LEARNING TERMINOLOGY

Learning in psychology is acquiring new, or modifying existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, preferences or world views (Illeris, 2004; and Ormrod, 1995). It is also the way in which information, events, and abstractions are absorbed, synthesized, processed, and retained. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines. Learning is not compulsory; it is contextual, goal-oriented, and reinforced by motivation. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by what we already know. Learning is a process that brings together cognitive/emotional/environmental influences and experiences, rather than being an inventory of learning products; its progress over time tends to follow learning curves. Learning may occur as a result of personal development, habituation or classical conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals[1][2]. Personal development in humans involves learning by intention, i.e., as a formal process, as a result of participation in education, training, and drills. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. There is evidence indicating that the human central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for behavioral learning and memory to occur prenatally, as early as 32 weeks into gestation[3]. The study of how learning occurs is part of neuropsychology, educational psychology, learning theory, and pedagogy. Knowledge is an understanding either theoretical or practical of someone or something. It can be preprogrammed into the mind (e.g., an instinctual understanding) or acquired by learning. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); and it can be more or less formal or systematic.[1] In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called epistemology, and the philosopher Plato famously defined knowledge as "justified true belief". However no single agreed upon definition of knowledge exists, and there are numerous theories to explain it. The following quote from Bertrand Russell's "Theory of Knowledge" illustrates the difficulty in defining knowledge. "The question how knowledge should be defined is perhaps the most important and difficult of the three with which we shall deal. This may seem surprising: at first sight it might be thought that knowledge might be defined as belief which is in agreement with the facts. The trouble is that no one knows what a belief is, no one knows what a fact is, and no one knows what sort of agreement between them would make a belief true. Let us begin with belief". Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, communication, association, and reasoning. Knowledge is also said to be related to the capacity of acknowledgment in human beings.[2] Learning science is an interdisciplinary field furthering scientific understanding of learning, learning innovations, and improvement of instructional methodologies. Research in this field focuses on cognitive-psychological, social-psychological, and cultural-psychological foundations of human learning, as well as on the design and implementation of learning environments. Major contributing fields include cognitive science, computer science, educational psychology, anthropology, and applied linguistics. Over the past decade, researchers expanded their focus to the design of curricula, informal learning environments, instructional methods, and policy innovations. Learning theory is an elaborate hypothesis that describes how exactly learning occurs. According to Hill (2002), it provides vocabulary and conceptual framework for understanding observed cases of learning, and interpreting the variables involved in problem learning. Every
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well-constructed theory of education has at its center a philosophical anthropology[32]., i.e., understanding behaviour of humans as both creatures of their social environments and creators of their own values. There are five fundamental learning theories: behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, humanism, and Social/Situational. Behaviorism is primarily from B. F. Skinner and loosely encompassed in the work of Edward Thorndike, and states that a change in or acquisition of new observable behavior is the manifestation of learning through a mechanism of conditioning. Cognitivism, from early 1900s German Gestalt psychology and transplanted to America in the 1920s, states that learning is from three memory stores sensory (very short storage of received stimuli), working (creates mental constructs or schema), and long-term (repository of all things learned) and prior knowledge. Constructivism, built on the work of Piaget, John Dewey, Marie Montessori, and David Kolb, states that learning occurs from the active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves, which explains why students do not learn deeply by listening to a teacher, or reading from a textbook. Humanism states that learning is a realization of self-actualization (Maslows hierarchy of needs) and is facilitated by personal development, motivation, and goal-setting. Social or Situational, derived from Albert Bandura, states that people learn through modeling and observational learning[1] within a context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. Notably, while being unique and mutually exclusive, emphasizing different aspects and variables, all these theories seem plausible. Learning style is the composite of relatively stable cognitive, affective, and physiological factors characteristic of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment. In otherwords, it is a student's consistent way of assimilating and using learning stimuli from some instructional design. It is observed that humans have preferred educating methods to interact with, take in, and process stimuli or information, i.e., individualized "learning styles"; but is it a style or just a preference? Meshing is a hypothesis that adapting classroom methods to best fit each student's learning style would yield higher learning outcomes. However, there are two criticisms (1) a great instructional design not conforming to a students learning style will probably still produce high learning outcomes, and (2) accurately measuring an individuals learning style. Accordingly, David Merrill (2000) posits the instructional design should be made on the basis of the type or goals of taught content (the content-by-strategy interactions); learner styles may be used to adjust or fine-tune the fundamental design. Curry's 1983 onion model posits four categories of learning style models: personality (influences of basic personality and preferences on learning, e.g., Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter), information processing (individuals' intellectual approach to learning, e.g., David Kolb's model of information processing), social (interaction in collaborative, competitive, participant, and avoidant groups and classrooms, e.g., Reichmann's and Grasha's types of learners), and multidimensional-instructional (environmental influences on learning, e.g., Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model and Howard Gardners multiple intelligences). One model, the Felder-Silverman Index of Learning Styles, encompasses all four categories. Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next.[1] Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts. In its narrow, technical sense, education is the formal process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, customs and values from one generation to another, e.g., instruction in schools. A right to education has been created and recognized by some jurisdictions. Since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At the global level, the

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United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13. Educational philosophy examines the definition, goals, and meaning of education, and is an academic field of applied philosophy that studies education and its problems; its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy[1]. It draws from fields of axiology, epistemology, and metaphysics, using philosophical approaches, e.g., analytic, prescriptive, and speculative to address questions of the purpose of education, pedagogy, and education policy and promote some specific vision of education. For example, it might study what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between educational theory and practice. These include idealism (Plato, Kant, Hegel), realism (Aristole, Locke, Adler), scholasticism (Aquinas, Milton), pragmatism (Dewey, James), existentialism (Jaspers), critical (Friere), and postmodern (Foucault). It can also be understood as a normative educational theory that unifies learning theory, process, and curriculum, and promotes a specific type of education. These include perennialism (Bloom), progressivism (Piaget, Bruner), essentialism (Bagley), democratism (Neill), and unschoolism (Holt). The multiple ways of conceiving education coupled with the multiple fields and approaches of philosophy make it both a very diverse field and one that is not easily defined. Although there is overlap, philosophy of education should not be conflated with educational psychology which is not defined specifically by the application of philosophy to questions in education. Instead of being taught in philosophy departments, philosophy of education is usually housed in departments or colleges of education, similar to how philosophy of law is generally taught in law schools.[1] For example, a teacher might be said to follow a perennialist educational philosophy or to follow a perennialist philosophy of education. Philosophy of education also should not be confused with philosophy education, the practice of teaching and learning the subject of philosophy. Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. It is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as gifted children and those having disabilities. The pioneering American psychologist William James made contributions to educational psychology in his famous series of lectures Talks to Teachers on Psychology, published in 1899 and now regarded as the first educational psychology textbook. Alfred Binets book Mental Fatigue in 1898 applied the experimental method to educational psychology[55]. Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) supported the scientific movement in education by basing teaching practices on empirical evidence and measurement[55]. John Dewey (1859-1952) had a major influence on United States progressive education to prepare children to be good citizens and facilitate creative intelligence[55]. Finally, Jean Piaget's theory of development in the 1960s is still used today to explain the four stages of cognitive capability in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age learners. Educational psychology is informed primarily by psychology, with a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. In turn, it informs a wide range of disciplines within education, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education, and classroom management. Finally, it both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. For example, educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and cognitive load theory to explain how people learn from multimedia presentations[24]. In universities, educational psychology is usually the purview of teaching and learning centers, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology

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content in introductory psychology textbooks[1]. In North America, researchers-theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, and practitioners in schools as school psychologists. In the UK, there is no distinction between researchers and practitioners; all are educational psychologists. Educational technology (according to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology Committee[2]) supercedes instructional technology, and is the study and practice of facilitating and improving performance of learning by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources in an educational setting[1]. In other words, it is an array of software, including Internet applications, such as wiki's and blogs, hardware, and activities that advance student learning and can be measured in doing so. Examples of modern educational technology are overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Some new technology like "smartphones" and games are drawing serious attention for their learning potential. It is related to instructional theory and learning theory. It is based on a broad definition of the word "technology", i.e., machines and other objects of use to humanity, and also encompassing broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. The word technology comes from the Greek "techne" which means craft or art. Technology is also synonymous with applied science, i.e., any valid and reliable process or procedure that is derived from basic research using the "scientific method" is considered a "technology". Educational technology may be based purely on algorithmic or heuristic processes and not necessarily physical technology, so its application may be extended to include the techniques of the educator. According to some, an Educational Technologist is someone who transforms basic educational and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science of learning or instruction. Educational Technologists typically have a graduate degree in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology, Human Performance Technology, or Instructional Systems Design. But few theorists in these fields would ever use the term "educational technologist" to describe themselves, preferring the term "educator". The transformation of educational technology from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville, Browne, and Whitaker. Media psychology is the field of study that applies theories of human behavior to educational technology. Instructional theory is a theory of how instructional interventions support the way people learn and develop[1]. Instructional theories of andragogy, diaskagogy, heutagogy, and pedagogy, focus on how to structure learning processes and resources for promoting the education of human beings according to the stage of their development and age. Instructional theory is heavily influenced by Benjamin Bloom, a University of Chicago professor, and his 1956 work called Taxonomy of Education Objectives, one of the first modern codifications of the learning process. Notably, Bloom's work is concerned with pedagogical strategies and does not deal with educational technology per se. Instructional theory is different than but informed by learning theory; learning theory describes the mechanism of learning, and an instructional theory prescribes the mechanism that best facilitates learning[1]. Instructional design is the strategy and practice of creating instructional experiences conforming to instructional theory that makes teaching more efficient, effective, and appealing[1]. The process consists broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally, the process is informed by andragogically (adult learning) and pedagogically (child learning) tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led, or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly

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observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models, with the prominent one being the ADDIE model with five phases: 1) analysis, 2) design, 3) development, 4) implementation, and 5) evaluation. As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology, though recently Constructivism (learning theory) has influenced thinking in the field.[2][3][4] Pedagogy is the education, socialising, and upbringing ofchildren and young people.[3][4] It is not to be confused with social pedagogy, where society (represented by social pedagogues) holds a bigger part of the responsibility of the citizen's (often with mental or physical disabilities) well-being.[5][6] Pedagogy also refers to the application of instructional theory into instructional design, e.g., Paulo Freire referred to his method of teaching adult humans as "critical pedagogy". In pedagogical settings, an instructor develops conceptual knowledge and manages the content of learning activities, consistent with the sequential development of Piaget, Bruner, and Vygotsky. A pedagogue is a practitioner of pedagogy, whose job focuses on the childs social skills and cultural norms. Andragogy is the instructional strategies focused on adults. Originally used by Alexander Kapp (a German educator) in 1833. At the end of WWII, andragogy was developed into a theory of adult education by the American educator Malcolm Knowles and Dusan Savicevic in Boston, although it was originally spelled "androgogy". It has been used by some to allow discussion of contrast between self-directed and 'taught' education.[3] Knowles asserted that andragogy (man-leading) should be distinguished from the more commonly used pedagogy (child-leading). Knowles' theory can be stated with six assumptions related to motivation of adult learning:[1][2] 1. Adults need to know the reason for learning something (Need to Know). 2. Experience (including error) provides the basis for learning activities (Foundation). 3. Adults need to be responsible for their decisions on education; involvement in the planning and evaluation of their instruction (Self-concept). 4. Adults are most interested in learning subjects having immediate relevance to their work and/or personal lives (Readiness). 5. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented (Orientation). 6. Adults respond better to internal versus external motivators (Motivation). Diaskagogy is the instructional strategy of schema building focused on preschool education. The caregiver demonstrates factual knowledge, and then observes, measures, and modifies behavioral change in specified direction. The teacher/child relationship in this scenario is one of entertainment. The term is a combination of the Greek word for entertainer and to "lead," the construed meaning is "to lead the entertainer. It also is used as a descriptor for preschool education. Heutagogy is the instructional strategy of self-determined learning, a concept coined by Stewart Hase of Southern Cross University and Chris Kenyon in Australia. The notion is an expansion and reinterpretation of andragogy, and it is possible to mistake it for the same. However, there are several differences between the two[1]. Heutagogy places specific emphasis on learning how to learn, double loop learning, universal learning opportunities, a non-linear process, and true learner self-direction. It means "to lead to invention, discoveries, findings" and consists of instructional theories focused on mature learners where a facilitator enables
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quested learning to allow for modification of existing knowledge and creation of new knowledge. So, whereas andragogy focuses on the best ways for people to learn, heutagogy also requires that educational initiatives include learning how to learn as well as just learning a given subject itself. Similarly, whereas andragogy focuses on formal education, heutagogy considers all learning contexts, both formal and informal[1]. Instructional technology is the original term posited by the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology Committee[1] for the "theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning". Instructional technology covers the products and systems used by teachers and instructors; educational technology covers all technology in educational establishments that concentrate on the students learning; educational technology may be seen as an expansion of instruction technology. Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works. It includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory, reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (human or other animal) and machines (e.g. computers). Cognitive science informs multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, anthropology, sociology, and education.[1] It spans many levels of analysis, from low-level learning and decision mechanisms to high-level logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization. The fundamental concept of cognitive science is that thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures.[2] Organizational learning studies models and theories about the way an organization learns and adapts; it is an area of knowledge within organizational theory. In Organizational development (OD), learning is a characteristic of an adaptive organization, i.e., an organization that is able to sense changes in signals from its environment (both internal and external) and adapt accordingly. (see adaptive system). OD specialists endeavor to assist their clients to learn from experience and incorporate the learning as feedback into the planning process. Habituation can be either a process or a procedure. As a process, it is a decrease in an elicited behavior resulting from the repeated presentation of an eliciting stimulus (a simple form of learning)[1]. As a procedure, it is the repeated presentation of an eliciting stimulus that may result in the decline of the elicited behavior (the process of habituation), an increase of the elicited behavior (the process of sensitization), or an initial increase followed by a decline of the elicited behavior (a sensitization process followed by a habituation process)[2]. A progressive decline of a behavior in a habituation procedure may also reflect nonspecific effects such as fatigue which must be ruled out when the interest is in habituation as a learning process.[3] Personal development encompasses activities that improve awareness and identity, develop talents and potential, build human capital, facilitates employability, enhance quality of life, and contribute to the realization of the individuals dreams and aspirations. The concept is not limited to self-help but includes formal and informal activities for developing others, in roles such as teacher, guide, counsellor, manager, coach, or mentor. Finally, as personal development takes place in the context of institutions, it refers to the methods, programs, tools,

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techniques, and assessment systems that support human development at the individual level in organizations.[1] Curriculum in formal education is the set of courses, and their content, offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard. Curriculum has numerous definitions, which can be slightly confusing. In its broadest sense a curriculum may refer to all courses offered at a school. This is particularly true of schools at the university level, where the diversity of a curriculum might be an attractive point to a potential student. A curriculum may also refer to a defined and prescribed course of studies, which students must fulfill in order to pass a certain level of education. For example, an elementary school might discuss how its curriculum, or its entire sum of lessons and teachings, is designed to improve national testing scores or help students learn the basics. An individual teacher might also refer to his or her curriculum, meaning all the subjects that will be taught during a school year. A high school might refer to a curriculum as both individual courses needed to receive ones diploma, and also the overall offering of courses that prepare a student for life after high school. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning is a growing movement in post-secondary education for the scholarly inquiry into student learning which advances the practice of teaching by making research findings accessible to the wider community of educators. SOTL necessarily builds on many past traditions in higher education, including classroom and program assessment, K-12 action research, the reflective practice movement, peer review of teaching, traditional educational research, and faculty development efforts to enhance teaching and learning. Terms closely related to the scholarship of teaching and learning are good teaching (that which promotes student learning and desired outcomes and is recognized by student satisfaction, peer review, etc.) and scholarly teaching (in which teaching is regarded as an area of study and the teaching and learning knowledge base is regarded as an additional discipline in which to develop expertise). SOTL research encompasses aspects of professional development or faculty development, such as how teachers can not only improve their expertise in their fields, but also develop their pedagogical expertise, i.e., how to better teach novice students in the field or enable their learning. It also encompasses the study and implementation of more modern teaching methods, such as active learning, cooperative learning, problem based learning, and others. SOTL researchers come from various backgrounds, such as those in educational psychology and other education related fields, as well as specialists in various disciplines who are interested in improving teaching and learning in their respective fields. Some researchers are educational researchers or consultants affiliated with teaching and learning centers at universities. Research methods in SOTL include reflection and analysis, interviews and focus groups, questionnaires and surveys, content analysis of text, secondary analysis of existing data, quasi-experiments (comparison of two sections of the same course), observational research, and case studies, among others. As with all scholarly study, evidence depends not only upon the research method chosen but the relevant disciplinary standards. Dissemination for impact among scholarly teachers may be local within the academic department, college or university, or may be in published, peer-reviewed form. A few journals exclusively publish SOTL research, and numerous disciplinary publications disseminate such research (e.g., J. Chem. Educ., J. Natural Resour. Life Sci. Educ., Research in the Teaching of English, College English, J. Economic Education), as well as a number of core SoTL journals and newsletters.

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Active learning is an umbrella term that refers to several models of instructional design that focus the responsibility of learning on the learners themselves. Bonwell and Eison (1991) popularized this approach to instruction (Bonwell & Eison 1991). This buzz word of the 1980s became an official specification of the 1990s in their report to the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE), where they discussed a variety of active learning methodologies that promoted learning. While there has been much enthusiasm for active learning, a variety of research studies since the 1990s, has since promoted an important principle: guidance early, and then practice later is suggested for the best results.[1] Blended learning is an instructional design that mixes different learning environments. It combines traditional face-to-face classroom methods with more modern computer-mediated activities. According to its proponents, the strategy creates a more integrated approach for both instructors and learners. Formerly, technology-based materials played a supporting role to face-to-face instruction. Through a blended learning approach, technology will be more important. For example, consider a traditional class meeting schedule. Say that the course would normally meet MWF, from 1-3pm. If the institution were to apply a blended learning approach, the course may change so that it meets once per week instead of the usual threesession format. Learning activities that otherwise would have taken place during classroom time can be moved online. In other circumstances, a greater reliance on technology within the classroom may occur. Activities may be structured around access to online resources, communication via social media or interaction with distance learners in other classrooms or other learning environments. There are many different approaches to blended learning. It can take on many shapes or forms, depending on the teachers and learners involved. As of now, there is no consensus on a single agreed-upon definition for blended learning. The terms "blended," "hybrid," and "mixed-mode" are used interchangeably in current research literature.
[1]

Cooperative learning is an instructional design for organizing classroom academic activities into social learning experiences. It differs from group work, and it has been described as "structuring positive interdependence"[1][2]. Students must work in groups to complete tasks collectively toward academic goals. Unlike individual learning, which can be competitive in nature, students learning cooperatively capitalize on one anothers resources and skills (asking one another for information, evaluating one anothers ideas, monitoring one anothers work, etc.)[3][4]. Furthermore, the teacher's role changes from giving information to facilitating students' learning[5][6]. Everyone succeeds when the group succeeds. Ross and Smyth (1995) describe successful cooperative learning tasks as intellectually demanding, creative, openended, and involve higher order thinking tasks[7]. Five essential elements are identified for the successful incorporation of cooperative learning in the classroom. eLearning is an instructional design that comprises all forms of electronically supported learning and teaching. The information and communication systems, whether networked learning or not, serve as specific media to implement the learning process[1]. The term will still most likely be utilized to reference out-of-classroom and in-classroom educational experiences via technology, even as advances continue in regard to devices and curriculum. It is essentially the computer and network-enabled transfer of skills and knowledge. eLearning applications and processes include Web-based learning, computer-based learning, virtual education opportunities and digital collaboration. Content is delivered via the Internet, intranet/extranet, audio or video tape, satellite TV, and CD-ROM. It can be self-paced or instructor-led and includes media in the form of text, image, animation, and streaming video and audio. Today, one can find a variety of terms being used to describe this concept of asynchronous, computer

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learning, like CBT (Computer-Based Training), IBT (Internet-Based Training) or WBT (WebBased Training). The terms will be utilized throughout this article to indicate their validity under the broader terminology of E-learning. Experiential learning is an instructional design that encourages the formulation of meaning from direct experience either staged or random. Aristotle once said, "For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them"[2]. David A. Kolb helped to popularize the idea of experiential learning drawing heavily on the work of John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget. His work on experiential learning has contributed greatly to expanding the philosophy of experiential education. Staged experiential learning is often called a Dynamic Learning Experience (DLE) in certain high hazard industries. Experiential learning is learning through reflection on doing, which is often contrasted with rote or didactic learning. It is related to, but not synonymous with, experiential education, action learning, adventure learning, free choice learning, cooperative learning, and service learning. Flexible learning is an instructional design concerned with providing learners with increased choice, convenience, and personalisation to suit the learner. In particular, flexible learning provides learners with choices about where, when, and how learning occurs. Sometimes also referred to as personalized learning. Flexible learning is a term often used in New Zealand and Australia see Shurville et al. (2008). Flexible learning approaches are often designed using a full range of teaching and learning theories, philosophies and methods to provide students with opportunities to access information and expertise, contribute ideas and opinions, and correspond with other learners and mentors. This may occur through the use of internet-based tools such as Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) or Learning Management Systems (LMSes), discussion boards or chat rooms; and may be designed as a "blended" approach, with content available electronically and remotely, as well as "face-to-face" classroom tutorials and lectures. While the majority of flexible learning programs to date have taken advantage of computer-based systems ("E-learning"), the rapidly increase in the processing power and popularity of mobile digital devices has recently caused considerable interest in mobile learning - the use of mobile devices such as mobile phones, iPods, and Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) to increase the mobility of learners and correspondingly enhance the flexibility of their learning. Meta-learning is an instructional design that has the students learning about their own learning styles, and then applying this knowledge to increase their learning performance, i.e., they select the best style or modality for the learning at hand. It was originally described by Maudsley (1979) being facilitated if the learner (a) has a theory, however primitive; (b) works in a safe supportive social and physical environment; (c) discovers the rules and assumptions; (d) reconnects with reality-information from the environment; and (e) reorganizes by changing the rules/assumptions. In 1985, John Biggs defined meta-learning as being aware of and taking control of ones own learning. In 2000, Merrill argued that most students are unaware of their learning styles and are unlikely to start learning in new ways. In 2004, Coffield suggested knowing one's learning style can increase self-awareness about their strengths and weaknesses as learners, i.e., that it offers all the advantages claimed for related to metacognition (being aware of one's own thought and learning processes). A student who has a high level of metalearning awareness is able to assess the effectiveness of her/his learning approach and regulate it according to the demands of the learning task. Conversely, a student who is low in metalearning awareness will not be able to reflect on her/his learning approach or the nature of the learning task set. In consequence, s/he will be unable to adapt successfully when studying becomes more difficult and demanding. (Norton et al. 2004)

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Multimedia learning is an instructional design based that transmits content for learning in both auditory and visual form. It is based on the premise that humans learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone, and is originated by Richard Mayer in 1998. Its principles are providing coherent verbal, pictorial information, guiding the learners to select relevant words and images, and reducing the load for a single processing channel. Notably, simply adding words to pictures is not an effective way to achieve multimedia learning. Multiple Intelligences is an instructional design, developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University, that targets the eight intelligences in which humans interpret and understand their world: linguistic/"word smart", logical-mathematical/ "number smart", spatial/"picture smart", kinesthetic/"body smart", musical/"sound smart", interpersonal/"people smart", intrapersonal/"self smart", and naturalist/"nature smart". Lessons may incorporate different pathways, e.g., music, cooperative learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, and inner reflection, to presenting the material, whichever is of particular interest to the teacher or seems to be the most effective for the topic. It does not require that each topic be taught in all eight ways; it does expand the horizon of available teaching/learning tools beyond the conventional linguistic and logical used in most schools, e.g., lecture, textbooks, writing assignments, formulas, etc. One technique is to write the topic in the center of a blank sheet of paper, and draw eight spokes radiating out from it. Label each line with a different intelligence, and then start brainstorming ideas for teaching or learning that topic and write down ideas next to each intelligence. Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional design in which students learn about a subject in the context of complex, multifaceted, and realistic problems (not to be confused with project-based learning). The goals of PBL are to help the students develop flexible knowledge, effective problem solving skills, self-directed learning, effective collaboration skills and intrinsic motivation[1]. Working in groups, students identify what they already know, what they need to know, and how and where to access new information that may lead to resolution of the problem. The role of the instructor, a.k.a. tutor, is that of facilitator of learning who provides appropriate scaffolding and support of the process, modeling of the process, and monitoring the learning[2]. The tutor must build students confidence to take on the problem, encourage the student, while also stretching their understanding[3]. PBL was pioneered in the medical school program at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada in the late 1960s by Howard Barrows and his colleagues[4]. The PBL curriculum was developed in order to stimulate the learners, assist the learners in seeing the relevance of learning to future roles, maintain a higher level of motivation towards learning, and to show the learners the importance of responsible, professional attitudes (Barrows, 1996). PBL subsequently has been adopted by other medical school programs (Barrows, 1996), adapted for undergraduate instruction (Boud and Feletti, 1997; Duch et al., 2001; Amador et al., 2006) as well as elementary and high school (Barrows, 1996; Gasser, 2011). The use of PBL has expanded from its initial introduction into medical school programs to include education in the areas of other health sciences, math, law, education, economics, business, social studies, and engineering (Barrows 1996; Gasser, 2011). The use of PBL, like other student-centered pedagogies, has been motivated by recognition of the failures of traditional instruction (Wingspread, 1994; and Boyer, 1998) and the emergence of deeper understandings of how people learn (National Research Council, 2000). Unlike traditional instruction, PBL actively engages the student in constructing knowledge. PBL includes problems that can be solved in many different ways and have more than one solution[5]. A good problem is authentic, meets students level of prior knowledge, engages students in discussion, and is interesting.[2]

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Team-based learning has two distinct usages. It was a term first popularized by Larry Michaelsen, the central figure in the development of the TBL method while at University of Oklahoma, to describe an instructional design that he developed for use in academic settings[1]. The second usage describes a process for teaching and developing people in the workplace. Teaching methods comprise the principles and methods used for instruction. Commonly used teaching methods may include class participation, demonstration, recitation, memorization, or combinations of these. The choice of teaching method or methods to be used depends largely on the information or skill that is being taught, and it may also be influenced by the aptitude and enthusiasm of the students. Instruction is the facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary institutions are often called teachers, and they direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Instructors in postsecondary institutions might be called teachers, instructors, or professors, depending on the type of institution; and they primarily teach only their specific discipline. Studies from the United States suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible[24][25]. With the passing of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified. A popular way to gauge teaching performance is to use student evaluations of teachers (SETS), but these evaluations have been criticized for being counterproductive to learning and inaccurate due to student bias.[26] Classroom management is the process of ensuring that classroom lessons run smoothly despite disruptive behavior by students. The term also implies the prevention of disruptive behavior. It is possibly the most difficult aspect of teaching for many teachers; indeed experiencing problems in this area causes some to leave teaching altogether. In 1981 the US National Educational Association reported that 36% of teachers said they would probably not go into teaching if they had to decide again. A major reason was "negative student attitudes and discipline" (Charles H Wolfgang and Carl D Glickman, 1986). According to Moskowitz & Hayman (1976), once a teacher loses control of their classroom, it becomes increasingly more difficult for them to regain that control (Moskowitz, G., & Hayman, 1976. Also, research from Berliner (1988) and Brophy & Good (1986) shows that the time that teacher has to take to correct misbehavior caused by poor classroom management skills results in a lower rate of academic engagement in the classroom. From the students perspective, effective classroom management involves clear communication of behavioral and academic expectations as well as a cooperative learning environment (Allen, 1986). Classroom management is closely linked to issues of motivation, discipline and respect. Methodologies remain a matter of passionate debate amongst teachers; approaches vary depending on the beliefs a teacher holds regarding educational psychology. A large part of traditional classroom management involves behavior modification, although many teachers see using behavioral approaches alone as overly simplistic. Many teachers establish rules and procedures at the beginning of the school year. According to Gootman (2008), rules give students concrete direction to ensure that our expectation becomes a reality. They also try to be consistent in enforcing these rules and procedures. Many would also argue for positive consequences when rules are followed, and negative consequences when rules are broken. There are newer perspectives on classroom management that attempt to be holistic. One example is affirmation teaching, which attempts to guide students toward success by helping them see how their effort pays off in the classroom. It relies upon creating an environment where students are successful as a result of

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their own efforts (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990). By creating this type of environment, students are much more likely to want to do well. This transforms a classroom into a community of well-behaved and self-directed learners. Teaching and learning centers are independent academic units within colleges and universities that exist to provide support services for faculty, to help teaching faculty to improve their teaching and professional development. They may also provide learning support services for students, and other services, depending on the individual institution. These centers may have different kinds of names, such as faculty development centers, teaching and learning centers, centers for teaching and learning, centers for teaching excellence, academic support centers, and others. Socratic method is a form of inquiry and debate, named after the classical Greek philosopher Socrates, between individuals with opposing viewpoints, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to illuminate ideas. It is a dialectical method, often involving an oppositional discussion in which the defense of one point of view is pitted against the defense of another; one participant may lead another to contradict himself in some way, thus strengthening the inquirer's own point. The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general, commonly held truths that shape opinion, and scrutinizes them to determine their consistency with other beliefs. The basic form is a series of questions formulated as tests of logic and fact, exploring the definitions and seeking to characterize the general characteristics shared by various particular instances, all intended to help the participants discover their beliefs about some topic. Socrates began using this method after his friend from youth, Chaerephon, visited the Oracle of Delphi, which declared that no man in Greece was wiser than Socrates. Socrates saw this as a paradox, and began using the Socratic method to answer this conundrum. Aristotle regarded this method of definition and induction as the essence of the scientific method. Plato famously formalized the Socratic elenctic style in prose Socrates presented in some of his early dialogues, which generally portray Socrates as the curious questioner engaging in the method with some prominent Athenian interlocutor about moral and epistemological issues. Human Performance Technology (HPT) or Improvement (HPI) is a systematic approach to improving individual and organizational performance (Pershing, 2006) drawn from many other disciplines, including total quality management, process improvement, behavioral psychology, instructional systems design, organizational development, and human resources management (ISPI, 2007). HPT is related to Process Improvement, Six Sigma, Lean Six Sigma, Organization Development, Motivation, Instructional technology, Human Factors, learning, performance support systems, knowledge management, and training. HPT stresses a rigorous analysis of the performance requirements for new design and/or identifying the causes for performance gaps, provision of new designs and/or solutions to improve and sustain performance, and evaluation of the results against the requirements.

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