2. FLUID-FLOW EQUATIONS 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Conservative form of the flow equations 2.

3 Non-conservative form of the flow equations 2.4 Non-dimensionalisation Summary Examples

SPRING 2012

2.1 Introduction Fluid dynamics is governed by conservation equations for: mass; momentum; energy; (for a non-homogenous fluid) other constituents. Equations for these can be expressed mathematically in many ways: notably as integral (i.e. control-volume) equations; differential equations. This course will focus on the integral (control-volume) approach because it is easier to relate to the physical world and forms the basis of the finite-volume method. However, the equivalent differential equations (of which there are several forms) are often easier to write down, manipulate and, in some cases, solve analytically. Although there are different fluid-flow variables, most of them satisfy a single generic equation: the scalar-transport or advection-diffusion equation. The rate of change of some quantity within an arbitrary control volume is determined by: the net rate of transport across the bounding surface (flux); the net rate of production within that control volume (source). FLUX RATE OF CHANGE + SOURCE V (1) out of boundary = inside V inside V The flux across the bounding surface can be divided into: advection1: transport with the flow; diffusion: net transport by molecular or turbulent fluctuations.
RATE OF CHANGE + ADVECTION + DIFFUSION = SOURCE inside V inside V through boundary

(2)

The finite-volume method is a natural discretisation of this.

Some authors but not this one prefer the term convection to advection.

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2.2 Conservative Form of the Flow Equations 2.2.1 Mass (Continuity) Physical principle (mass conservation): mass is neither created nor destroyed. Consider an arbitrary control volume (aka cell). If the cell has volume V and a typical cell face f has area Af and velocity component uf along the (outward) normal: mass of fluid: V un A = u A mass flux through one face: Words:
rate of change of mass in cell + net outward mass flux = 0

V A

un

(3)

Integral equation: d ( V) + dt

faces

u A = 0
t

(4)

An equivalent differential equation for mass conservation can be derived by considering a small cartesian control volume with sides x, y, z as shown.
d( V ) 1dt3 2
rate of change of mass

w
y

n s b
x

+ ( uA) e ( uA) w + ( vA) n ( vA) s + ( wA) t ( wA) b = 0 1444444444442444444444443

net outward mass flux

where density and velocity are averages over cell volume or cell face. Noting that volume V = x y z and areas Aw = Ae = y z etc, d( x y z ) + [( u ) e ( u ) w ] y z + [( v) n ( v) s ] z x + [( w) t ( w) b ] x y = 0 dt Dividing by the volume, xyz: ( u ) e ( u ) w ( v) n ( v) s ( w) t ( w) b d + + + =0 dt x y z Proceeding to the limit x, y, z 0: (Conservative) differential equation: ( u ) ( v) ( w) + + + =0 t x y z

(5)

This analysis is analogous to the finite-volume procedure, except that in the latter the control volume does not shrink to zero; i.e. it is a finite-volume not infinitesimal-volume approach.

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(*** Advanced ***) More mathematically, for an arbitrary volume V with closed surface V: d dV + u dA = 0 4 3 dt V 1 24 1V 24 4 3
mass in cell net mass flux

(6)

For a fixed control volume take d/dt under the integral sign and apply the divergence theorem to the surface integral: t + ( u) dV = 0 V

Since V is arbitrary, the integrand must be identically zero. Hence, + ( u) = 0 t

(7)

Incompressible Flow For incompressible flow, volume as well as mass is conserved, so that: (uA) e (uA) w + (vA) n (vA) s + ( wA) t ( wA) b = 0 1444444444 24444444444 4 3
net outward VOLUME flux

Substituting for face areas, dividing by volume and proceeding to the limit as above produces u v w (8) + + =0 x y z which is usually taken as the incompressibility equation.

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2.2.2 Momentum Physical principle (Newtons Second Law): rate of change of momentum = force The total rate of change of momentum for fluid passing through a control volume consists of: time rate of change of total momentum inside the control volume; plus net momentum flux (difference between rate at which momentum leaves and enters). For a cell with volume V and a typical face with area A: = ( V )u momentum in cell = mass u = ( u A)u momentum flux = mass flux u Words:

V A
(9)

un

rate of change of momentum in cell + net outward momentum flux = force

Integral equation: d (mass u) + dt

(mass
faces

flux u) = F

(10)

Momentum, velocity and force are vectors, giving, in principle, 3 component equations.

Fluid Forces There are two main types: surface forces (proportional to area; act on control-volume faces) body forces (proportional to volume) (i) Surface forces are usually expressed in terms of stress (= force per unit area): force stress = or force = stress area area The main surface forces are:
y

pressure p: always acts normal to a surface; viscous stresses : frictional forces arising from relative motion. For a simple shear flow there is only one non-zero stress component: u 12 = y but, in general, is a symmetric tensor (the components of stress imparted by external fluid on individual faces of a volume of fluid are shown right) and has a more complex expression for its components. In incompressible flow: 11 u i u j 21 + ) ij = ( x j xi

U
22 12 21
x

11

12 22

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(ii) Body forces The main body forces are: gravity: the force per unit volume is
g = (0,0, g )
z

(For constant-density fluids, pressure and weight can be combined as a piezometric pressure p* = p + gz; with gravity incorporated into a modified pressure it does not then appear explicitly in the flow equations see the Examples.) centrifugal and Coriolis forces (apparent forces in a rotating reference frame)
axis R
2

centrifugal force: ( r) =

2 R

Coriolis force: 2 u

In inertial frame

In rotating frame

2 2 (Because the centrifugal force can be written as the gradient of 1 R it can also be 2 absorbed into a modified pressure and hence removed from the momentum equation; see the Examples).

Differential Equation For Momentum Once again, a differential equation can be derived by considering a fixed Cartesian control volume with sides x, y and z.
z

w
y

n s b e

x For the x-component of momentum: d + ( uA) e u e ( uA) w u w + ( vA) n u n ( vA) s u s + ( wA) t u t ( wA) b u b ( Vu ) 1444444444444442444444444444443 t d4 3 1 24

net outward momentum flux

rate of change of momentum

= ( p w Aw p e Ae ) + viscous and other forces 14 244 4 3

pressure force in x direction

Substituting cell dimensions: d ( x y z u ) + [( u ) e u e ( u ) w u w ] y z + [( v) n u n ( v) s u s ] z x + [( w) t u t ( w) b u b ] x y dt = ( p w p e ) y z + viscous and other forces

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Dividing by volume x y z (and changing the order of pe and pw): ( p pw ) d( u ) ( uu ) e ( uu ) w ( vu ) n ( vu ) s ( wu ) t ( wu ) b + + + = e dt x y z x + viscous and other forces In the limit as x, y, z 0: (Conservative) differential equation: ( u ) ( uu ) ( vu ) ( wu ) p + + + = + 2 u + other forces (11) t x y z x Notes. (1) The viscous term is given without proof above (but you can read the notes below). 2 2 2 2 is the Laplacian operator 2 + 2 + 2 . x y z (2) The pressure force per unit volume in the x direction is given by (minus) the pressure gradient in that direction. (3) The y and z-momentum equations can be derived by inspection / pattern-matching.

(*** Advanced ***) Separating surface forces (determined by a stress tensor ij) and body forces (fi per unit volume), the control-volume equation for the i component of momentum may be written d (12) u i dV + u i u j dA j = ij dA j + f i dV dt V4 4 V 24 V V 4 44 1 2 3 14 2 3 14243 1 4 3
momentum in cell net momentum flux surface forces body forces

The stress tensor has pressure and viscous parts: u i u j 2 + ij = ( ij = p ij + ij , x j x i 3

ij

u k ) x k

(13)

For a fixed volume, take d/dt under the integral sign and apply the divergence theorem to the surface integrals: ( u i ) ( u i u j ) ij f i dV = 0 + t x j x j V As V is arbitrary, the integrand vanishes identically. Hence, for arbitrary forces: ( u i ) ( u i u j ) ij (14) + = + fi t x j x j Splitting the stress tensor into pressure and viscous terms: ( ui ) ( ui u j ) p ij (15) + + + fi = t xi x j x j
If the fluid is incompressible and viscosity is uniform then the viscous term simplifies to give ( ui ) ( u i u j ) p + + 2ui + f i = t xi x j

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2.2.3 General Scalar

A similar equation may be derived for any physical quantity that is advected or diffused by a fluid flow. For each such quantity an equation is solved for the concentration (i.e. amount per unit mass) : for example, the concentration of salt, sediment or a chemical constituent. Diffusion occurs when concentration varies with position. It typically involves transport from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration, at a rate proportional to area and concentration gradient. For many scalars it may be quantified by Ficks diffusion law: rate of diffusion = diffusivity gradient area = A n This is often referred to as gradient diffusion. A common example is heat conduction. For an arbitrary control volume: V amount in cell: advective flux: diffusive flux: source
( u A ) A n S = sV

(mass concentration) (mass flux concentration) (diffusivity gradient area) (source density volume)

V A

un

Balancing the rate of change, the net flux through the boundary and rate of production yields the scalar-transport or (advection-diffusion) equation: Words: rate of change + net outward flux = source Integral equation: d (mass ) + dt
A) = S n

(mass
faces

flux

(16)

(Conservative) differential equation: ( ) + ( u ) + ( v ) + ( w )=s t x x y y z z

(17)

(*** Advanced ***) This may be expressed more mathematically as: d dV + ( u ) dA = s dV dt V V V

(18)

For a fixed control volume, taking the time derivative under the integral sign and using Gausss divergence theorem as before gives a corresponding differential equation ( ) + ( u ) = s (19) t

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2.2.4 Momentum Components as Transported Scalars

In the momentum equation, if the viscous force A = (u / n) A is transferred to the LHS it looks like a diffusive flux: e.g. for the x-component: u d (mass u ) + ( mass flux u A) = other forces dt n faces Compare this with the generic scalar-transport equation: d (mass ) + ( mass flux A) = S dt n faces
Each component of momentum satisfies its own scalar-transport equation with concentration velocity (u, v or w) diffusivity viscosity source other forces Consequently, only one generic scalar-transport equation need be considered.

In Section 5 we shall see, however, that the momentum equations are slightly different from passive scalars (those not affecting the flow), because they are: nonlinear (the mass flux involves the velocity component being solved for); coupled (the mass flux involves the other velocity components); pressure-linked.

2.2.5 Non-Gradient Diffusion

The analysis above assumes that all non-advective flux is simple gradient diffusion: A n Actually, the real situation is a little more complex. For example, in the u-momentum equation the full expression for the 1-component of viscous stress through the 2-face is u v 12 = y + x The u/ y part is gradient diffusion of u, but the v/ x term is not. In general, non-advective fluxes F that cant be represented by gradient diffusion are discretised conservatively (i.e. worked out for particular cell faces) but are transferred to the RHS as a source term: d ( mass ) + [ mass flux A + F ] = S dt n faces

2.2.6 Moving Control Volumes

Control-volume equations are also applicable to moving control volumes, provided the normal velocity component in the mass flux is that relative to the mesh; i.e. u n = (u u mesh ) n The finite-volume method can thus be used for calculating flows with moving boundaries2.
See, for example: Apsley, D.D. and Hu, W., 2003, CFD Simulation of two- and three-dimensional free-surface flow, International Journal for Numerical Methods in fluids, 42, 465-491.
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2.3 Non-Conservative Form of the Flow Equations

Two equivalent differential forms of the flow equations may be derived from the controlvolume equations in the limit as the control volume shrinks to a point. From fixed control volumes we obtain governing equations in conservative form as in Section 2.2 above; this is called the Eulerian approach. Using control volumes moving with the fluid we obtain the governing equations in non-conservative form; this is called the Lagrangian approach. Either form can, however, be derived from the other by mathematical manipulation and that is the approach taken here. The conservative differential equations are so-called because they can be integrated directly to give an equivalent integral form involving the net change in a flux. To do so, all terms involving derivatives of dependent variables must have differential operators on the outside. For example, in one dimension:
df = g ( x) dx (differential form)

f ( x 2 ) f ( x1 ) = g ( x) dx x1 (integral form) i.e. fluxout fluxin = source

x2

(*** Advanced ***) The three-dimensional version uses partial derivatives and the divergence theorem to change the differentials to surface flux integrals. As an example of how essentially the same equation can appear in conservative and nonconservative forms consider a simple 1-d example: d 2 ( y ) = g ( x) (conservative form can be integrated directly) dx dy 2y = g ( x) (non-conservative form, obtained by applying the chain rule) dx

Material Derivatives The rate of change of some property in a fluid element moving with the flow is called the material (or substantive) derivative. It is denoted by D/Dt and worked out as follows. Every field variable is a function of both time and position; i.e. = (t , x, y, z ) As one follows a path through space will change with time because: it changes with time t at each point, and it changes with position (x, y, z) as it moves with the flow. Thus, the total time derivative following an arbitrary path (x(t), y(t), z(t)) is d dx dy dz = + + + dt t x dt y dt z dt

(x(t), y(t), z(t))

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The material derivative is obtained for the particular path following the flow (dx/dt = u, etc.): D +u +v +w (20) x y Dt t z Using this definition, it is possible to write a non-conservative but more compact form of the governing equations. For a general scalar the sum of time-dependent and advective terms in its transport equation is ( ) ( u) ( v) ( w) + + + t x y z ( w) ( v) ( u ) = + + x + u x + y + v y + z + w z t t (by the product rule) ( u ) ( v) ( w) + + = + t + u x + v y + w z + z y x 4444 4444 t 144444 44444 2 3 1 2 3
= 0 by continuity = D / Dt by definition

(by collecting similar terms) D = (21) Dt Using the material derivative, the time-dependent and advection terms in a scalar-transport equation can be combined as the much more compact (but non-conservative) form D/Dt. The material derivative of velocity (Du/Dt) is the acceleration. The momentum equation can be written Du p (22) = + 2 u + other forces Dt x 1 3 2
mass acceleration

This form is simpler to write and is used both for convenience and to derive theoretical results in special cases (see the Examples). However, in the finite-volume method it is the conservative form which is actually discretised directly. (*** Advanced ***) The material derivative can be defined in suffix or vector notation as D D = + ui = + u or x Dt t Dt t Simplify the derivation of (21) above using the summation convention or vector notation.

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2.4 Non-Dimensionalisation
Although it is possible to work entirely in dimensional quantities, there are good theoretical reasons for working in non-dimensional variables. These include the following. All dynamically-similar problems (same Re, Fr etc.) can be solved with a single computation. The number of relevant parameters (and hence the number of graphs) is reduced. It indicates the relative size of different terms in the governing equations and, in particular, which might conveniently be neglected. Computational variables are the same order of magnitude, yielding better numerical accuracy.

2.4.1 Non-Dimensionalising the Governing Equations

For incompressible flow the governing equations are: u v w + + =0 continuity: x y z Du p momentum: = + 2 u (and similar equations in y, z directions) Dt x

(23) (24)

Adopting reference scales U0, L0 and 0 for velocity, length and density, respectively, and 2 derived scales L0/U0 for time and 0U 0 for pressure, each fluid quantity can be written as a product of a dimensional scale and a non-dimensional variable (indicated by an asterisk *): L x = L0 x * , t = 0 t*, u = U 0u* , = 0 *, p p ref = ( 0U 02 ) p * , etc. U0 (Note: In incompressible flow it is differences in pressure that are important, not absolute values. Since these differences are usually much smaller than the absolute pressure it is numerically more accurate to work in terms of the departure from a reference pressure pref). Substituting these into mass and momentum equations, (23) and (24), yields, after some algebra: u * x *
*

v * y *

w* z * +

=0

(25)

U L 1 *2 * (26) u where Re = 0 0 0 * * Re Dt x From this, it is seen that the key dimensionless group is the Reynolds number Re. If Re is large then viscous forces would be expected to be negligible in much of the flow.

Du *

p *

Having derived the non-dimensional equations it is usual to drop the asterisks and simply declare that you are working in non-dimensional variables.

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2.4.2 Common Dimensionless Groups

If other types of fluid force are included then each introduces another non-dimensional group. For example, gravitational forces lead to a Froude number (Fr) and Coriolis forces to a Rossby number (Ro). Some of the most important dimensionless groups are given below. If U and L are representative velocity and length scales, respectively, then: Re UL UL Reynolds number (viscous flow; = dynamic viscosity)

Fr

U gL
U c U L

Froude number (open-channel flow; g = gravity)

Ma Ro

Mach number (compressible flow; c = speed of sound)

Rossby number (rotating flows;

= angular velocity of frame)

We

U 2L

Weber number (free-surface flows;

= surface tension)

Note: for flows with buoyancy forces caused by a change in density, rather than open-channel flows, we sometimes use a densimetric Froude number instead; this is defined by U Fr ( / ) gL i.e. g is replaced in the formula for Froude number by ( / ) g , sometimes called the reduced gravity g.

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Summary
Fluid dynamics is governed by conservation equations for mass, momentum, energy (and, for a non-homogeneous fluid, the amount of individual constituents). The governing equations can be expressed in integral (control-volume) or differential forms. The finite-volume method is a direct discretisation of the control-volume equations. Differential forms of the flow equations may be conservative (i.e. can be integrated directly to something of the form fluxout fluxin = source) or non-conservative. A particular control-volume equation takes the form: rate of change + net outward flux = source There are really just two canonical equations to discretise and solve: mass conservation (continuity): d (mass ) + (mass flux) = 0 dt faces scalar-transport (or advection-diffusion) equation: d (mass ) + ( mass flux A ) = S dt n faces rate of change advection diffusion source Each Cartesian velocity component (u, v, w) satisfies its own scalar-transport equation. However, these equations differ from those for a passive scalar because they are non-linear and strongly coupled through the advective fluxes and pressure forces. Non-dimensionalising the governing equations, allows dynamically-similar flows (those with the same values of Reynolds number, etc.) to be solved with a single calculation, reduces the overall number of parameters, indicates when certain terms in the governing equations are significant or negligible and ensures that the main computational variables are of similar magnitude.

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Examples
Q1. In 2-d flow the continuity and x-momentum equations can be written in conservative differential form as + ( u ) + ( v) = 0 t x y p ( u ) + ( uu ) + ( vu ) = + 2 u t x y x respectively. (a) By expanding derivatives of products show that these can be written in the equivalent non-conservative forms: D u v + ( + )=0 Dt x y Du p = + 2u Dt x D = +u +v . where the material derivative is given (in 2 dimensions) by Dt t x y Define what is meant by the statement that a flow is incompressible. To what does the continuity equation reduce in incompressible flow? Write down conservative forms of the 3-d equations for mass and x-momentum. Write down the z-momentum equation, including gravitational forces. Show that, for constant-density flows, pressure and gravity can be combined in the momentum equations as the piezometric pressure p + gz.

(b)

(c) (d) (e)

(*** Advanced ***) (f) Write the conservative mass and momentum equations in vector notation. (g) Write the conservative mass and momentum equations in suffix notation using the summation convention. In a rotating reference frame there are additional apparent forces (per unit volume): 2 R ( r) or centrifugal force: Coriolis force: 2 u axis where is the angular velocity vector (with magnitude and R direction along the axis of rotation), u is the fluid velocity in the rotating reference frame, r is the position vector (relative to a point on the axis of rotation) and R is a vector perpendicularly outward r from the axis of rotation to the point. By writing the centrifugal force as the gradient of some quantity show that it can be subsumed into a modified pressure. Also, find the components of the Coriolis force if rotation is about the z axis.

(h)

2 R

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Q2. The x-component of the momentum equation is given by Du p = + 2u Dt x Using this equation derive the velocity profile in fully-developed, laminar flow for: (a) pressure-driven flow between stationary parallel planes (Poiseuille flow); (b) constant-pressure flow between stationary and moving planes (Couette flow).

Q3. (*** Advanced ***) By applying Gausss divergence theorem deduce the conservative and non-conservative differential equations corresponding to the integral scalar-transport equation d dV + ( u ) dA = s dV dt V V V

Q4. In each of the following cases, state which of (i), (ii), (iii) is a valid dimensionless number. Carry out research yes, really! to find the name and physical significance of these numbers. (L = length; u = velocity; z = height; p = pressure; = kinematic viscosity; g = gravitational acceleration; (a) (i) p p ref U UL ; ; (ii) p p ref
1 2 2 U UL ;

= density; = dynamic viscosity; = angular velocity).

(iii)

U 2 ( p p ref )
UL

(b)

(i)

(ii)
1/ 2

(iii)

(c)

(d)

gd dz (i) du dz U (i) ; L

(ii)

U ; gL
gL ; U

(iii)

p p ref g
U L

(ii)

(iii)

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Q5. (Computational Hydraulics Exam, May 2008; parts (g) and (h) depend on later sections of this course). The momentum equation for a viscous fluid in a rotating reference frame is
Du = p + 2u 2 Dt u

(*)

where is density, u = (u,v,w) is velocity, p is pressure, is dynamic viscosity and is the angular-velocity vector of the reference frame. The symbol denotes a vector product. (a) (b) (c) If
= (0,0, ) write the x and y components of the Coriolis force ( 2 u ).

Hence write the x- and y-components of equation (*). Show how Equation (*) can be written in non-dimensional form in terms of a Reynolds number Re and Rossby number Ro (both of which should be defined). Define the terms conservative and non-conservative when applied to the differential equations describing fluid flow. Define (mathematically) the material derivative operator D/Dt. Then, noting that the continuity equation can be written ( u ) ( v) ( w) + + + = 0, t x y z show that the x-momentum equation can be written in an equivalent conservative form. If the x-momentum equation were to be regarded as a special case of the general scalar-transport (or advection-diffusion) equation, identify the quantities representing: (i) concentration; (ii) diffusivity; (iii) source. Explain why the three equations for the components of momentum cannot be treated as independent scalar equations. Explain (briefly) how pressure can be derived in a CFD simulation of: (i) high-speed compressible gas flow; (ii) incompressible flow.

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

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Q6. (MSc Exam, May 2011 part) (a) In a rotating reference frame (with angular velocity vector ) the non-viscous forces on a fluid are, per unit volume, 2 p + g + R 2 u ( I) (II) (III) (IV ) where p is pressure, g = (0,0,g) is the gravity vector and R is the vector from the closest point on the axis of rotation to a point. Show that, in a constant-density fluid, forces (II) and (III) can be absorbed into a modified pressure force. (b) Consider a closed cylindrical can of radius 5 cm and depth 15 cm. The can is completely filled with fluid of density 1100 kg m3 and is rotating steadily about its axis (which is vertical) at 600 rpm. Where do the maximum and minimum pressures in the can occur, and what is the difference in pressure between them?

Q7. (Computational Hydraulics Exam, May 2011 part) The figure below depicts a 2-d cell in a finite-volume CFD calculation. Vertices are given in the figure, and velocity in the adjacent table. At this instant = 1.0 everywhere. (a) (b) Calculate the volume flux out of each face. (Assume unit depth.) Show that the flow is not incompressible and find the time derivative of density.

(-1,2)
y x

n e s (4,0)

(6,2)

Face e n w s

w (0,0)

Velocity (u,v) u v 4 10 1 8 2 2 1 4

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