K.J.

SOMAIYA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
Page 1 of 21
VOLTAGE REFERENCES & REGULATORS

A voltage regulator or voltage reference is supposed to produce a stable output voltage from
less stable dc input voltage.
The output of the unregulated power supply is connected at the input of voltage
regulator circuit. The voltage regulator is a specially designed circuit to keep the output
voltage constant. The voltage regulator can be either series voltage regulator or a shunt
voltage regulator. Even though the o/p voltage of regulated power supply remains constant,
practically it does not remain exactly constant. It changes slightly due to certain parameters,
such as input voltage, load current & temperature.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE OUTPUT VOLTAGE:
The factors affecting are
1. Load current IL
2. Input voltage Vin
3. Temperature

SPECIFICATIONS OR PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF A REGULATORS
i) Load regulation
ii) Line regulation
iii) O/P resistance
iv) Temperature stability factor
v) Ripple rejection

i) Load Regulation: The load regulation is defined as the change in output voltage when
load current is changed from zero to maximum value.
L.R.=VNL- VFL
Where VNL = output voltage on no load (zero load current)
VFL = output voltage on full load (maximum load current)
% Regulation = VNL- VFL/ VFL * 100

ii) Line Regulation = It is defined as the change in load voltage due to change in line
voltage in a specified range of 230 + 10% or 230 10% at a constant load current.
Line regulation = VLH VLL
Where VLH= Load voltage with high line voltage
VLL= Load voltage with low line voltage
% Line regulation = VLH VLL/ VNOM * 100







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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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TYPES OF VOLTAGE REGULATORS:
1) Shunt voltage regulator
2) Series voltage regulator

1) Shunt voltage regulator :
The block diagram of the shunt voltage regulator is as shown in figure. The control
element is connected in parallel with the load therefore it is called as shunt voltage
regulator. Vin is a unregulated voltage which is obtained from rectifier o/p. The total
current is shared by the load & control element . The current flowing through control
element is Ish.









Summary of regulatory action of a shunt regulator:

If output voltage increases above regulated value

Feedback signal increases

Control signal increases

Control element draws more current

Load current decreases as I is constant

Output voltage is brought back to its regulated value

If output voltage decreases below regulated value

Feedback signal decreases

Control signal decreases

Control element draws less current

Load current increases as I is constant

Output voltage is brought back to its regulated value
K.J.SOMAIYA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
Page 3 of 21
2) Series voltage regulator:
The block diagram of the series voltage regulator is shown in figure. In this the control
element is connected in series with the load therefore it is called as series voltage
regulator. As control element is in series with the load the expression for the output
voltage is given by:

Vo = Vin
Vs
Fig: Transistor Series Voltage Regulator

Summary of regulatory action of a series regulator:

If output voltage increases above regulated value

Feedback signal increases

Control signal decreases

Voltage across control element increases

Output voltage is brought back to its regulated value

If output voltage decreases below regulated value

Feedback signal decreases

Control signal increases

Voltage across control element decreases

Output voltage is brought back to its regulated
K.J.SOMAIYA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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ZENER DIODE AS A VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The voltage across zener diode is remains constant when it is operated in zener region of
reverse characteristics. This fact is utilized in applications as a voltage regulator. Zener diode
regulator is a shunt type regulator. The reverse characteristics are shown in fig

The regulatory action can be summarized as follows:
If output voltage increases above regulated value

Then I increases

but IL is constant

Hence Iz increases

If Iz< Izmax then zener operates in the
Zener region & output voltage remains constant.


- Regulating action with varying Load (constant Vin):
If RL increases then IL will decrease

But I is constant & Iz = I- IL

Hence Iz increases

Vo is constant as long as Iz < Izmax &
Vice versa action if RL decreases.


.
ZENER DIODE AS A VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The voltage across zener diode is remains constant when it is operated in zener region of
reverse characteristics. This fact is utilized in applications as a voltage regulator. Zener
diode regulator is a shunt type regulator. The reverse characteristics are shown in fig

Regulating action with varying input voltage(constant IL ):
We assume that RL is constant & Vin is varying. IL is also constant because IL = Vz/
RL but supply current keeps changing due to change in Vs.
I = Vin Vz/Rs



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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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*NOTES ON ZENER DIODE REGULATOR:

V
Z
depends on I and temperature.
Zener diodes with rated voltage < 6 V have negative temperature coefficient; those rated >
6 V have positive temperature coefficient.
In order to maintain a constant V
o
, I
ZT
varies in response to a change of either I
L
or V
i
. For
example, when R
L
increases, I
L
decreases, then I
ZT
has to increase to keep the current through
R
s
constant. Since the voltage drop across R
s
is constant, V
o
stays constant.















Z Ze en ne er r D Di io od de e V Vo ol lt ta ag ge e R Re eg gu ul la at to or r
Circuit
I-V Characteristic
I
ZM

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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Op-Amp Voltage Regulators



NOTES ON OP-AMP VOLTAGE REGULATOR
More flexibility possible in design of voltage output than IC voltage regulator packages.
The essential circuit elements are: a zener reference, a pass or shunt transistor, a sensing
circuit, and an error/amplifier circuit.
Equation indicates that V
o
depends on R
2
, R
3
, and V
Z
.
The shunt configuration is less efficient but R
2
offers short-circuit current limiting.













Fold-back Current Limiting is a better method of short-circuit protection.

Z o
V
R
R
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ ~
3
2
1
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
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Design Equations for Fold-back Current Limiting

Maximum load current without fold-back limiting:




Output voltage under current limiting condition



The short circuit current (i.e. when Vo = 0) is








Characteristics of Fold-back Limiting


6 4
6 5 5
(max)
) ( 7 . 0
R R
R R V R
I
o
L
+ +
=
L
L
o
R R R R
R R R
V
5 6 4
6 5
) ( 7 . 0
'

+
=
6 4
6 5
) ( 7 . 0
R R
R R
I
short
+
=
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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Notice that Ishort < IL(max) and that Vo is regulated (i.e. constant) only after RL > a
certain critical value.
For designing purpose, R5 + R6 = 1 kW and if Ishort and IL(max) are specified then










*Design Equations for Fold-back Current Limiting
Maximum load current without fold-back limiting:


Output voltage under current limiting condition:
(max)
4
7 . 0 ) 7 . 0 (
07
L o short
o
I V I
V
R
+
=
6 4
6 5 5
(max)
) ( 7 . 0
R R
R R V R
I
o
L
+ +
=
K.J.SOMAIYA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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The short circuit current (i.e. when Vo = 0) is:




*Transistor Current Regulators are designed to maintain a fixed current through aload for
variations in either Vi or RL.For the BJT circuit, VEB = VZ - VRE.Any
tendency for IL to change to change will
cause an opposing change in VEB,thus nullifying the perturbation.

For the JFET circuit, IL = ID = IDSS as
long as VL < VSS - VP.


IC Voltage Regulators:
There are basically two kinds of IC voltage regulators:
Multipin type, e.g. LM723C
3-pin type, e.g. 78/79XX
Multipin regulators are less popular but they provide the greatest flexibility and
produce the highest quality voltage regulation
3-pin types make regulator circuit design simple

L
L
o
R R R R
R R R
V
5 6 4
6 5
) ( 7 . 0
'

+
=
6 4
6 5
) ( 7 . 0
R R
R R
I
short
+
=
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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IC Multipin Voltage Regulator



Notes on LM723 Voltage Regulator
Can be either 14-pin DIP or 10-pin TO-100 can
May be used for either +ve or - ve, variable or fixed regulated voltage output
Using the internal reference (7.15 V), it can operate as a high- voltage regulator with output
from 7.15 V to about 37 V, or as a low-voltage regulator from 2 V to 7.15 V
Max. output current with heat sink is 150 mA
Dropout voltage is 3 V (i.e. V
CC
> V
o(max)
+ 3)

LM723 in High-Voltage Configuration:


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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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Design equations:







Choose R1 + R2 = 10 kW,and Cc = 100 pF. To make Vo variable, replace R1 with a pot.















2
2 1
) (
R
R R V
V
ref
o
+
=
2 1
2 1
3
R R
R R
R
+
=
max
7 . 0
I
R
sens
=
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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LM723 IN LOW-VOLTAGE CONFIGURATION:

Fig. With external pass transistor and fold back current limiting
Under foldback condition:



THREE TERMINAL IC REGULATORS:

The discrete component regulator circuits such as zener diode regulator are not commonly
used. Now days the voltage regulator circuits are available in IC form & that are widely used.
Classification of IC voltage regulator:
2) Fixed voltage regulator
3) Adjustable output voltage regulator
4) Switching regulator
5) Special regulator


THREE TERMINAL FIXED VOLTAGE REGULATORS:
1) Positive voltage regulator
2) Negative voltage regulator



*Three-Terminal Fixed Voltage Regulators:
Less flexible, but simple to use
Come in standard TO-3 (20 W) or TO-220 (15 W) transistor packages
L 4 sens 5
5 4 L
o
R R R R
) R R ( R 7 . 0
' V

+
=
sens 5
5 4 o 4
(max) L
R R
) R R ( 7 . 0 V R
I
+ +
=
sens 5
5 4
short
R R
) R R ( 7 . 0
I
+
=
(max) L o short
o
sens
I 7 . 0 ) 7 . 0 V ( I
V 7 . 0
R
+
=
K.J.SOMAIYA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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78/79XX series regulators are commonly available with 5, 6, 8, 12, 15, 18, or 24 V output
Max. output current with heat sink is 1 A
Built- in thermal shutdown protection
3-V dropout voltage; max. input of 37 V
Regulators with lower dropout, higher in/output and better regulation are available.

*Basic Circuits With 78/79XX Regulators
Both the 78XX and 79XX regulators can be used to provide +ve or -ve output voltages
C
1
and C
2
are generally optional. C
1
is used to cancel any inductance present, and C
2

improves the transient response. If used, they should preferably be either 1 F tantalum type
or 0.1 F mica type capacitors.
Dual-Polarity Output with 78/79XX Regulators

















*Regulator 78XX with Pass Transistor:
Q
1
starts to conduct when V
R2
= 0.7 V.
R2 is typically chosen so that max. I
R2
is 0.1 A.
Power dissipation of Q
1
is P = (V
i
- V
o
)I
L
.
Q
2
is for current limiting protection. It conducts when V
R1
= 0.7 V.
Q
2
must be able to pass max. 1 A; but note that max. V
CE2
is only 1.4 V.

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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*78XX Floating Regulator:
It is used to obtain an output > the V
reg
value up to a max.of 37 V.
R
1
is chosen so that R
1
0.1 V
reg
/I
Q
, where I
Q
is the quiescent current of the regulator.


*3-Terminal Variable Regulator:
The floating regulator could be made into a variable regulator by replacing R
2
with a pot.
However, there are several disadvantages:
Minimum output voltage is V
reg
instead of 0 V.
I
Q
is relatively large and varies from chip to chip.
Power dissipation in R
2
can in some cases be quite large resulting in bulky and expensive
equipment.
A variety of 3-terminal variable regulators are available, e.g. LM317 (for +ve output) or LM
337 (for -ve output).




max
1
7 . 0
I
R =
2
2
7 . 0
R
I
R =
2
1
R I
R
V
V V
Q
reg
reg o
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
1
1
2
) (
R I V
V V R
R
Q reg
reg o
+

=
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
CHAPTER-8
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*Basic LM317 Variable Regulator Circuits:
a)Circuit with capacitors to b) Circuit with protective diodes
improve performance


Notes on Basic LM317 Circuits
The function of C
1
and C
2
is similar to those used in the 78/79XX fixed regulators.
C
3
is used to improve ripple rejection.
Protective diodes in circuit (b) are required for high-current/high- voltage applications.


















*Other LM317 Regulator Circuits:
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Fig. Circuit with pass transistor and current limiting Fig. Circuit to give 0V min.
Output voltage

Block Diagram of switch-Mode Regulator:




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It converts an unregulated dc input to a regulated dcoutput. Switching regulators are often
referred to as dc to dc converters.

Comparing Switch-Mode to Linear Regulators:

Advantages:
70-90% efficiency (about double that of linear ones)
can make output voltage > input voltage, if desired
can invert the input voltage
considerable weight and size reductions, especially at high output power
Disadvantages:
More complex circuitry
Potential EMI problems unless good shielding, low-loss ferrite cores and
chokes are used













General Notes on Switch-Mode Regulator
The duty cycle of the series transistor (power switch) determines the average dc output of the
regulator. A circuit to control the duty cycle is the pulse-width modulator shown below:


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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
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The error amplifier compares a sample of the regulator Vo to an internal Vref. The
difference or error voltage is amplified and applied to a modulator where it is
compared to a triangle waveform. The result is an output pulse whose width is
proportional to the error voltage.
Darlington transistors and TMOS FETs with fT of at least 4 MHz are often used.
TMOS FETs are more efficient.
A fast-recovery rectifier or a Schottky barrier diode (sometimes referred to as a catch
diode) is used to direct current into the inductor.












Step-Down or Buck Converter

When the transistor is turned ON, VL is initially high but falls exponentially while IL
increases to charge C.
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When the transistor turns OFF, VL reverses in polarity to maintain the direction of
current flow. IL decreases but its path is now through the forward-biased diode, D.
Duty cycle is adjusted according to the level of V

























V & I Waveforms for Buck Regulator:
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SEM: VI SUBJECT: ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS & APPLICATIONS (AICA)
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PWM


*Notes on Operation of Buck Regulator:

If )IL is chosen to be 4When )IL = 0.4Io was selected, the average minimum current,
Imin, that must be maintained in L for proper regulator operation is 0.2Io.
% instead of 40% of Io, the 2.5 factor in the equation for L becomes 25 and Imin
becomes 0.02Io.
L and C are both proportional to 1/fosc; hence, the higher fosc is the smaller L and C
become. But for predictable operation and less audible noise, fosc is usually between
50kHz to 100 kHz.





Step- Regulator Up, Flyback, or Boost:


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Assuming steady-state conditions, when the transistor is turned ON, L reacts against
Vin. D is reverse-biased and C supplies the load current.
When the transistor is OFF, VL reverses polarity causing current to flow through D
and charges C. Note that Vout is > Vin because VL adds on to Vin.


- Voltage-Inverting or Buck-Boost Regulator:


Vo can be either step-up or step-down and its polarity is opposite to input.
During ON period, Vin is across L, and D is reverse-biased.
During OFF period, VL reverses polarity causing current to flow through C and D