a number of advantages in several applications. TD-SCDMA has been adopted as a 3G standard by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), and it is part of the 3GPP UMTS system being defined in the 3GPP standards. Much of the initial work for the system was undertaken by the China Academy of Telecommunications Technology (CATT). Apart from the advantages of the basoc TDD approach, TD-SCDMA is able to support IP services, and it has been designed to incorporate new technologies such as joint detection, adaptive antennas, and dynamic channel allocation While similar in many was to UMTS TDD, TD-SCDMA is has a number of differences and handsets for the two systems would not be compatible unless the capability for both systems was specifically built in to them.

TD-SCDMA basics
One of the key elements of TD-SCDMA is the fact that it uses a TDD, Time Division Duplex approach. As seen with UMTS TDD this has advantages in a number of areas, enabling the balance to be changed between uplink and downlink to accommodate the different levels of data transfer. It also has advantages in terms of using unpaired spectrum, spectrum efficiency for certain loads and it does not require expensive diplexers in the handsets to enable simultaneous transmission on the uplink and downlink, although transmit / receive switching times must be accommodated and can reduce the efficiency of the system.

Note on TDD and FDD duplex schemes:

In order for radio communications systems to be able to communicate in both directions it is necessary to have what is termed a duplex scheme. A duplex scheme provides a way of organizing the transmitter and receiver so that they can transmit and receive. There are several methods that can be adopted. For applications including wireless and cellular telecommunications, where it is required that the transmitter and receiver are able to operate simultaneously, two schemes are in use. One known as FDD or frequency division duplex uses two channels, one for transmit and the other for receiver. Another scheme known as TDD, time division duplex uses one frequency, but allocates different time slots for transmission and reception. Click on the link for more information on TDD FDD duplex schemes

As a further advantage, TD-SCDMA uses the same RAN as that used for UMTS. In this way it is possible to run TD-SCDMA alongside UMTS, and thereby simplifying multi-system designs. Although UMTS (W-CDMA) and cdma2000 are widely recognized as 3G cellular standards, TD-SCDMA is equally valid. In fact it has been adopted as the low chip rate (LCR) version of the 3GPP TDD standard.

TD-SDCMA specification overview

The TD-SCDMA standard provides many advantages. As already mentioned it has many similarities to W-CDMA, although a summary of the basic features and specification is given below:
Characteristic Bandwidth Chip rate per carrier Spectrum spreading mode Modulation Channel coding Interleaving 1.6 MHz 1.28 Mcps DS SF=1/2/4/8/16 QPSK Convolutional codes: R=1/2,1/3 Turbo implemented 10/20/40/80 ms Figure

Characteristic

Figure Super frame 720ms,Radio frame 10ms Subframe 5 ms 1/2 chip 48 25Erl./MHz 1.971Mbps

Frame structure

Uplink synchronisation Number of voice channels per carrier Spectrum Efficiency Total transmission rate provided by each carrier

UMTS WCDMA handover or handoff

- tutorial, overview of the basics of handover or handoff within UMTS detailing hard handover, soft handover, softer handover and inter-RAT UMTS GSM handover.

Handover or handoff is as important for UMTS as any other form of cellular telecommunications system. As with any other cellular telecommunications system it is essential that UMTS handover is performed seamlessly so that the user is not aware of any change. Any failures within the UMTS handover (or UMTS handoff) procedure will lead to dropped calls which will in turn result in user dissatisfaction and ultimately it may lead to users changing networks, thereby increasing the churn rate. It is worth noting that the two terms UMTS handover and UMTS handoff have the same meaning. UMTS handover tends is the terminology that tends to be used within Europe, whereas UMTS handoff is more likely to be used within North America.

UMTS handover types

Within UMTS it is possible to define a number of different types of UMTS handover or handoff. With the advent of generic CDMA technology, new possibilities for effecting more reliable forms of handover became possible, and as a result one of a variety of different forms of handover are available depending upon the different circumstances. For purely inter W-CDMA technology, there are three basic types of handover:

Hard handover: This form of handover is essentially the same as that used for 2G networks where one link is broken and another established. Soft handover: This form of handover is a more gradual and the UE communicates simultaneously with more than one Node B or base station during the handover process. Softer handover: Not a full form of UMTS handover, but the UE communicates with more than one sector managed by the same NodeB. UMTS GSM inter RAT handover: This form of handover occurs when mobiles have to change between Radio Access Technologies.

Each of the different types of handover is used on different occasions dependent upon the conditions. Further details of each type of UMTS handover are given in the individual sections below.

UMTS hard handover

The name hard handover indicates that there is a "hard" change during the handover process. For hard handover the radio links are broken and then re-established. Although hard handover should appear seamless to the user, there is always the possibility that a short break in the connection may be noticed by the user. The basic methodology behind a hard handover is relatively straightforward. There are a number of basic stages of a hard handover:
1. The network decides a handover is required dependent upon the signal strengths of the existing link, and the strengths of broadcast channels of adjacent cells. 2. The link between the existing NodeB and the UE is broken. 3. A new link is established between the new NodeB and the UE.

Although this is a simplification of the process, it is basically what happens. The major problem is that any difficulties in re-establishing the link will cause the handover to fail and the call or connection to be dropped. UMTS hard handovers may be used in a number of instances:

When moving from one cell to an adjacent cell that may be on a different frequency.

When implementing a mode change, e.g. from FDD to TDD mode, for example. When moving from one cell to another where there is no capacity on the existing channel, and a change to a new frequency is required.

One of the issues facing UMTS hard handovers was also experienced in GSM. When usage levels are high, the capacity of a particular cell that a UE is trying to enter may be insufficient to support a new user. To overcome this, it may be necessary to reserve some capacity for new users. This may be achieved by spreading the loading wherever possible - for example UEs that can receive a sufficiently strong signal from a neighbouring cell may be transferred out as the original cell nears its capacity level.

UMTS soft handover

Soft handover is a form of handover that was enabled by the introduction of CDMA. Soft handover occurs when a UE is in the overlapping coverage area of two cells. Links to the two base stations can be established simultaneously and in this way the UE can communicate with two base stations. By having more than one link active during the handover process, this provides a more reliable and seamless way in which to perform handover. In view of the fact that soft handover uses several simultaneous links, it means that the adjacent cells must be operating on the same frequency or channel as UEs do not have multiple transmitters and receivers that would be necessary if they were on different frequencies. When the UE and NodeB undertake a soft handover, the UE receives signals from the two NodeBs and combines them using the RAKE receiver capability available in the signal processing of the UE. In the uplink the situation is more complicated as the signal combining cannot be accomplished in the NodeB as more than one NodeB is involved. Instead, combining is accomplished on a frame by frame basis. The best frames are selected after each interleaving period. The selection is accomplished by using the outer loop power control algorithm which measures the signal to noise ratio (SNR) of the received uplink signals. This information is then used to select the best quality frame. Once the soft handover has been completed, the links to the old NodeB are dropped and the UE continues to communicate with the new NodeB. As can be imagined, soft handover uses a higher degree of the network resources than a normal link, or even a hard handover. However this is compensated by the improved reliability and performance of the handover process. However with around 5 to 10% of handovers falling into this category, network operators need to account for it.

Note on the RAKE receiver

A RAKE receiver is a form of radio receiver that has been made feasible in many areas by the use of digital signal processing, DSP. It is often used to overcome the effects of multipath propagation. It achieves this by using several sub-receivers known as "fingers" which are given a particular multipath component. Each finger then processes its component and decodes it. The resultant outputs from the fingers are then combined to provide the maximum contribution from each path. In this way rake receivers and multipath propagation can be used to improve the signal to noise performance.

UMTS softer handover

A form of handover referred to as softer handover is really a special form of soft handover. It is a form of soft handover that occurs when the new radio links that are added are from the same NodeB. This occurs when several sectors may be served from the same NodeB, thereby simplifying the combining as it can be achieved within the NodeB and not require linking further back into the network. UMTS softer handover is only possible when a UE can hear the signals from two sectors served by the same NodeB. This may occur as a result of the sectors overlapping, or more commonly as a result of multipath propagation resulting from reflections from buildings, etc. In the uplink, the signals received by the NodeB, the signals from the two sectors can be routed to the same RAKE receiver and then combined to provide an enhanced signal. In the downlink, it is a little more complicated because the different sectors of the NodeB use different scrambling codes. To overcome this, different fingers of the RAKE receiver apply the appropriate de-spreading or de-scrambling codes to the received signals. Once this has been done, they can be combined as before. In view of the fact that a single transmitter is used within the UE, only one power control loop is active. This may not be optimal for all instances but it simplifies the hardware and general operation.

Inter-RAT / Intersystem UMTS / GSM handover

In many instances it is necessary for the UMTS radio access network to handover to the 2G GSM network. These handovers are given a variety of names including Inter-RAT handover as they are handing over between different forms of Radio Access Technology, Intersystem Handover, and UMTS / GSM Handover. These handovers may be required for one of a variety of reasons including:

Limited UMTS coverage

UMTS network busy whereas spare capacity is available on GSM network

The most common form of intersystem or inter-RAT handover is between UMTS and GSM. There are two different types of inter-RAT handover:

UMTS to GSM handover: There are two further divisions of this category of handover: Compressed mode handover: Using compressed mode handover the UE uses the gaps in transmission that occur to analyse the reception of local GSM base stations. The UE uses the neighbour list provided by the UMTS network to monitor and select a suitable candidate base station. Having selected a suitable base station the handover takes place, but without any time synchronisation having occurred. o Blind handover: This form of handover occurs when the base station hands off the UE by passing it the details of the new cell to the UE without linking to it and setting the timing, etc of the mobile for the new cell. In this mode, the network selects what it believes to be the optimum GSM based station. The UE first locates the broadcast channel of the new cell, gains timing synchronisation and then carries out nonsynchronised intercell handover. Handover from GSM to UMTS : This form of handover is supported within GSM and a "neighbour list" was established to enable this occur easily. As the GSM / 2G network is normally more extensive than the 3G network, this type of handover does not normally occur when the UE leaves a coverage area and must quickly find a new base station to maintain contact. The handover from GSM to UMTS occurs to provide an improvement in performance and can normally take place only when the conditions are right. The neighbour list will inform the UE when this may happen.
o

UMTS handover methodology

The decisions about handover are generally handled by the RNC. It continually monitors information regarding the signals being received by both the UE and NodeB and when a particular link has fallen below a given level and another better radio channel is available, it initiates a handover. As part of this monitoring process, the UE measures the Received Signal Code Power (RSCP) and Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and the information is then returned to the node B and hence to the RNC on the uplink control channel.

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ANTENNA AND PROPAGATION\

Electromagnetic waves and antenna basics

- an overview, summary, tutorial about the basics of electromagnetic waves and the way in which they affect RF antenna and RF antenna design.

Radio signals are a form of electromagnetic wave, and as they are the way in which radio signals travel, they have a major bearing on RF antennas themselves and RF antenna design. Electromagnetic waves are the same type of radiation as light, ultra-violet and infra red rays, differing from them in their wavelength and frequency. Electromagnetic waves have both electric and magnetic components that are inseparable. The planes of these fields are at right angles to one another and to the direction of motion of the wave.

An electromagnetic wave

The electric field results from the voltage changes occurring in the RF antenna which is radiating the signal, and the magnetic changes result from the current flow. It is also found that the lines of force in the electric field run along the same axis as the RF antenna, but spreading out as they move away from it. This electric field is measured in terms of the change of potential over a given distance, e.g. volts per metre, and this is known as the field strength. Similarly when an RF antenna receives a signal the magnetic changes cause a current flow, and the electric field changes cause the voltage changes on the antenna.

There are a number of properties of a wave. The first is its wavelength. This is the distance between a point on one wave to the identical point on the next. One of the most obvious points to choose is the peak as this can be easily identified although any point is acceptable.

Wavelength of an electromagnetic wave

The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave

The second property of the electromagnetic wave is its frequency. This is the number of times a particular point on the wave moves up and down in a given time (normally a second). The unit of frequency is the Hertz and it is equal to one cycle per second. This unit is named after the German scientist who discovered radio waves. The frequencies used in radio are usually very high. Accordingly the prefixes kilo, Mega, and Giga are often seen. 1 kHz is 1000 Hz, 1 MHz is a million Hertz, and 1 GHz is a thousand million Hertz i.e. 1000 MHz. Originally the unit of frequency was not given a name and cycles per second (c/s) were used. Some older books may show these units together with their prefixes: kc/s; Mc/s etc. for higher frequencies. The third major property of the wave is its velocity. Radio waves travel at the same speed as light. For most practical purposes the speed is taken to be 300 000 000 metres per second although a more exact value is 299 792 500 metres per second.

Frequency to Wavelength Conversion

Although wavelength was used as a measure for signals, frequencies are used exclusively today. It is very easy to relate the frequency and wavelength as they are linked by the speed of light as shown:
lambda = c / f

where lambda = the wavelength in metres f = frequency in Hertz

c = speed of radio waves (light) taken as 300 000 000 metres per second for all practical purposes.

Field measurements
It is also interesting to note that close to the RF antenna there is also an inductive field the same as that in a transformer. This is not part of the electromagnetic wave, but it can distort measurements close to the antenna. It can also mean that transmitting antennas are more likely to cause interference when they are close to other antennas or wiring that might have the signal induced into it. For receiving antennas they are more susceptible to interference if they are close to house wiring and the like. Fortunately this inductive field falls away fairly rapidly and it is barely detectable at distances beyond about two or three wavelengths from the RF antenna.

Antenna polarisation or polarization

- overview, summary, tutorial about RF antenna or aerial polarisation and the effect polarization has on RF antennas and radio communications.

Polarisation is an important factor for RF antennas and radio communications in general. Both RF antennas and electromagnetic waves are said to have a polarization. For the electromagnetic wave the polarization is effectively the plane in which the electric wave vibrates. This is important when looking at antennas because they are sensitive to polarisation, and generally only receive or transmit a signal with a particular polarization. For most antennas it is very easy to determine the polarization. It is simply in the same plane as the elements of the antenna. So a vertical antenna (i.e. one with vertical elements) will receive vertically polarised signals best and similarly a horizontal antenna will receive horizontally polarised signals.

An electromagnetic wave

It is important to match the polarization of the RF antenna to that of the incoming signal. In this way the maximum signal is obtained. If the RF antenna polarization does not match that of the signal there is a corresponding decrease in the level of the signal. It is reduced by a factor of cosine of the angle between the polarisation of the RF antenna and the signal. Accordingly the polarisation of the antennas located in free space is very important, and obviously they should be in exactly the same plane to provide the optimum signal. If they were at right angles to one another (i.e. cross-polarised) then in theory no signal would be received. For terrestrial radio communications applications it is found that once a signal has been transmitted then its polarisation will remain broadly the same. However reflections from objects in the path can change the polarisation. As the received signal is the sum of the direct signal plus a number of reflected signals the overall polarisation of the signal can change slightly although it remains broadly the same.

Polarisation catagories
Vertical and horizontal are the simplest forms of antenna polarization and they both fall into a category known as linear polarisation. However it is also possible to use circular polarisation. This has a number of benefits for areas such as satellite applications where it helps overcome the effects of propagation anomalies, ground reflections and the effects of the spin that occur on many satellites. Circular polarisation is a little more difficult to visualise than linear polarisation. However it can be imagined by visualising a signal propagating from an RF antenna that is rotating. The tip of the electric field vector will then be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as it travels away from the antenna. Circular polarisation can be seen to be either right or left handed dependent upon the direction of rotation as seen from the transmitter.

Another form of polarisation is known as elliptical polarisation. It occurs when there is a mix of linear and circular polarisation. This can be visualised as before by the tip of the electric field vector tracing out an elliptically shaped corkscrew. However it is possible for linearly polarised antennas to receive circularly polarised signals and vice versa. The strength will be equal whether the linearly polarised antenna is mounted vertically, horizontally or in any other plane but directed towards the arriving signal. There will be some degradation because the signal level will be 3 dB less than if a circularly polarised antenna of the same sense was used. The same situation exists when a circularly polarised antenna receives a linearly polarised signal.

Applications of antenna polarization

Different types of polarisation are used in different applications to enable their advantages to be used. Linear polarization is by far the most widely used for most radio communications applications. Vertical polarisation is often used for mobile radio communications. This is because many vertically polarized antenna designs have an omni-directional radiation pattern and it means that the antennas do not have to be re-orientated as positions as always happens for mobile radio communications as the vehicle moves. For other radio communications applications the polarisation is often determined by the RF antenna considerations. Some large multi-element antenna arrays can be mounted in a horizontal plane more easily than in the vertical plane. This is because the RF antenna elements are at right angles to the vertical tower of pole on which they are mounted and therefore by using an antenna with horizontal elements there is less physical and electrical interference between the two. This determines the standard polarisation in many cases. In some applications there are performance differences between horizontal and vertical polarization. For example medium wave broadcast stations generally use vertical polarisation because ground wave propagation over the earth is considerably better using vertical polarization, whereas horizontal polarization shows a marginal improvement for long distance communications using the ionosphere. Circular polarisation is sometimes used for satellite radio communications as there are some advantages in terms of propagation and in overcoming the fading caused if the satellite is changing its orientation.

Antenna feed impedance

- overview, summary, tutorial about RF antenna or aerial feed impedance and the importance of matching RF andtennas to feeders. Radiation resistance, loss resistance, and efficiency are also detailed.

When a signal source is applied to an RF antenna at its feed point, it is found that it presents a load impedance to the source. This is known as the antenna "feed impedance" and it is a complex impedance made up from resistance, capacitance and inductance. In order to ensure the optimum efficiency for any RF antenna design it is necessary to maximise the transfer of energy by matching the feed impedance of the RF antenna design to the load. This requires some understanding of the operation of antenna design in this respect. The feed impedance of the antenna results from a number of factors including the size and shape of the RF antenna, the frequency of operation and its environment. The impedance seen is normally complex, i.e. consisting of resistive elements as well as reactive ones.

Antenna feed impedance resistive elements

The resistive elements are made up from two constituents. These add together to form the sum of the total resistive elements.

Loss resistance: The loss resistance arises from the actual resistance of the elements in the aRF ntenna, and power dissipated in this manner is lost as heat. Although it may appear that the "DC" resistance is low, at higher frequencies the skin effect is in evidence and only the surface areas of the conductor are used. As a result the effective resistance is higher than would be measured at DC. It is proportional to the circumference of the conductor and to the square root of the frequency. The resistance can become particularly significant in high current sections of an RF antenna where the effective resistance is low. Accordingly to reduce the effect of the loss resistance it is necessary to ensure the use of very low resistance conductors. Radiation resistance: The other resistive element of the impedance is the "radiation resistance". This can be thought of as virtual resistor. It arises from the fact that power is "dissipated" when it is radiated from the RF antenna. The aim is to "dissipate" as much power in this way as possible. The actual value for the radiation resistance varies from one type of antenna to another, and from one design to another. It is dependent upon a variety of factors. However a typical half wave dipole operating in free space has a radiation resistance of around 73 Ohms.

Antenna reactive elements

There are also reactive elements to the feed impedance. These arise from the fact that the antenna elements act as tuned circuits that possess inductance and capacitance. At resonance where most antennas are operated the inductance and capacitance cancel one another out to leave only the resistance of the combined radiation resistance and loss resistance. However either side of resonance the feed impedance quickly becomes either inductive (if operated above the resonant frequency) or capacitive (if operated below the resonant frequency).

Efficiency
It is naturally important to ensure that the proportion of the power dissipated in the loss resistance is as low as possible, leaving the highest proportion to be dissipated in the radiation resistance as a radiated signal. The proportion of the power dissipated in the radiation resistance divided by the power applied to the antenna is the efficiency. A variety of means can be employed to ensure that the efficiency remains as high as possible. These include the use of optimum materials for the conductors to ensure low values of resistance, large circumference conductors to ensure large surface area to overcome the skin effect, and not using designs where very high currents and low feed impedance values are present. Other constraints may require that not all these requirements can be met, but by using engineering judgement it is normally possible to obtain a suitable compromise. It can be seen that the antenna feed impedance is particularly important when considering any RF antenna design. However by maximising the energy transfer by matching the feeder to the antenna feed impedance the antenna design can be optimised and the best performance obtained.

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