Citronelle Dome, Southwest Alabama: CO2-Enhanced Oil Recovery Pilot Test and Opportunities for CO2 Storage

Peter M. Walsh, Konstantinos Theodorou, and P. Corey Shum University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL Ermson Z. Nyakatawa, Xiongwen Chen, Kathleen A. Roberts, and Latasha Lyte Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University, Normal, AL Gary N. Dittmar, Keith Murphy, Steve Walker, Thomas Boelens, Pete Guerra, Tommy Miller, Tommy Henderson, Michael Sullivan, Danny Beasley, Steven Brewer, and Franklin Everett Denbury Resources, Inc., Plano, TX, and Citronelle, AL Jack C. Pashin, Denise J. Hills, and David C. Kopaska-Merkel Geological Survey of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL Richard A. Esposito and Kirk M. Ellison Southern Company, Birmingham, AL Eric S. Carlson, Peter E. Clark, Akand W. Islam, Csar A. Turmero, and Francis Dumkwu University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL Shen-En Chen, Wenya Qi, Yangguang Liu, and Peng Wang University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC Research Experience in Carbon Sequestration 2012 Birmingham, Alabama June 3-13, 2012

Citronelle Field, Mobile County, Alabama

Denbury Resources Inc., Plano, TX
Oil and Gas Fields of Alabama and adjacent regions of Mississippi, Florida, and the Gulf of Mexico.

Discovered: Depth: Oil gravity: Available wells: Formation: Original oil in place: Cumulative oil production: Cumulative gas production: Secondary recovery (waterflood): CO2-EOR pilot test:

1955
~11,000

ft

42-46o API 413 Donovan Sands (Lower Cretaceous) 537 million barrels 170 million barrels 15 billion cubic feet since 1961 1981-1984

Carbon Sequestration Atlas of the United States and Canada, U.S. Department off Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, 2007, p. 51.

Expected/potential incremental oil recovery by CO2-EOR: 26 million barrels (Denbury Resources)

Citronelle Field Oil Production History

Alabama State Oil and Gas Board

1.0 E+07

8.0 E+06

6.0 E+06 Bbls/year 4.0 E+06

2.0 E+06

Waterooding began in 1961

0.0 E+00 1955

1965

1975

1985 Year

1995

2005

2015

Oil production is approaching the ultimate recovery possible using conventional secondary recovery technology.

CO2 Sources, Pipelines, and EOR Operations

Denbury Resources Inc., Gulf Coast Region

Denbury specializes in CO2 EOR Natural CO2 Supply at Jackson Dome, MS Proved plus probable tertiary oil reserves as of 12/31/11

Denbury Resources Inc., 2011 Annual Report

Free State Pipeline

Denbury Resources
Construction completed in 2006 Sale/lease back agreement with Genesis Energy L.P. 20 in diameter, 86 miles long, Jackson Dome to Eucutta Field, near Mississippi-Alabama border

Denbury Resources Inc., EOR: The Economically Viable CCS Solution, Presentation at the Indiana Center for Coal Technology Research, June 5, 2008. http://www.purdue.edu/discoverypark/energy/assets/pdfs/cctr/presentations/Denbury-CCTR-June08.pdf

The pipeline serves Eucutta, Soso, Martinville, and Heidelberg Fields An early plan was to extend the pipeline to Citronelle
http://www.denbury.com/interest-owner-relations/contact-owner-relations/default.aspx

James M. Barry Electric Generating Plant

Alabama Power Company
Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage
Plant Barry and the Citronelle Field are the site of the world's largest fully-integrated demonstration of capture, transportation, and geologic storage of CO2 from a pulverized-coal-fired power plant. CO2 for enhanced oil recovery at Citronelle could be supplied by pipeline from Plant Barry.

http://www.industcards.com/st-coal-usa-al.htm

Plant Barry
2,657 megawatts (electric) 5 generating units firing coal 2 units firing natural gas ~10 million tons/year of CO2 from coal-fired generation
Southeast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (SECARB) Phase III Anthropogenic CO2 Injection Field Test http://www.secarbon.org/files/anthropogenic-test.pdf

Citronelle Oil Field

Production Well in the Test Pattern

Not this type (pumpjack)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumpjack

Test Well Pattern and Tank Batteries

State Oil and Gas Board of Alabama

Producer: B-19-11 Produced fluids to B-19-11 Tank Battery

Producers: B-19-7 B-19-8 B-19-9 Produced fluids to B-19-8 Tank Battery

CO2Enhanced Oil Recovery Target

Jack Pashin, Geological Survey of Alabama

J. C. Pashin and R. A. Esposito, "Citronelle Dome: A Giant Opportunity for Multi-Zone Carbon Storage and EOR in the Mississippi Interior Salt Basin of Alabama," Annual Convention of the Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies and the Gulf Coast Section of the Society for Sedimentary Geology, Corpus Christi, TX, October 21-23, 2007

Rodessa Formation

Jack C. Pashin, Geological Survey of Alabama

Thickness of the Target Oil-Bearing Sands

Denise Hills and Jack Pashin, Geological Survey of Alabama

Detailed description of the geology assists in the interpretation of field data and provides input to large-scale, fine grid reservoir simulations.

Sand 14-1
The inverted five-spot well pattern is shown shaded, with the injector in magenta at the center.

Sand 16-2

Reservoir Simulation Oil Production Rate

Konstantinos Theodorou, UAB

Production history since 2002 and simulations of oil yields from different CO2 and water injection plans.
Yellow: Red: 7,500 tons CO2, followed by water 7,500 tons CO2, followed by water, another 7,500 tons CO2, and water

Green: 15,000 tons CO2, followed by water Blue: continuous CO2

Infrastructure for CO2-EOR Pilot Test at Citronelle

CO2 Storage Tank and Pump CO2 supplied by Denbury from Jackson Dome

Equipment to Separate Gas from Oil and Measure Flow Rates

Photo by Kathleen Roberts

Workover of Production Well

CO2 Injection Well

Progress of CO2 Injection and Comparison with Simulation

9000

Cumulative CO2 Injected (short tons)

CO2 Injection History

7500

Citronelle Well B-19-10 #2 November 2009 - September 2010

6000

4500

Simulation by Eric Carlson Average Rate, Jan. 27 - Sept. 25, 31 tons/day

3000

1500
Replace tubing in injector

0 Dec 1 Jan 1 Feb 1 Mar 1 Apr 1 May 1 Jun 1 Jul 1 Aug 1 Sep 1 Oct 1

Date, 2009 - 2010

Continuous injection of CO2 began in January 2010 and continued without interruption at an average rate of 31 tons/day to September 2010, with a total of 8036 tons injected. The injection history was in good agreement with the prediction from the reservoir simulation by Eric Carlson using SENSOR (Coats Engineering, Inc.).

Oil Production, Tank Battery B-19-11

Gary Dittmar, Denbury Onshore

70

Average Daily Oil Production (barrels/day)

60

50

Decline Curve, just Prior to CO2 Injection

40

On injecting CO2, production at Tank Battery B-19-11, which receives oil from only one producer in the test pattern (Well B-19-11), continued for four months on the trajectory that it had been following for the previous 10 months. In May 2010, production at the battery abruptly declined, by approximately the typical production from Well B-19-11 (8 to 9 bbl/day), then continued a steady decline, with no significant response to the termination of CO2 injection and return to water injection in September 2010.

30

20

CO2

Water

10

Oil Production, Tank Battery B-19-11

0 1/09 4/09 7/09 10/09 1/10 4/10 7/10 10/10 1/11 4/11 7/11 10/11 1/12 4/12

Time (month/year)

Hydraulic Fracture at the Injection Well

Eric Carlson, University of Alabama
Pressure-Transient Test on the Injector Log-log plot of the Pressure Decay following Shut-in

The path from the injector to Well B - 1 9 - 11 , w h e r e e x c e s s i v e breakthrough occurred, coincides approximately with the direction of maximum horizontal compressive stress in the Southeast.

Slope of on the log-log plot is evidence for a vertical fracture intersecting the wellbore. Behavior at long times (approximately radial flow) gives permeability (0.4 millidarcy). Permeability and behavior at short times give fracture wall area and length (600 to 1000 ft).

70

Oil Production and Pump Pulls, B-19-8 Tank Battery

Gary N. Dittmar, Denbury Onshore
Oil production at B-19-8 Tank Battery, which receives oil from three of the producers, responded immediately to the start of continuous CO2 injection in January 2010, reversing the decline that had been experienced over the previous seven months. However, production began to fall off immediately on returning to water injection in September 2010, following injection of the 8036 tons of CO2. The decline in production, following the return from CO2 to water injection in September 2010, coincided with a marked increase in the frequency of power oil pump pulls for maintenance or replacement, due to erosion of the pumps by particulate and scale mobilized by the acidic CO2/water. The frequency of pump pulls returned to normal, and oil production recovered some of its loss, after replacement of the pumps with ones having longer stroke and containing erosion-resistant materials. Cumulative incremental oil at Tank Battery B-19-8, to the end of April 2012, was ~10,000 bbl.

Production Rate (barrels/day)

60 50 40 30 20

Decline Curve, just Prior to CO2 Injection

CO2
10 0 1/09 25

Water

Oil Production Rate, Tank Battery B-19-8

4/09 7/09 10/09 1/10 4/10 7/10 10/10 1/11 4/11 7/11 10/11 1/12 4/12 7/12

Pump Pulls (per month)

20

Pump Pulls from Wells on Tank Battery B-19-8

15

10

0 1/09 12,000

4/09

7/09 10/09 1/10

4/10

7/10 10/10 1/11

4/11

7/11 10/11 1/12

4/12

7/12

Cumulative Production (bbl)

10,000

Cumulative Incremental Oil Production Tank Battery B-19-8

8,000

6,000

4,000

CO2

Water

2,000

0 1/09

4/09

7/09 10/09 1/10

4/10

7/10 10/10 1/11

4/11

7/11 10/11 1/12

4/12

7/12

Time (month/year)

Water and CO2 Injection Rates

600

500

Water

Shut-in

CO2

Water

Injection Rate (bbl/day)

400

300

200

100

5/1/2008

5/1/2009

5/1/2010

5/1/2011

5/1/2012

Time (month/day/year)

Water injection rate following CO2 injection is less than half of that before CO2 injection. Ratio of water to CO2 viscosity at reservoir conditions ~ 5. Treatments with surfactant and acid are planned, to restore injectivity.

CO2 from Plant Barry

Say 2.5 kg CO2 are needed to recover 1 kg oil (~ 6000 scf/bbl, factor of 2), with separation and reuse of produced CO2. Denburys estimate of the Citronelle Fields EOR potential is 26 million bbl (~ 3.3 billion kg oil). CO2 needed to produce 3.3 billion kg oil is (2.5)(3.3 billion kg) = ~ 8 billion kg CO2.
http://www.southerncompany.com/aboutus/about.aspx

Plant Barry produces ~ 10 million short tons CO2/year from coal-fired generation (~ 9 billion kg CO2/year). 10-year-long commercial CO2-EOR project would require ~ 9% of Plant Barrys CO2 production. Injection of CO2 into saline formations at Citronelle, or distribution by pipeline to other CO2 sinks, would be needed to sequester larger fractions of the CO2 produced at Plant Barry, and for longer times.

Jack Pashin, Geological Survey of Alabama

CO2 Storage Target

J. C. Pashin and R. A. Esposito, "Citronelle Dome: A Giant Opportunity for Multi-Zone Carbon Storage and EOR in the Mississippi Interior Salt Basin of Alabama," Annual Convention of the Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies and the Gulf Coast Section of the Society for Sedimentary Geology, Corpus Christi, TX, October 21-23, 2007

Estimate of CO2 Storage Capacity in Citronelle Dome

Richard Esposito, Southern Company

Eutaw and Upper Tuscaloosa Sands: 150 - 600 million tons

Lower Tuscaloosa, Pilot Sand:

40 - 160 million tons

Lower Tuscaloosa, Massive Sand: 200 - 790 million tons

At the rate of 10 million tons CO2/year, these formations could provide storage for 50 years.

Middle Donovan Sands: 24 - 100 million tons Donovan oil-bearing Sands: 115 - 460 million tons Total: 500 - 2000 million tons

Conclusions
The structure of Citronelle Dome and absence of faults make it an attractive site for CO2enhanced oil recovery and CO2 sequestration. Satisfactory response of three of the producing wells in the test pattern to injection of 8000 tons of CO2 reinforces the expectation of profitable CO2-EOR at Citronelle. Three unexpected problems were associated with the CO2 injection, requiring consideration in the design of a commercial CO2 flood: 1. The conventional power oil pumps in service at Citronelle were subject to excessive erosion/corrosion by particles and scale mobilized by CO2/water. The problem was resolved by installation of more robust pumps. 2. A hydraulic fracture intersecting the injector was evidently opened by water or CO2 injection during the test. Bypassing of CO2, probably through the fracture, caused a large deficit in incremental recovery from one of the producers. Active control of downhole pressures is proposed to minimize the opening of fractures. 3. Injectivity to water was low, following the injection of CO2. Treatments with surfactant and acid are planned, to determine the cause. The result may have significant bearing on the choice between continuous CO2 injection or water-alternating-gas recovery. The depleted oil reservoirs, and saline formations above the oil reservoirs, are expected to be capable of storage for 500 million to 2 billion tons of CO2, sufficient to accept CO2 produced at Alabama Power Plant Barry for 50 years.

Acknowledgments
This work is supported by: U.S. Department of Energy/National Energy Technology Laboratory Under Cooperative Agreement No. DE-FC26-06NT43029 Denbury Resources, Inc. Plano, TX, and Citronelle, AL Southern Company Services, Inc. Birmingham, AL Geological Survey of Alabama Tuscaloosa, AL Special thanks to: Richard A. Esposito and Mark S. Berry, Southern Company Services, Inc. Melinda M. Lalor, UAB Ronald T. Evans Jack C. Pashin, Geological Survey of Alabama Chandra Nautiyal, DOE/NETL

Determination of Minimum Miscibility Pressure

Csar A. Turmero and Peter E. Clark, University of Alabama

Rolling Ball Viscometer

Minimum Miscibility Pressure for Citronelle oil is sufficient to guarantee a miscible flood.
Laboratory at the University of Alabama; viscometer is in the fume hood at center

Ambient Air Monitoring

Xiongwen Chen and Kathleen Roberts, Alabama A&M University

CO2 in air measured monthly at 100 locations in and around the test site

Contour plot of the volume fractions of CO2 across Citronelle

Average and standard deviation of volume fractions of CO2 in ambient air near the ground across Citronelle

Stratigraphic Cross Section

Jack Pashin, Geological Survey of Alabama

CO2 Breakthrough
On the morning of May 25, 2010, four months after the start of continuous CO2 injection, high pressure was detected in the liquid/gas separator at Tank Battery B-19-11, where oil from Well B-19-11 is gathered. Gas in the head space of the power oil tank was tested using a Draeger Tube, which indicated a high level of CO2. Produced gas samples, for detailed analysis, were collected on the same day.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________ C1 C2 C3 O2 N2 CO2 13CO2 vol% vol% vol% vol% vol% vol% per 1000 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Ave. of two samples before CO2 injecHon 43.0 6.9 7.7 0.18* 29.7 2.7 -12.8 Ave. of two samples, May 25, 2010 1.2 0.8 1.9 0.06 0.4 90.4 -3.0 CO2 from Jackson Dome 0.005 0.005 0.02 0.05 0.2 99.5 -2.9 __________________________________________________________________________________________________ *O2 + Ar 13CO2 = [(13C/12C)sample/(13C/12C)reference - 1] x 1000

Analyses of Injected CO2 and Samples of Produced Gas from Well B-19-11, before and during CO2 InjecHon.

Conclusion: CO2 in produced gas at B-19-11 is breakthrough from injecHon at B-19-10 #2.

Citronelle Oil Field

Discovered: 1955 Depth: ~11,000 ft Density: 42-46 API Gravity Available wells: 414 Geologic formation: Lower Cretaceous Donovan Sand Original oil in place: 537 million barrels Secondary oil recovery (water injection): since 1961 Cumulative Oil production: 170 million barrels (32% of OOIP) CO2 - Enhanced oil recovery potential: 26 to 85 million barrels

Citronelle Oil Field

Simulation of Oil Production from the Pilot Test

Konstantinos Theodorou, UAB

120

100

80

CO2-EOR test pilot Water only

STB/D 60
40

20

CO2 injection

Water injecHon

CO2 injecHon

0 10160

10260

10360

10460

10560

10660

10760

10860

10960

Time, days since 1-1-1982

Spatial Scales of Interest

Jack Pashin, Geological Survey of Alabama

Economic and Market Analysis

Eric S. Carlson, University of Alabama
Assump>ons: Only incremental oil. Consider only those costs associated with CO2 injecHon, except for a $2/STB extra lihing/operaHng cost. CO2 storage and injecHon cost of $1000/day. TransportaHon plus liquefacHon costs of $80/ton CO2. "Severance" tax of 6% of gross sales. Income tax rate of 35% of net prot/loss. Royalty rate of 25% of gross sales. Operator picks up all costs. Conclusions: The minimum cumulaHve cash (CumulaHve Net Present Value) occurs just at the end of CO2 injecHon for amounts up to 30,000 tons, but occurs prior to the end of injecHon for amounts greater than 30,000 tons. The cumulaHve cash at 5 years increases with increasing CO2 slug size, up to 60,000 tons, then decreases with further increase in CO2.

CumulaHve-Aher-Federal-Income-Tax-Cash Flow behaviors versus Hme, for CO2 injecHon-slug sizes from 7500 to 90000 tons.

Phase III:
Perform economic and market analysis for WAG recovery scenarios, with reservoir simulaHon validated by the performance of the Phase II - Phase III WAG.

Components of the Project

Site preparation (Denbury Resources): Wells, CO2 storage, pumps, separator, flow meters Oil reservoir characterization (Geological Survey of Alabama): Geology, stratigraphy, and petrology Oil properties and oil-CO2 interaction (University of Alabama): Viscometer, minimum miscibility pressure Reservoir simulation (University of Alabama, UAB): CO2 requirement, response time, oil yield CO2 injection (Denbury Resources): Two pilot tests of 7500 tons each Production data (Denbury Resources): Produced oil, water, and gas Environmental and ecological monitoring (Alabama A&M University): CO2 flux from soil, air sampling Seismic (University of North Carolina at Charlotte): Imaging of CO2 plume Interpretation of results (Everyone): Design of commercial CO2-EOR CO2 storage (Southern Company, UAB): Capacity, seal integrity

Lithology
Core from the CO2 injection well at an injection point (Sand 16-2)
Graphic representation of rock types, with thin-section photomicrographs. Width and color of core log indicate rock type: Brown: mudstone Yellow: sandstone Orange: conglomerate

Denise J. Hills, David C. Kopaska-Merkel, Jack C. Pashin, Geological Survey of Alabama

Petrology - Sandstone
David Kopaska-Merkel, Geological Survey of Alabama

Porous sandstone containing poorly rounded and poorly sorted grains. Quartz grains are white, potassium feldspar grains are stained speckled yellow. Porosity is filled with blue epoxy and consists of a combination of primary interparticle pores and feldspar molds.

Gary Dittmar, Tommy Miller, Tommy Henderson, and Michael Sullivan, Denbury Resources

CO2 Injection and Oil Production Wells

CO2-compatible injection well head. Restore abandoned wells to production.

Photo by Kathleen A. Roberts

Jack Pashin at the CO2 Injection Well

Workover of Production Well

Gary Dittmar, Tommy Miller, Tommy Henderson, and Michael Sullivan, Denbury Resources

Liquid CO2 Storage and Pumping

CO2-Enhanced Oil Recovery Test Site

CO2 Injector: B-19-10 #2 Producers: B-19-7 B-19-8 B-19-9 Produced fluids to B-19-8 Tank Battery Producer: B-19-11 Produced fluids to B-19-11 Tank Battery

Denbury Resources

Components of the Project

Geology, Reservoir CharacterizaHon: Reservoir SimulaHon: VisualizaHon: Oil-CO2 Mixture ProperHes: Site PreparaHon, CO2 Supply, CO2 InjecHon, and Oil Recovery: Seismic: Environmental Monitoring: CO2 Storage Capacity: Geological Survey of Alabama Southern Company University of Alabama University of Alabama at Birmingham Geological Survey of Alabama University of Alabama University of Alabama at Birmingham University of Alabama Denbury Onshore University of North Carolina at Charlooe Alabama A&M University Southern Company University of Alabama at Birmingham

Vegetation Monitoring
Xiongwen Chen and Kathleen Roberts, Alabama A&M University
Does escape or seepage of CO2 affect plant growth? 10 m x 10 m test plot chosen near each well and tank battery, and the golf course (controls). Trees and shrubs tagged and their circumferences recorded. Sites are visited yearly to monitor species distribution and plant growth (450 specimens).
Kathleen Roberts and Xiongwen Chen recording plant species and stem circumferences in a test plot.

The figure shows the yearly average fractional increase in plant stem and trunk cross section area. Elevated CO2 in air or soil is expected to increase the growth rate. In all cases except one, the growth rate has declined since CO2 injection began in late 2009. The exception is site VP1, near the CO2 injector.

Soil Monitoring
Ermson Nyakatawa and Latasha Lyte, Alabama A&M University
Gas sample extracted through probe at depths up to 3 ft. Soil moisture measured at depths up to 3 ft. Gas flow at surface collected in canister for analysis. Soil thermometer. CO2 evolution from microbial and plant respiration observed year round.

Well Number

Rodessa Formation

Jack C. Pashin, Geological Survey of Alabama

Dynamic Visualization of CO2, Oil, and Water Migration

KonstantinosTheodorou and Corey Shum, UAB

Screen shot of a dynamic visualization of CO2 (green), oil (yellow), and water (blue) showing the evolution of their saturations during WAG recovery from the Donovan 14-1 Sand . The vertical lines are the injector (red) and the four producers (black). An aerial photo of the area surrounding the test pattern is shown at the top.

Carbon Dioxide Sequestration

Seal Layers or "Caprocks" Control Upward Migration of CO2

Caprock Properties
Breakthrough Pressure Critical pressure at onset of capillary flow Permeability Controls rate of flow after breakthrough Chemical Reactions May increase or decrease permeability Fracture Gradient May limit rate of CO2 injection or height of CO2 column
Figure by Jack C. Pashin, Geological Survey of Alabama, 2009.

Assurance of seal layer integrity is a key element in the process of gaining the confidence of plant managers, regulators, investors, and the public in geologic sequestration.

Production Rate (bb/day)

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Cumulative Incremental Oil Production

Integration of the difference between the actual production rate and the decline curve provides an estimate of the cumulative incremental oil production assignable to CO2-enhanced recovery. Incremental recovery at B-19-8 Tank Battery, where the production rate has been almost entirely above the decline curve, was approximately 10,000 bbl at the end of March 2012. However, the incremental recovery at Tank Battery B-19-8 is almost exactly offset by the deficit in recovery at Tank Battery B-19-11, where the production rate has been uniformly below the decline curve. Negative incremental production at B-19-11 Tank Battery is most likely due to CO2 bypassing through a fracture. Poor recovery at B-19-8 Tank Battery, from December 2010 to April 2011, was due to erosion of the power oil pumps by particles mobilized by CO2/water, resolved by replacement with more robust pumps.

Oil Production Rate Tank Battery B-19-8

CO2

Water

Production Rate (bbl/day)

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Oil Production Rate Tank Battery B-19-11

CO2

Water

12000

Cumulative Incremental Oil Production (bbl)

10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 -2000 -4000 -6000 -8000 -10000 -12000 10/09 1/10 4/10

Cumulative Oil Production

Tank Battery B-19-8

Net Oil Production

Tank Battery B-19-11

CO2

Water

7/10

10/10

1/11

4/11

7/11

10/11

1/12

4/12

7/12

Time (month/year)

James M. Barry Electric Generating Plant

Alabama Power Company Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage
Plant Barry and the Citronelle Field are the site of world's largest fully-integrated demonstration of capture, transportation, and geologic storage of CO2 from a pulverized-coal-fired power plant. CO2 for enhanced oil recovery at Citronelle could be supplied by pipeline from Plant Barry.

http://www.industcards.com/st-coal-usa-al.htm

Plant Barry
2,657 megawatts (electric) 5 generating units firing coal 2 units firing natural gas ~10 million tons/year of CO2 from coal-fired generation
http://www.southerncompany.com/aboutus/about.aspx

James M. Barry Electric Generating Plant

Alabama Power Company Plant Barry:
2,657 megawatts (electric) 5 generating units firing coal 2 units firing natural gas ~10 million tons/year of CO2 from coal-fired generation

http://www.industcards.com/st-coal-usa-al.htm

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage

Plant Barry and the Citronelle Field are the site of the world's largest fully-integrated demonstration of capture, transportation, and geologic storage of CO2 from a pulverized-coal-fired power plant. CO2 for enhanced oil recovery at Citronelle could be supplied by pipeline from Plant Barry.

http://www.secarbon.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Dittmar.pdf

Maximum Horizontal Compressive Stress in the Southeast

Proposal for coping with fractures: Conduct a step-rate test to determine the fracture opening stress Install a sensor to monitor downhole pressure and adjust the CO2 injection pressure to prevent the fracture from opening

The path from the injector to Well B - 1 9 - 11 , w h e r e e x c e s s i v e breakthrough occurred, coincides approximately with the direction of maximum horizontal compressive stress in the Southeast.

Hydraulic Fracture at the Injection Well

Eric Carlson, University of Alabama
Pressure-Transient Test on the Injector Log-log plot of the Pressure Decay following Shut-in

Linear flow into (or out from) a high conductivity fracture Solution to the differential equation gives the pressure decay at the wellbore ~ t

Slope of on the log-log plot is evidence for a vertical fracture intersecting the wellbore. Behavior at long times (approximately radial flow) gives permeability (0.4 millidarcy). Permeability and behavior at short times give fracture wall area and length (600 to 1000 ft).

Transient Pressure Analysis