Katz, B. J., and M. R. Mello, 2000, Petroleum systems of South Atlantic Marginal basinsan overview, in M. R. Mello and B. J.

Katz, eds., Petroleum systems of South Atlantic margins: AAPG Memoir 73, p. 113.

Chapter 1

Petroleum Systems of South Atlantic Marginal BasinsAn Overview

B. J. Katz
Texaco Group Inc. Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

M. R. Mello
Petrobrs Research Center Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Abstract
The marginal basins along the South Atlantic have developed into one of the most active regions for petroleum exploration. The increase in the level of industry interest has resulted from numerous recent successes along both the eastern and western continental margins of the South Atlantic, the evolution of the regions political character, and an increase in the rate of permitting in deep and ultradeep waters. This heightened industry interest provided the rationale for a Hedberg Research Symposium on the petroleum systems of South Atlantic marginal basins. Use of the petroleum system concept in South Atlantic marginal basins provides an effective means of classifying and characterizing the diversity of the systems and a way to aid in the selection of appropriate exploration analogs. South Atlantic marginal basins provide some of the best examples of how petroleum systems evolve through time with respect to both their levels of certainty and their areal and stratigraphic limits. A comparison of three basins from the South Atlanticthe Niger Delta, Lower Congo, and Campos Basinsprovide examples of both the common traits that exist throughout the region as well as the differences among the individual basins. Differences are clear when the source and reservoir couplets are examined. In the Niger Delta, shallow water sands are charged from a Tertiary source with an important higher plant contribution. In the Lower Congo Basin, the lacustrine Bucomazi Formation (Neocomian Barremian) charges primarily shelfal carbonates and sandstones. In the Campos Basin, the lacustrine Lagoa Feia (Barremian) Formation charges primarily Upper CretaceousTertiary deep-water turbidite sandstones. A common trait appears to be the nature of the migration network which typically incorporates both normal faults and regional unconformities. The relative importance of vertical and lateral migration does differ among the basins, with vertical migration and short-distance lateral migration being dominant in the Campos and Gabon Basins and longer lateral distance migration being more important in the Niger Delta. The basins of the South Atlantic also provide an excellent opportunity to examine the variety of lacustrine source rock settings. The depositional settings of these lakes range from freshwater to hypersaline. Source quality within these units also varies in response to their different depositional conditions and other factors that control or influence organic productivity and preservation.

INTRODUCTION
Over the past few years, the basins along the South Atlantic continental margins (Figures 1 and 2) have undergone a surge of expanded exploratory interest. This has in part been fueled by recent giant field discoveries such as the Bonga, Zafiro, NKossa, Girassol, Dalia, Rosa, and Kuito fields along the west African margin and the Roncador, Marlim, South Marlim, Barracuda, and Albacora Leste fields in the Campos Basin along the 1

South American margin. Furthering this growth in activity has been an increase in political stabilization and other political changes along coastal Africa, denationalization and an end to the governmental exploration monopoly in the petroleum industry in Brazil and Argentina, and an overall increase in the rate of permitting activity in deep and ultradeep waters throughout the region. These factors have culminated in providing the industry with a unique opportunity to expand exploration into one of the last remaining high-potential frontier regions on earth.

Katz and Mello

Foz do Amazonas ~ ` Para-Maranhao Barreirinhas Ceara Potiguar

AFRICA

SOUTH AMERICA

Jatoba` Tucano ^ Reconcavo

Sergipe/ Alagoas Bahia Sul ` Espirito Santo Campos

Niger Delta Cameroon Gabon Congo Kwanza

Santos

Pelotas

Salado Colorado

Mocamedes

Valdez

Walvis
San Jorge San Julian Piedrabuena Falkland

Orange River
Malvinas

Figure 1Distribution of basins along the western South Atlantic margin.

Figure 2Distribution of basins along the eastern South Atlantic margin.

As activity has increased, it became clear through the numerous partnerships and working groups that there would be universal benefit to review and examine the current state of understanding of the petroleum systems present along the South Atlantic margins. Such an exercise would potentially provide the following: 1. A mechanism to relate the nature and effectiveness of the petroleum systems along the two conjugate margins; 2. A series of basin and/or system analogs as exploration extends into deeper waters and into basins where drilling density has been low; 3. Information on the general character and diversity of largely lacustrine-sourced petroleum systems that dominate much of the regions reserve base; and 4. A better understanding of the presence of marine petroleum systems in ultradeep waters of west Africa and possibly the southern Brazilian basins. To accomplish these goals, a joint AAPG-ABGP Research Conference on the Petroleum Systems of the South Atlantic Margins was organized and held in Rio de

Janiero, Brazil, on November 1619, 1997. This volume represents a collection of papers presented at this meeting, with this chapter providing a general overview of the meetings themes and conclusions. Most of the details are presented in the individual contributions.

PETROLEUM SYSTEM CONCEPT

The petroleum system is viewed in various ways by different organizations. Also, like many geoscience terms, although a rigorous definition has been proposed (Magoon, 1988), this definition has not been universally accepted or it has been modified to better fit individual organizational needs and circumstances. However, there is a common theme among the concepts numerous proponents. The petroleum system is viewed as a means of formalizing the relationship between the geologic elements in time and space that are required for the development of a commercial petroleum accumulation. The key elements necessary for the presence of a viable petroleum system are the source rock, reservoir, seal, trap, and necessary overburden for hydrocarbon generation to

Chapter 1Petroleum Systems of South Atlantic Marginal BasinsAn Overview

proceed. Furthermore, these individual elements must share the appropriate temporal and spatial relationships to permit hydrocarbons to accumulate and ultimately be preserved. The temporal, structural, and areal relationships among these different elements are often presented in a series of diagrams displaying the relative timing of depositional and other critical events such as trap development, along with cross-sections establishing stratigraphic and structural relationships among the different elements and maps defining the geographic limits of the system and its components. The study of petroleum systems requires a paradigm shift from an emphasis on a basins sedimentary fill to the fluids that it contains. The examination of a petroleum system differs further from a basin study in that it focuses on the hydrocarbons generated by a single source rock. Thus, by definition, a petroleum system is limited to a single geochemical oil family, although oil properties may vary as a function of alteration and thermal maturity. In fact, it has been proposed that a petroleum system be named for the source and dominant reservoir, that is, the reservoir unit in which the majority of the hydrocarbons are contained. In a basin, multiple oil families or petroleum systems may be present. One such basin is the Ogoou delta, where two distinct petroleum systems are present, each with its own source and primary reservoir units (Katz et al., Chapter 18, this volume). Within a basin, these different systems may overlap both stratigraphically and geographically, but often they are discrete and the presence of multiple petroleum systems extends both the stratigraphic and areal extent of a basins exploratory opportunities. In part, the interest in the use of the petroleum system concept as an exploration tool has developed as a direct consequence of the refinement of the geochemical and statistical tools necessary to establish the genetic relationships among oils (Mello et al., Chapter 4, this volume). For example, the combined use of stable isotopes and biomarker geochemistry has now become common. Geochemical data serve several roles in petroleum system assessment. First, these indices establish both similarities and differences among oils that define individual oil families or systems. Second, when samples of effective source rocks are present, they can establish genetic linkages with oil families. (Source rocks are defined as rocks that are thermally mature and contain sufficient quantities of the appropriate type of organic matter for petroleum generation to occur.) Third, the knowledge base associated with key geochemical marker (biomarker) compounds has expanded so that the chemical composition of an oil can be used to infer the nature of a source rocks depositional setting and in some cases chronostratigraphic position. Geochemical information also establishes the level of certainty that exists for each system. Magoon (1988) suggested three levels of geochemical certainty: known, hypothetical, and speculative. In a known system, a definitive geochemical correlation can be established between source rock and oil family. In a hypothetical system, the presence of a source rock system can be established

through its organic richness, generation potential, and kerogen character, but a definitive correlation with oils has yet to be established. Alternatively, the geochemical characteristics of an oil family can be used to establish the nature and stratigraphic position of a source even when no correlation has been established. In general, the lack of definitive correlation results either from a lack of sample availability or sample quality. In a speculative system, the necessary supporting data to establish the presence and character of a source are lacking and its presence is inferred through either geologic or geophysical data. The level of certainty of a system can and will be upgraded as access to new samples and data are made available. The defining of a petroleum system along with its level of certainty can therefore be used to establish the exploratory risks within a region more effectively. Exploration risks increase with increasing geographic and stratigraphic displacement from a known petroleum system. This has been clearly shown by Demaison (1984) for the largely vertically migrating petroleum system present in the North Sea where exploration success is closely related to the areal limits of the generative (mature) Kimmeridge Clay. A caveat, however, does exist in that the limits of a petroleum system are effectively controlled by drilling density. Numerous examples can be cited in which the limits of a petroleum system have been expanded significantly both stratigraphically and areally by additional drilling, as has been the case in the Campos Basin (Guardado et al., 1989). In the Campos Basin, initial exploration objectives were Albian carbonates limited mainly to the outer continental shelf and to water depths of less than 200 m. Today, these reservoirs account for less than 10% of the oil in place, with the largest discoveries having been made in Tertiary sandstone reservoirs in water depths typically greater than 500 m (Figure 3). In part, this expansion and redefining of the petroleum system has come about as a result of technological developments that have permitted exploration to be extended into deeper water. Note that, although the source for hydrocarbons has remained unchanged in the Campos Basin, the primary reservoir and hence petroleum system name has changed with time. Clearly, this is an example where the petroleum system has grown and evolved in a positive fashion. At the same time, the lack of a key element or elements in a speculative petroleum system in either a basin or part of a basin results in exploratory failure. Such a critical flaw occurred in the Rawson Basin, Argentina (Otis and Schneiderman, Chapter 28, this volume) where drilling failed to prove the existence of two critical elements in the speculated petroleum system. Drilling revealed that both discrete reservoir sandstones and organic-rich shales were absent. Thus as known and hypothetical systems may grow and expand as information becomes available, speculative systems either will evolve into a hypothetical or known system depending on the nature of data that becomes available or will disappear if critical flaws associated with the absence of key elements are discovered through drilling.

Katz and Mello

Number of Exploratory Wells 100 9 11 10 17 27 34 29 32 24 28 15 13 16 22 15 14 14 15 19 30 21 15 13

80 PERCENT EXPLORATORY WELLS

60

Cretaceous/Tertiary Turbidites Albian Carbonates

40

20

Rift Carbonates
0 74 76 78 80 82 84 YEAR 86 88 90 92 94 96

Figure 3Evolution of primary drilling objectives in the Campos Basin. After Guardado et al. (1997).

SOUTH ATLANTIC CONJUGATE MARGINS

The sedimentary basins along the South American and African margins are traditionally considered to be independent basins. In part, this view has been fostered as a result of the lack of a common stratigraphic nomenclature and regional integration. An expanding knowledge base, however, allows both margins and their associated basins to be viewed as part of a larger single regional, structural, stratigraphic, and geochemical entity, upon which local characteristics can be overlain. This commonality among basins can be seen best in the geochemical characteristics of many of the oils. Available data show that although several oil types exist, there are common themes with respect to source rock depositional setting and effectiveness (Figure 4). Such a view leads to a better understanding of the relationships among the different petroleum systems and the appropriateness of a basin or a specific petroleum system to be used as an analog for the less explored portions of the margins, including deep and ultradeep waters. For example, this approach demonstrates how the success in the Lagoa FeiaCarapebus system of the Campos Basin (which includes the Marlim field with 8.2 Bbbl of oil in place) (Guardado et al., 1989; Mello et al., 1994) can be used to explore more effectively in the more outer portions of the Kwanza and Lower Congo Basins where exploratory drilling is less mature. However, as Szatmari (Chapter 6, this volume) has pointed out, differences in basin development are such that the distribution of oil fields along the two margins should not be viewed as simple mirror images. It appears that the differences in

basin evolution have created an asymmetric distribution of hydrocarbon resulting in an apparent alternation between productive and nonproductive portions in the two margins. Although the presence of diapiric salt along much of the South Atlantic margin has complicated the imaging and analysis of synrift structures, merged geophysical data, including both seismic and satellite-derived gravity data, indicate a common tectonostratigraphic evolution for the two conjugate margins. Karner et al. (1997) noted that the South Atlantic margins formed as a result of rift propagation across the region during three rifting episodes: BerriasianHauterivian, Hauterivianmiddle Barremian, and late Barremianearly Aptian. Each rifting event resulted in the formation of a series of basins. Fresh to brackish to saline lacustrine water conditions developed within these basins. Often these conditions led to both high levels of organic productivity and preservation. Each of these lacustrine basins was filled with an overall regressive package as a consequence of basin shallowing through in-filling. The last rifting event resulted in the emplacement of oceanic crust and is consistent with the M0 magnetic anomaly along the Brazilian and Angolan margins. Two tectonic hinge zones have been defined along each of the margins. The inner hinge marks the limit of continental extension. The outer hinge consists of a series of segmented en echelon blocks. The en echelon character of these blocks plays a key role in controlling river drainage and hence the character of each rift segments fill (Karner et al., 1997). As noted above, the petroleum potential of the different marginal basins appears to be asymmetric, reflecting the nature of the South Atlantics original rifting (Mello et

Chapter 1Petroleum Systems of South Atlantic Marginal BasinsAn Overview

Figure 4Oil types along the South Atlantic margins.

al., 1991). The asymmetric character of rifting along the margin is suggested by differences in the width of rifted continental crust. For example, the Campos and Santos Basins both display a wide zone of extended continental crust, while in the Bahia Sul and SergipeAlagoas Basins, the extended crust is restricted to a narrow band. The converse appears to be present along the African margin, where the wide zone of extended crust occurs in the north and the narrow band is present in the south. These differences in extent of the extended crust ultimately influence basin subsidence, basin fill, and thermal history, thus directly impacting the distribution and effectiveness of the margins petroleum systems. The onset of sea floor spreading was coincident with an apparent increase in salinity. Open marine conditions were established across the entire region by early Albian time. Initially, intermittent marine incursions from the south resulted in development of hypersaline conditions and deposition of thick evaporite sequences. These evaporitic conditions evolved into more normal marine conditions with time. During this initial open marine episode, the widespread deposition of carbonates occurred on both sides of the South Atlantic. From the middle Cretaceous onward, the deepening of the South Atlantic resulted in the accumulation of sediments over a wide bathymetric range (neritic to abyssal). When viewed in broad terms, the stratigraphic columns of the South Atlantic marginal salt basins appear

similar and can be divided into five megasequences (Figure 5): prerift, rift, transitional (or evaporitic), transgressive marine, and regressive marine. These megasequences are represented by time-equivalent successions along the two conjugate margins representing similar depositional environments. These five megasequences are separated by four major regional unconformities: a regional unconformity separating Paleozoic from Mesozoic (mainly Upper Jurassic) prerift sedimentary beds; a Lower Cretaceous unconformity between the prerift and rift sequences; a pre-Aptian unconformity that corresponds to the breakup unconformity; and a lower Tertiary unconformity associated with a Paleocene sea level drop (Henry et al., 1996). The Niger Delta, as a consequence of its different origin, does not fully share this common tectonostratigraphic succession (Doust and Omastsola, 1989). Although the megasequence concept is useful, it is important to note that the distribution and geometry of the sedimentary fill differs from basin to basin. For example, along the Brazilian margin, the thickness of the drift sequence varies tremendously. The thickness of this sequence is much greater in the southern basins than in the northern basins. These differences can also be extended to the west African margin, where rift and prerift sedimentary rocks are exposed in outcrops close to Precambrian rocks in the Kwanza, Cabinda, and Gabon Basins. Such exposures do not exist within the conjugates along the southern Brazilian margin. Only in the

Katz and Mello

Ma
0
QUATERN. PLEIST.

regional volcanism
BARREIRAS

TECTONO-STRATIGRAPHIC CHARTS SERGIPEALAGOAS AND KWANZA BASINS

RO

regional volcanism

PLEIST. QUATERN. PLIOCENE

MIOCENE

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volcanism volcanism
TRANSITIONAL (EVAPORITIC)

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W. Mohriak, June 1996.

MAJOR UNCONFORMITY PROGRADATION EPISODE

SHALE MARL

SANDSTONE LIMESTONE

EVAPORITE SILICICLASTICS

IGNEOUS ROCKS META SEDIMENTS

SOURCE ROCKS

Figure 5Comparison of the tectonostratigraphic frameworks of the SergipeAlagoas and Kwanza Basins.

JURAS.

144

MIOCENE

PLIOCENE

NEOGENE

NEOGENE

BA

SQ

UEI

Chapter 1Petroleum Systems of South Atlantic Marginal BasinsAn Overview

SergipeAlgoas and Recncavo Basins can the prerift and rift sequence be mapped. These differences are partially a reflection of the previously noted asymmetric rifting along the margins (Mello et al., 1991).

SYSTEM DIVERSITY AND EFFECTIVENESS

The petroleum systems in the South Atlantic are highly diverse in character. This diversity is manifested in structural style, source rock depositional setting, reservoir lithology, and timing of fundamental events. The six distinct oil types present along the margin partially reflect the diversity of the petroleum systems. Each oil type reflects a unique source rock depositional environment that developed as the margins evolved. It is important to note, however, that individual oil accumulations may form through the mixing of various oil types. In stratigraphic succession (oldest first), the six oil types are briefly described here, following Mello et al. (1996).

Oil Types
The first oil type observed in the Cear, Potiguar, SergipeAlagoas, Bahia Sul, Douala, Lower Congo, and Gabon Basins was derived from Neocomian source rocks deposited under lacustrine freshwater to brackish conditions (e.g., Pendncia, Candeias, Bucomazi, and Melania Formations in the Potiguar, Bahia Sul, Lower Congo, and Gabon Basins, respectively). Much of this oil appears to be contained within Neocomian sandstones. Lateral and vertical migration distances appear limited. These oils are paraffinic (saturates >60%, paraffins >40%) and have low sulfur (<0.1%) and low naphthene contents and low gasoil ratios (<60 m3/m3). The second oil type, which is observed in the Santos, Campos, Espirito Santo, and SergipeAlagoas Basins and along much of west Africa from Angola to Cameroon, was derived from NeocomianBarremian calcareous black shales deposited under brackish to saline conditions (e.g., Lagoa Feia, Bucomazi, and Melania Formations in the Campos, Lower Congo, and Gabon Basins, respectively). These oils are often reservoired in turbiditic sandstones ranging from Upper Cretaceous to Miocene and to a lesser degree in Cretaceous carbonates. Lateral migration distances away from the generative kitchen appear limited. Vertical migration associated with normal fault systems and through windows in the overlying salt may, however, be significant. These oils are naphthenic (saturates >60%, naphthenes >40%) and have low to medium sulfur contents (0.10.5%) and low to medium gasoil ratios (<200 m3/m3). The third distinct oil type identified in the Cear, Potiguar, SergipeAlagoas, Bahia Sul, and Gabon Basins is derived from source rocks deposited under marine evaporitic conditions (e.g., the Paracuru, Upanema,

Muribeca, and Gamba Formations in the Cear, Potiguar, SergipeAlagoas, and Gabon Basins, respectively). The limited occurrence of this oil type along the west African margin is probably due to the margins more limited volume of the evaporitic oil-prone source facies. Along the west African margin, this stratigraphic interval is dominated by shallow-water carbonates. Reservoirs for these oils range in age from late Aptian to early Eocene and are predominantly delta-front sandstones. These oils migrated vertically within the normal fault system and laterally along regional unconformities. They are naphthenic (saturates >60%, naphthenes >40%), with medium sulfur contents (0.10.5%) and low to medium gasoil ratios (<200 m3/m3). The fourth oil type is associated with accumulations in the SergipeAlagoas, Bahia Sul, Espirito Santo, Lower Congo, Kwanza, and Gabon Basins. These oils are derived from AlbianAptian marls and calcareous black shales (e.g., Regencia and Iabe Formations of the Espirito Santo and Lower Congo Basins, respectively). The migration pathways of these oils appear torturous due to combined components of both vertical and lateral migration associated with transform fault systems. These oils are largely pooled in Upper Cretaceous shallow-water carbonates and sandstones. They are classified as naphthenic-aromatic (saturates <50%, naphthenes >25%), and they contain moderate quantities of sulfur (0.10.5 %) and display low gasoil ratios (<60 m3/m3). The fifth oil type is present in the Santos, Espirito Santo, and SergipeAlagoas Basins along the Brazilian margin and in Gabon, Lower Congo, and Kwanza Basins along the west African margin. These oils can be correlated to CenomanianTuronian marine black shales (e.g., Itajai Formation of the Santos Basin and the Azile and Anguille Formations of the Gabon Basin). They are found in reservoirs ranging from Albian carbonates to EoceneOligocene deep-water turbidites. They migrate principally along regional unconformities. These oils are characterized by their moderate sulfur (0.10.5%) and naphthene contents and by high gasoil ratios (>200 m3/m3). In some basins along the Brazilian margin, the lack of significant accumulations of these oils appears to result from a lack of necessary overburden for generation to have occurred. Data indicate, however, that in some basins the viability of this potential petroleum system is enhanced and has not yet been tested by the limited drilling. The sixth oil type has been recovered from the Espirito Santo and Lower Congo Basins and the Niger Delta. It can be correlated with rocks deposited within lower Tertiary marine deltaic deposits (e.g., Urucutuca Formation of the Espirito Santo Basin and the Akata Formation of the Niger Delta). These oils are pooled in Eocene and younger sandstone reservoirs. Hydrocarbon migration involves both vertical and lateral components that incorporate both growth fault systems and regional unconformities. These oils are paraffinic (saturates >60%, paraffins >40%) and have low sulfur contents (<0.1%) and high gasoil ratios (>200 m3/m3).

Katz and Mello

(a)

Niger Delta
120

NIGER DELTA
Gas 100 Oil

80

60

40

20

Field Size (MMBOE)

B (b)

16

CAMPOS BASIN
Gas 14 Oil 12

10

8 6

4 2

Field Size (MMBOE)

Figure 6Field size distributions of (a) the Niger Delta and (b) the Campos Basin.

The nature and magnitude of South Atlantic petroleum system diversity can also be observed through a simple and brief comparison of the petroleum systems present in three of the South Atlantic basins: the Niger Delta, Lower Congo, and Campos Basins. Even before the details of the geology are examined, differences in these systems become apparent when field size distributions are examined (Figure 6a). For example, within the Niger Delta, the USGS (Klett et al., 1997) has estimated oil reserves of approximately 35 billion barrels contained in 491 oil fields, with a modal field size between 16 and 32 million barrels of oil equivalent. In contrast, they estimated current reserves in the Campos Basin at approximately 10 billion barrels of oil in 60 oil fields, with a modal field size between 128 and 256 million barrels of oil equivalent (Figure 6b).

The Niger Delta began its development during the late PaleoceneEocene as sediments progaded beyond the horst and graben associated with the breakup between Africa and South America (Doust and Omatsola, 1989). On the basis of newly generated geochemical data obtained on both oils and rocks, Haack et al. (Chapter 16, this volume) report the presence of three petroleum systems within the Niger Delta: a Lower Cretaceous lacustrine derived system, an Upper Cretaceouslower Paleocene derived system, and a Tertiary (late EocenePliocene) derived system. It is the Tertiary-sourced petroleum system that dominates the deltas reserve base. The Niger Delta oils display affinities typical of a mixed marineterrestrial source rock system consistent with the recently identified source rocks. It is becoming apparent that this dominance by a Tertiary source rock is atypical among the South Atlantic basins, where Cretaceous lacustrine and marine source rocks are the general rule (Schiefelbein et al., Chapter 2, this volume). Within the delta, all current hydrocarbon production is from the growth section above the regional dcollement. The primary reservoirs are from the OligoceneMiocene portions of the Agbada Formation, which is composed of a series of interbedded shallow marine and fluvial sandstones, siltstones, and claystones typical of most paralic settings. Barrier bar sandstones are typically more laterally continuous than those deposited in distributary channels. In general, the section is so sand rich that the reservoir is often considered a secondary risk to the seal (Doust and Omastsola, 1989). The depositional setting of the Niger Delta reservoir is also different from the other two basins to be examined, which favor either deeper water clastics (Campos Basin) or carbonate reservoirs (Lower Congo Basin). Most of the hydrocarbon traps are structural and developed as a result of synsedimentary deformation, such as rollover anticlines associated with growth faults (Doust and Omatsola, 1989). Hydrocarbon generation is time transgressive across the delta as a result of the deltas progradation and appears to postdate the synsedimentary faulting. It also appears that hydrocarbon generation has been episodic, possibly as a result of depositional lobe switching. Petroleum generation is thought to have begun as early as late Eoceneearly Oligocene in the most proximal parts of the delta (Ekweozor and Daukoru, 1994) and is still actively proceeding today. Hydrocarbon migration within the basin appears to be lateral along regional unconformities. Growth faults in the basin result in the redistribution of hydrocarbons, creating the common occurrence of multipay fields (Demaison and Huizinga, 1994).

Number of Fields

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Lower Congo Basin

The Lower Congo Basin began with Early Cretaceous rifting, and unlike the Niger Delta, its early rifting history

Chapter 1Petroleum Systems of South Atlantic Marginal BasinsAn Overview

has played a major role in controlling the distribution of hydrocarbons in the basin. The initial sediments were alluvial, fluvial, and lacustrine. Postrifting subsidence resulted in a marine incursion and deposition of the Loeme Evaporites. Following evaporite deposition, open marine conditions developed, leading first to the deposition of extensive carbonates that eventually evolved into a clastic-dominated sequence. Postrift structuring has been controlled by both salt tectonics and faulting within the Tertiary sequence. As in the Niger Delta, three potential petroleum systems have been identified in the Lower Congo Basin: a Lower Cretaceous Bucomazi Formation sourced system, an Upper Cretaceous Iabe Formation sourced system, and Tertiary Malembo Formation derived system (Cole et al., Chapter 23, this volume; Schoellkopf and Patterson, Chapter 25, this volume). The system associated with the lacustrine Bucomazi Formation dominates in the basin. Bucomazi-derived oils are present in both presalt reservoirs (e.g., sandstones of the Lucala and Erva Formations and the Toca carbonates) and postsalt reservoirs (e.g., Pinda carbonates, shelf and beach sandstones of the Vermelha and Iabe Formations, and deep-water sandstones of the Malembo Formation). The Bucomazi Formation developed in synrift lakes. Burwood et al. (1995) noted that the source rock attributes of the Bucomazi are highly varied with respect to both quality and character. For example, Burwood noted that the basin fill portion of the Bucomazi Formation displays generally higher hydrocarbon generation potentials and different generation kinetics than the overlying sheet drape portion. In part, these differences appear to reflect changes in lake salinity and oxygen content through time. Hydrocarbon generation in the Bucomazi began during the Late Cretaceous and continues to the present day. Unlike the Niger Delta, two other identified petroleum systems significantly contribute to the Lower Congo Basins reserves. The outer shelf and slope facies of the Iabe Formation have also fed multiple reservoirs, including both the Pinda and Malembo Formations. The organic carbon content of the Iabe Formation averages 23%, ranging upward to ~5%. In the Iabe Formation, there is a general upward increase in source quality reflecting the transgressive character of the unit. Often, fields that have been charged from the Iabe have also received some contribution from the deeper lacustrine Bucomazi Formation. Generation from the Iabe began during the middle Miocene and continues to the present. The source potential of the Malembo Formation is limited, with maximum organic carbon contents approaching about 4%. The limited source quality in the unit decreases up-section as a result of the regressive character of the unit. Generation from the Malembo Formation also appears to be restricted areally to areas where a thick Tertiary depocenter exists. As with the Iabederived oils, commercial accumulations that include Malembo-derived oils have also received a contribution from the Bucomazi Formation.

Campos Basin
As for the Lower Congo Basin, the Campos Basin also began with Early Cretaceous rifting and has a stratigraphic succession very similar to that of the Lower Congo, including an evaporitic facies in the upper part of the Lagoa Feia Formation, a carbonate sequence, followed by an open marine clastic sequence. Similarly, the basins share a similar postrifting structural history incorporating both salt tectonics and faulting. The amount of postrifting subsidence and sedimentation is less significant in the Campos than in the Lower Congo Basin. The Campos Basin contains only a single active petroleum system. Although organic-rich Cenomanian Turonian blacks shales are present, all of the known oils are derived from the synrift, brackish to saline, lacustrine black shales of the Barremian Lagoa Feia Formation. The organic carbon content of the Lagoa Feia Formation ranges typically from 2 to 6%, with values as high as 9%. Hydrocarbon generation potential typically exceeds 25 kg/ton rock and often exceeds 40 kg/ton. The geochemical attributes of the Lagoa Feia are also quite diverse, reflecting changes in depositional conditions such as an upward increase in lake salinity caused by intermittent marine incursions (Mello and Hessel, 1998). Hydrocarbon generation from the Lagoa Feia began during the Late Cretaceous, but its apex was during the late Miocene and it continues to the present. This relatively late onset of hydrocarbon generation in comparison to the Lower Congo Basin is largely the result of differences in the amount of postrifting overburden that the two margins have received. The more limited amount of postrifting sediment also appears to explain the lack of effectiveness of the CenomanianTuronian source rocks. The Campos Basin oil reservoirs range in age from Neocomian to Miocene. Unlike the Lower Congo Basin, most of the Campos Basin reserves are located higher in the stratigraphic sequence in the Upper Cretaceous and OligoceneMiocene deep-water, turbiditic sandstones. Migration is largely vertical through salt windows and along unconformities and faults.

Systems Summary
These three petroleum systems clearly reflect the different tectonostratigraphic positions of the effective source and primary reservoirs within the three basins. These three basins also show variations in system effectiveness that may exist mainly because of differences in thermal maturity resulting from variations in the amount of overburden. From this assessment, it is clear that, although the basins share many characteristics such as general tectonic and sedimentologic histories, local differences dominate the geologic details and control hydrocarbon generation and migration mechanisms. These differences must be clearly understood prior to attempting to extend an identified petroleum system or using one as an exploration analog.

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C30-Dinosteranes/C30-Dinosteranes + C29 R-Steranes

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 Marine evaporitic Marine drift Lacustrine fresh to saline Lacustrine fresh to brackish

E. Cretaceous Oil - Campos Basin E. Cretaceous Oil - Camamu Basin E. Cretaceous Oil - Cabinda Late Cretaceous Oil - Santos Basin Late Cretaceous Oil - Kwanza Basin Tertiary Oil - Niger Delta Tertiary Oil - Offshore - Brazil Aptian - Oil Ceara Basin Albian - Oil - Foz do Amazonas Basin

Marine deltaic

20

30

40

50

60

24-nor/24-nor + nor dia + regular cholestanes

Figure 7Geochemical differentiation of South Atlantic oil types.

SOUTH ATLANTIC LACUSTRINE SYSTEMS

Much of the available geologic and geochemical data indicate that a significant portion of the regions crude oil has been derived from lacustrine source rocks. Current estimates suggest that as much as 95% of discovered Brazilian oil and at least 15% of west African oil can be related to lacustrine source rocks. It should be noted that the west African reserves are heavily dominated by the Tertiary marine and deltaic sequence of the Niger Delta. Although much of the known and potential future South Atlantic oils are derived from lacustrine source rocks, they display significant variability. These differences are largely the result of differences in lake water salinity (Figure 7) caused by a combination of factors such as climate changes and the magnitude and extent of marine incursions. Lake water salinity impacts the level and type of organic productivity, as well as its preservation and early diagenesis. These differences are reflected in the molecular chemistry of the source rock systems. In addition to differences in oil chemistry and associated molecular chemistry in the source rocks, their bulk chemistry varies, reflecting their organic richness, oil proneness, and hydrocarbon generation kinetics. Available data indicate a long-term trend and oscillatory cycling of facies (Figures 8 and 9). The long-term trend is toward improved quality up-section, which maximizes

prior to the development of lake-fill or drape facies. This trend in clearly shown by the Lagoa Feia Formation in the Campos Basin (Figure 8). The oscillatory changes are well represented in the Kwanza Basin (Figure 9). These cycles, which represent expansions and contractions of the lake body, most likely reflect climatic variations directly impacting water level and chemistry, as well as the amount of both organic and inorganic terrestrial input. Lake level low stands reflect intervals of poorer source quality largely due to poorer organic preservation. Further examination of available data suggests that the areal distribution of oil-prone source material from saline versus freshwater lakes differs. The freshwater lakes appear to have been mainly restricted geographically to basin deeps. In contrast, the saline lakes tended to be shallower and areally more extensive, their distribution being strongly influenced by intermittent transgressions of marine waters from the south. These transgressions also introduced fresh nutrients into the systems, resulting is blooms of cyanobacteria. Such controls on lake character explain why the saline water oil type is volumetrically more important than the freshwater oil type and thus must be considered the dominant petroleum system in ultradeep water. The complex anatomy of these synrift lacustrine systems has become apparent as additional geochemical and stratigraphic data become available. These data, however, reveal some consistent trends and patterns that can be effectively translated to less explored parts of the region as well as to other similar settings from elsewhere around the world.

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Figure 8Geochemical log of the lacustrine sequence of the Kwanza Basin.

CONCLUSIONS
The petroleum system concept appears to be an effective tool in evaluating the remaining exploration potential of the South Atlantic. Such a multidisciplinary approach, focusing on the nature and distribution of hydrocarbon fluids, places the discovered hydrocarbons in a clear framework and provides a potential road map for future exploration. Available data reveal a general similarity between the South American and west African marginal basins with respect to their depositional sequences, including source rock facies and

consequently oil types. Asymmetric rifting, however, has resulted in different sedimentary and subsidence histories, which has, in turn, created major differences in the distribution of oil types along the margins. As a result, the Brazilian marginal basins are dominated by lacustrine oils, whereas the west African margin is dominated by marine oils. Although marine source rocks are present in Brazilian marginal basins, their overburden is insufficient for generation to proceed. In constrast, sufficient overburden is present, at least locally, along the west African margin for generation to take place.

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Figure 9Geochemical log of the lacustrine sequence of the Campos Basin.

Consequently, when viewing the petroleum systems of the South Atlantic as possible exploration analogs, care must be taken. For example, this overview suggests that, although the deep-water success of the Brazilian Campos Basin associated with the Lagoa FeiaCarapebus system may be satisfactorily transferred to the west African margin, it does not appear that the IabePinda system of the Lower Congo will translate to the South American basins. This study also indicates that the synrift lacustrine facies is heterogeneous, reflecting differences in climate, water chemistry, and lake basin maturity. Yet, there do

appear to be regular patterns that may be useful in the less well explored and documented parts of the South Atlantic as well as in other tropical to subtropical lacustrine settings. AcknowledgmentsThe authors wish to thank their respective managements for their permission to publish this introductory overview. Financial support for the joint AAPG/ABGP Research Conference on the Petroleum Systems of the South Atlantic Margins was provided by Petrobras, Texaco, Chevron, and Exxon.

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REFERENCES CITED
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Henry, S. G., W. U. Mohriak, and M. R. Mello, 1996, South Atlantic sag basins: new petroleum system components (abs.): AAPG Bulletin, v. 80, p. 1300. Karner, G. D., N. W. Driscoll, J. P. McGinnis, W. D. Brumbaugh, and N. R. Cameron, 1997, Tectonic significance of syn-rift sediment packages across the GabonCabinda continental margin: Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 14, p. 9731000. Klett, T. R., T. S. Ahlbrandt, J. W. Schmoker, and G. L. Dolton, 1997, Ranking of the worlds oil and gas provinces by known petroleum volumes: USGS Open-File Report 97-463, 207p. Magoon, L. B., 1988, The petroleum systema classification scheme for research, exploration, and resource assessment, in L. B. Magoon, ed., Petroleum systems of the United States: USGS Bulletin, v. 1870, p. 215. Mello, M. R., W. U. Mohriak, E. A. M. Koutsoukos, and J. C. A. Figueira, 1991, Brazilian and west African oils: generation, migration, accumulation, and correlation: Proceedings of the 13th World Petroleum Congress, v. 2, 153164. Mello, M. R., E. A. M. Koutsoukos, W. U. Mohriak, and G. Bacoccoli, 1994, Selected petroleum systems of Brazil, in L. B. Magoon and W. G. Dow, eds., The Petroleum Systemfrom Source to Trap: AAPG Memoir 60, p. 499512. Mello, M. R., E. A. M. Koutsoukos, W. U. Mohriak, and G. Bacoccoli, 1996. Petroleum systems of the Brazilian South Atlantic Margin (abs.): AAPG Bulletin, v. 80, p. 1314. Mello, M. R., and M. H. Hessel, 1998, Biological marker and paleozoological characterization of the early marine incursion in the lacustrine sequences of the Campos Basin, Brazil (abs.): AAPG Annual Convention, Extended Abstracts, v. 2, p. A455.