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RESIDENCEHALL CONSTRUCTION:
ASTRUCTURALANDENVIRONMENTALSTUDY OFW.P.I.SLATESTCONSTRUCTIONENDEAVOR
AMajorQualifyingProjectsubmittedtothefacultyofWorcesterPolytechnicInstitute InpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsfortheDegreeofBachelorofScience. S U B MI TTE D B Y : MICHAELBELSKY MATTHEWDESJARDIN HALLIESCHIESS T O :
PROJECTADVISOR

PROFESSORLEONARDALBANO O N : FEBRUARY29,2008

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A BSTRACT
This report focuses on the design of Worcester Polytechnic Institutes newest residence hall, located on Boynton St. in Worcester, MA. The study includes the analysis and design of four alternative floor systems for the residence hall, as well as an investigation into the possible buildingmaterialsfortheaccompanyingparkinggarage.Inaddition,anindepthexaminationof theLEEDcertificationprocessandgreenbuildingalternativeswasconductedtodetermineifit was possible to achieve a higher level of certification and construct a more environmentally friendly building. Cost and other feasibility factors were considered for each aspect of the research. The report closes with conclusions and recommendations based on the obtained results.

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A UTHORSHIP
Severalchaptersofthisreportwerecollaborationsofallthreegroupmembers.Variationsfrom thissharedauthorshiparesummarizedinthetablebelow.

C H A P TE R 1:Introduction C H A P TE R 2:Background C H A P TE R 3:Methodology

Allgroupmembers Allgroupmembers Allgroupmembers MichaelBelsky&MatthewDesjardin MatthewDesjardin HallieSchiess Allgroupmembers

C H A P TE R 4:StructuralAnalysis&Design

C H A P TE R 5:CostEstimateofResidenceHallStructure C H A P TE R 6:EnvironmentalAnalysis

C H A P TE R 7:Conclusions&Recommendations

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C APSTONE D ESIGN
In order to achieve the Capstone Design necessary to fulfill our degree requirements, we completedaMajorQualifyingProjectthatfocusedonthenewWPIresidencehallintermsof structuralandenvironmentalalternatives.TheprojectaddressesthefollowingCapstoneDesign considerations: economic, environmental, sustainability, health and safety, and manufacturability.

E CONOMIC
We researched different structural system alternatives. A cost estimate of the structural elementswasperformedforeachalternative,andweighedontheappropriatenessofeach.The feasibility of green building system options was judged considering construction, operating, maintenance,andlifecyclecosts.

E NVIRONMENTAL
An indepth analysis of LEED construction was performed and different options were investigatedtoseeifahigherlevelofLEEDcouldbeachieved(silveristhecurrenttargetlevel). Alternativegreenstructuresandmaterialswereresearchedandconsideredaspossibleoptions foruseintheresidencehall.ThesealternativegreenoptionswereusedtofulfillaLEEDcredit ortoimprovetheoverallenvironmentalfriendlinessofthebuilding.

S USTAINABILITY
Sustainability was a key consideration in the study of LEED practices and green building systems. One aspect of sustainability that was investigated was the materials of building construction. Using recycled materials and wood from sustainable tree farms is crucial to obtaining a high level of LEED certification. Also, green building systems such as rainwater harvestingandgreywatersystemscanreducethefreshwateruserequirementsofthebuilding thusincreasingitssustainability.

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M ANUFACTURABILIT Y
Manufacturability, or in the case of buildings, constructability, was a significant factor in the final choice of the most appropriate floor system. For the residence hall building, it was very important to keep the overall elevation at or under 55 feet. The alternate methods of constructionwereinvestigatedtodeterminewhetherornottheycouldmeetthisrequirement.

H EALTHAND S AFET Y
The most significant way that safety affected our design was through the use of the InternationalBuildingCode.Byfollowingtheguidelinesitsetsforth,theintegrityofourdesigns wasensured,andthesafetyofpotentialresidentsguaranteed.

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T ABLEOF C ONTENTS
Abstract............................................................................................................................................ii Authorship......................................................................................................................................ii i CapstoneDesign.............................................................................................................................iv TableofContents............................................................................................................................vi ListofFigures................................................................................................................................viii ListofTables...................................................................................................................................xi C H A P TE R 1:Introduction...............................................................................................................1 C H A P TE R 2:Background.................................................................................................................5 SteelFrameConstruction...........................................................................................................5 PrecastConcreteConstruction.................................................................................................14 ResidenceHallDesign...............................................................................................................16 ParkingGarageDesign..............................................................................................................17 CostEstimatinginBuildingConstruction .................................................................................17 . LEEDCertification .....................................................................................................................19 . GreenBuildingOptions.............................................................................................................27 LEEDBackgroundWrapUp......................................................................................................37 C H A P TE R 3:Methodology............................................................................................................38 StructuralAnalysis&Design.....................................................................................................38 CostEstimate............................................................................................................................40 EnvironmentalStudy ................................................................................................................41 . C H A P TE R 4:StructuralAnalysis&Design....................................................................................48 ResidenceBuilding....................................................................................................................48 ParkingGarage..........................................................................................................................80 C H A P TE R 5:CostEstimateofResidenceHallStructure...............................................................97 C H A P TE R 6:EnvironmentalStudy..............................................................................................105 LEEDCredits............................................................................................................................105 C H A P TE R 7:Conclusions&Recommendations.........................................................................121 ResidenceHallStructure.........................................................................................................121 ParkingGarageStructure........................................................................................................125 EnvironmentalConsiderations...............................................................................................126

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References..................................................................................................................................129 AppendixA:MQPProposal.........................................................................................................132 AppendixB:SampleCalculations ...............................................................................................145 . AppendixC:AdditionalResults...................................................................................................152 AppendixD:LEEDProjectChecklist............................................................................................162

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L ISTOF F IGURES
Figure1:Aerialrendering(CannonDesign) ...................................................................................1 . Figure2:RenderedviewfromBoyntonSt.(CannonDesign).........................................................2 Figure3:RenderedviewfromDeanSt.(CannonDesign)..............................................................2 Figure4:Wideflangesteelbeam...................................................................................................6 Figure5:Openwebjoistonbeamandbearingwall......................................................................7 Figure6:Onetypeofshearconnection.........................................................................................7 Figure7:Onetypeofrigid(moment)connection..........................................................................8 Figure8:Lateralloadresistancemechanisms................................................................................9 Figure9:Typesofmetaldecking..................................................................................................10 Figure10:Typicalhollowcoreslabsection..................................................................................14 Figure11:DoubleteeatopanLshapedbeam............................................................................15 Figure12:LEEDsilverplaque........................................................................................................21 Figure13:Typicalgreenrooflayers(LowImpactDevelopmentCenter,Inc.,2007)...................28 Figure14:Barrelstoragetank(CityofPortland,OR)...................................................................29 Figure15:Flowerpotpurificationsystem(CityofPortland,OR,2008) ......................................30 . Figure16:Greywaterbreakdown(CarlLindstrom,2000)............................................................31 Figure17:OnetypeofGreywaterTreatmentSystem.................................................................32 Figure18:Corkoaktree(MartinOlsson,2006)...........................................................................35 Figure19:RecycledGlassCountertop..........................................................................................36 Figure20:Buildingenclosures&shafts........................................................................................48 Figure21:Columnlocations(CannonDesignslayout,dimensioned).........................................49 Figure22:Simplifiedcolumnlocations(dimensioned)................................................................50 Figure23:Simplifiedcolumnlocations(changeshighlighted).....................................................51 Figure24:Alphanumericgridforcolumnlocations.....................................................................52 Figure25:UnitTypes....................................................................................................................53 Figure26:Unittype1framedetails.............................................................................................54 Figure27:Unittype2&4framedetails ......................................................................................55 . Figure28:Unittype3framedetails.............................................................................................55 Figure29:Framedetails(wholebuilding)....................................................................................56

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Figure30:Girderdesignations......................................................................................................57 Figure31:Baydesignations..........................................................................................................58 Figure32:Westelevationwithtopofslabelevations.................................................................59 Figure33:Liveloadsactinguponthefloors.................................................................................61 Figure34:Roofloadzones............................................................................................................61 Figure35:Openwebjoistlayout(entirebuilding) ......................................................................65 . Figure36:Beamlayout(EntireBuilding)......................................................................................69 Figure37:Weldedwirereinforcementdrapingdiagram(typicalareas).....................................71 Figure38:Weldedwirereinforcementdrapingdiagram(cantileverareas)................................72 Figure39:Weldedwirereinforcementsizesforbeamfloorsystem...........................................72 Figure40:Footinglocations .........................................................................................................78 . Figure41:Steelframegaragefootprint.......................................................................................80 Figure42:Precastconcretegaragefootprint...............................................................................81 Figure43:Steelgarage,eastelevationsattopofgirders............................................................82 Figure44:Steelgarage,northelevationsattopofgirder ...........................................................82 . Figure45:Steelgarage,Westelevationsattopofgirders ..........................................................82 . Figure46:Steelgarage,southelevationsattopofgirders..........................................................83 Figure47:Precastgarage,eastelevationsattopofgirders........................................................83 Figure48:Precastgarage,northelevationsattopofgirders......................................................84 Figure49:Precastgarage,westelevationsattopofgirders.......................................................84 Figure50:Precastgarage,southelevationsattopofgirders......................................................84 Figure51:Steelgaragebaydesignations.....................................................................................85 Figure52:Precastgaragebaydesignations.................................................................................86 Figure53:Steelgaragegirder&columndesignations.................................................................87 Figure54:Precastgaragegirder&columndesignations.............................................................87 Figure55:PrecastdoubleteeontopofSteelGirder...................................................................90 Figure56:Precastgirdersupportingdoubletee..........................................................................92 Figure57:Precastcolumnsupportingprecastbeam...................................................................95 Figure58:Locationoflateralreinforcementinthesteelframedgarage....................................96 Figure59:Materialcostofopenwebjoists.................................................................................99 Figure60:Costofelevatedslabformworkbynumberofuses..................................................102

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Figure61:Table61ASHRAEstandards.....................................................................................107 Figure62:Comparisonofwaterusegraph................................................................................114 Figure63:BirdseyeofresidencehallProposedopenspace.....................................................115 Figure64:OptimizeEnergyPerformanceTemplate1................................................................118 Figure65:OptimizeEnergyPerformanceTemplate2................................................................118 Figure66:Beamandgirdersizesforslabanddecksystem(mostcriticalareainred).............122 Figure67:Eastwestinteriorelevationofthemostcriticalbeamdepth ..................................123 . Figure68:Northsouthinteriorelevationofthemostcriticalgirderdepth..............................124

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L ISTOF T ABLES
Table1:LEEDlevelrequirements.................................................................................................24 Table2:Summaryofsuperimposed.............................................................................................60 Table3:Summaryofroofloadzones...........................................................................................60 Table4:Minimumequivalentthicknesses...................................................................................62 Table5:Typicalformdeckstyles..................................................................................................63 Table6:Constructionloadsforsteelformdeck...........................................................................64 Table7:Spacingofjoists...............................................................................................................65 Table8:Joistselection(floor).......................................................................................................67 Table9:Memberselectionforjoistsystem(roof).......................................................................67 Table10:Beamspacing................................................................................................................70 Table11:Beamselections(floor).................................................................................................73 Table12:Beamselection(roof)....................................................................................................73 Table13:Footingdimensions.......................................................................................................79 Table14:Parkinggaragedesignloads..........................................................................................88 Table15:Steelframefloorsystemdesign....................................................................................89 Table16:Precastconcretefloorsystemdesign...........................................................................89 Table17:Steelgaragegirderselections.......................................................................................91 Table18:Precastgaragegirderselections...................................................................................92 Table19:Steelgaragecolumnselections.....................................................................................93 Table20:Precastcolumnselections.............................................................................................94 Table21:Worcesterlocationindices(RSMeans,2008)...............................................................97 Table22:Costbreakdownforjoistsystem..................................................................................98 Table23:Costbreakdownforbeamsystemwithmetaldeck...................................................100 Table24:Costbreakdownforbeamsystemwithnometaldeck..............................................101 Table25:Costbreakdownforprecastslabsystem....................................................................103 Table26:ComparativeSFcosts..................................................................................................104 Table27:Costsofrenewableresources.....................................................................................110 Table28:CompletecostreviewofLEEDcredits........................................................................120 Table29:Costcomparisonofresidencehallstructuralsystems...............................................121

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Table30:Stranddesignationsfor4HC6+2precastslabsacrossvariousspans.........................152 Table31:Openwebjoistsystemgirderselection(floors).........................................................153 Table32:Openwebjoistsystemgirderselection(roof)...........................................................154 Table33:Steelbeamsystems(withandwithoutmetaldeck)girderselection(floors)............155 Table34:Steelbeamsystems(withandwithoutmetaldeck)girderselection(roof)..............156 Table35:Precastsystemgirderselection(floors) .....................................................................157 . Table36:Precastsystemgirderselection(roof)........................................................................158 Table37:Columnselection(allcastinplacesystems)..............................................................159 Table38:Precastsystemcolumnselection................................................................................160 Table39:Steelgaragegirderloads.............................................................................................161 Table40:Precastgaragegirderdesignloads.............................................................................161

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C HAPTER 1: I NTRODUCTION
Over the last few years, Worcester Polytechnic Institute has been involved in many construction projects as a part of their master plan. This plan calls for developing a vibrant lower campus linking WPIs main campus with the downtown Worcester area and Gateway Park, an 11acre mixeduse life sciencesbased campus. A new residence hall, arts walk, and parkinggaragearecurrentlybeingconstructedon a lot located between Dean St. and Boynton St., nexttoFoundersHall.Completionisschedulefor thefallof2008. The new apartmentstyle residence hall will accommodate 232 upperclassmen with a variety ofstateoftheartfacilities.Everystudentwilllive in a fourperson apartment including a full kitchen, living room, compartmentalized bath rooms,andeithersingleordoublebedrooms.The buildingwillalsoincludearecreationandfitnessfacility,technologysuitsoneveryfloor,music rooms, and full wireless internet access. WPI alumni and friends will be the major source of fundingforthisprojectbyahostofnamegivingopportunitiesforthemainareasandrooms,as wellasthebuildingitself(Urbanski,2007). ThenewresidencehallhasmanyuniquedesignoptionstosuittheneedsanddesiresofWPI. Someofthemoreuniquematerialsusedareabuseandmoldresistantdrywallforthetypical partitions and coreboard around the elevator shafts in lieu of the more typical concrete masonryunitsinordertoprovideadequatefireresistance.Alsoasprayoninsulationmaterial replacesthemoretypicalrigidfoamboardsfortheexteriorenclosures.Thechillersthatwillsit atop the building are developed by Smardt, and they use groundbreaking electromagnet technologytoreducefrictioninplaceoftypicallubricants.Thedecisiontobeoneofthefirst
F IGURE 1: A ERIALRENDERING (C ANNON D ESIGN )

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buildingsinthecountrytoutilizethistechnologywasmadewellafterbeginningconstruction duetothefasttracknatureoftheproject. Thenewresidencehallwillalso be the second building on the WPI campus to receive

certification from the U.S. Green Building Councils

Leadership in Energy and

F IGURE 2: R ENDEREDVIEWFROM B OYNTON S T . (C ANNON D ESIGN )

Environmental Design (LEED). Itisexpectedtoreceiveasilver

levelcertification,butthefinalapplicationforcertificationisnotsubmitteduntiltheprojectis closed out. A large number of the points required to attain LEED certification were designed intotheproject,suchasbuildingmaterialsandsitelayout.Theremainingpointsareobtained through environmentally friendly construction practices, a responsibility which falls upon the contracting company. One of the most significant of these practices is the recycling of demolition and construction waste. Ninetyfive percent of the debris from demolition was recycled. During construction there are several recycling dumpsters for cardboard, wood, metals, and miscellaneous materials. A prominent green feature of the building is its green roof,atopthecentralpartofthebuilding. The buildings exterior finishes weredesignedtocoincidewith its neighboring buildings. The outside will consist of mainly glass, brick masonry, and architectural precast panels. The large portion of the enclosuresconsistingofglazing,
F IGURE 3: R ENDEREDVIEWFROM D EAN S T . (C ANNON D ESIGN )

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atypicaltoresidencehalls,ismadepossiblebythefloorplanwhichplacesthelivingroomarea of each apartment where the large windows are. The masonry will blend in with the surrounding brick buildings, and the wide expanse of glass will compliment Founders Hall, wherethenewGoatsHeadrestaurantiscompletelysurroundedbywindows. The Gilbane Building Company, who has just recently completed the parking garage at WPIs GatewayPark,washiredastheconstructionmanagerofthisproject.Gilbane,Inc.isoneofthe largest privately held familyowned companies in the construction industry with 22 offices nationwideandrevenuestoppingthreebilliondollars(Gilbane,Inc.).CannonDesignofBoston, aninternationalarchitectural,engineering,andplanningfirm,washiredastheprojectdesign team. Cannon was foundedover 60 years ago.They have morethan 700 employees working outof15offices.Projectsarebeingcompletedin42states,8provinces,andinEuropeandAsia (CannonDesign). ThisprojectinvolvesthreesubsectionsofstudyallconcerningthenewWPIresidencehall.The firstconsistsofstructuralactivitiesconcerningbothstructures.Thedesignoftheresidencehall startswiththeresearchanddesignofalternativefloorsystems.Theremainingstructure,from girderstocolumnstofoundation,isthendesignedforeachofthefloorsystems.Inthesecond activity, the structure of the parking garage is designed using precast concrete and metal framingindividually. The next section of our report is a cost estimate of our structural work. An estimate was performed for each of the alternative designs for the residence hall and parking garage. The construction cost estimates encompass the structural costs of the building, from the floor throughtheframe,anddowntothefoundations. Thefinalsectionoftheprojectisanenvironmentalstudythatinvolvestwoparts.Thefirstpart concernstheUSGreenBuildingCouncilsLEEDcertificationsystem.Thisinvolvesdetermining what is needed to obtain a higher level of certification, what it will mean for WPI and the residencehallinthefuture,andifachievingthathigherlevelwarrantstheadditionalcost.The secondpartofthe environmentalstudyistheresearchofseveralgreenbuildingoptionsthat

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were open to WPI. These include the green roof, and possible alternatives such as rainwater harvestingandagreywatersystem. Thereportendswithourconclusionsbasedontheinformationobtainedinthethreesections. Thereareanumberofquestionsthatthissectionwilladdressanddiscuss,andtheywilltouch onthemostsalientissuesraisedinthisproject.Thefollowingisalistofthequestionsanswered intheConclusionsandRecommendationssection: Whichofthestructuralalternativesproposedisthemosteconomicallyfeasible? Doesthisstructuralalternativemeettheelevationrelatedrequirementsofthebuilding? IsitpossibletoobtainahigherlevelofLEEDCertification,andwhatarethe implications? Ofthegreenbuildingsystemsresearched,wouldanyprovideanetbenefitforWPI?

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C HAPTER 2: B ACKGROUND
S TEEL F RAME C ONSTRUCTION
Prior tothe 19th century, metalshad little role in construction. The first all metal structure, a castironbridge,wasbuiltinthelate18thcenturyinEnglandandstillcarriestrafficmorethan two centuries after its construction. Cast iron and wrought iron were commonlyused forthe framingofindustrialbuildingsinfirsthalfofthe19thcentury,butcostandbrittlenessseverely prohibited their usefulness. At the time steel was a very uncommon material of construction andanexpensiveproducttoworkwith.Onceinexpensivesteelfinallybecameavailableinthe 1850s with the introduction of two very economical steel making processes, the Bessemer processandtheopenhearthmethod,thedemandforsteelframeconstructionskyrocketed. Steelframeconstructionhasbecomeaverycommonpracticeinmodernbuildingconstruction. Physical characteristics such as the ability to span long distances, slender shape, and light weight in proportion to strength all have made steel a viable material for construction. Although steels major weakness is its tendency to corrode in certain environments and lose strengthduringseverebuildingfires,iftheseeventsareaccountedfor,steelcanofferendless designpossibilities.

T HECOMPOSITION OFSTEEL
Steelisanyrangeofalloysofironandcarbonthatcontainlessthan2percentcarbon.Ordinary structural steel, called mild steel, contains less than threetenths of 1 percent carbon plus tracesof detrimental impurities. Ordinary cast iron contains 3 to 4 percent carbon and larger quantitiesofimpurities.Thecarboncontentisthemostcrucialdeterminateproperty;toomuch makesahardbutbrittlemetal,whiletoolittleproducesasoft,weakmetal. Most steel today that is converted from iron is manufactured bythe basic oxygen process. A hollow,watercooledlanceisloweredintoacontainerofmoltenironandrecycledsteelscrap. Oxygenisthenpressureblownfromthelanceintothemetalinordertoburnoffexcesscarbon andimpurities.Othermetallicelements,suchasnickelandchromium,canalsobeaddedtothe containerattheendoftheprocesstoalterthephysicalandaestheticproperties.

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T HEPRODUCTIONOFSTR UCTURALSTEELSHAPES ANDENGINEEREDPRODU CTS

Most structural steel for buildings is produced from scrap steel in mills that commonly use electric furnaces and can roll shapes up to 40 inches deep. The scrap which is used for structural steel most commonly comes from old junk automobiles, with each possible mill consumingupto300,000junkcarsinayear(Allen&Iano,2004,p.374). In order to form steel beams or girders, hot steel blanks are passed through a succession of rollersthatsqueezethemetalintotheproperdimensions,specifiedbytheAmericanInstitute of Steel Construction (AISC). The finished shape exitsthelastsetofrollersasacontinuouslength which is then cut according to a desired length and then cooled on a cooling bed; a roller straightener can be used to correct any crookednessuponcooling.Eachpieceofsteelis then labeled with its shape designation and batchnumber,toverifystructuralspecifications, beforeitwillbesentoffforfabrication.
F IGURE 4: W IDE FLANGESTEELBEAM

Wideflange shapes are most commonly used for beams and columns. Wideflange shapes in comparisonwithIshapedbeamsaremoreefficientstructurallybecausetheyincludealarger amount of steel in the flanges, resulting in increased loadcarrying capacity for the member. Wideflange shapes canvaryin depth from 4 to40 inches and in weight perlinearfoot, with members ranging from9 to 730pounds (Allen& Iano, 2004, p.376). Common nomenclature forwideflangeshapesbeginswiththeletterW,followedbythenominaldepthoftheshapein inches,amultiplicationsign,andtheweightoftheshapeinpoundsperfoot.Thus,AW18x28 wouldbeawideflangedshapehavinganominaldepthof18inchesandweightof28pounds per linear foot. Information about steel shapes can be found in the Manual of Steel ConstructionpublishedbytheAmericanInstituteofSteelConstruction.

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F IGURE 5: O PEN WEBJOISTONBEAMANDBEARINGWALL

Among the many structural steel products that are engineered and fabricated, the most common istheopenweb joist. An openweb steel joist is a mass produced truss that can be usedtosupportfloorandroofdecks.Openwebjoistsareclassifiedinthreeseries:theKseries joistsfor spansup to60 feet andadepth rangingfrom 8 to 30 inches,the LH seriesfor long spansrangingupto96feetanddepthsrangingfrom18to48inches,andfinallytheDLHseries fordeeplongspanswhichspanupto144feetandhavedepthsrangingfrom52to72inches (Allen&Iano,2004,pp.377379).

J OININGSTEELMEMBERS
There are three common fastening techniques for joining steel shapes into a building frame: rivets,bolts,welds,oranycombinationofthethree.Arivetconsistsofacylindricalbodywitha formedheadthatisforgedtoawhiteheatandinsertedthroughaholeandhotworkedwitha pneumatichammertoproduceasecondheadontheotherside.Astherivetcoolsinbetween thetwojoiningmembers,itshrinks,clamping the members tightly together. Riveting was originally a very common practice, but it has been replaced by the more reliable and predictable,lesslaborintensivetechniquesof boltingandwelding. The technique of bolting steel members together is a very efficient method of steel frame construction. Bolting is advantageous
F IGURE 6: O NETYPEOFSHEARCONNECTION

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becauseitisquickandeasyforfieldconnectionsthatneedtoonlyresistshearingforcesand can be accomplished under adverse weather conditions or difficult physical accessibility. The useofanaircompressedimpactwrench,alongwithaspudwrench,makestheapplicationof boltingsteelmemberstogetherverycostefficientandtimesavingforprojectdesigners.Two types of bolts are commonly used in steel frame construction: carbon steel bolts and high strengthbolts.Carbonsteelboltsarecommonlyboughtinhardwarestoresandcanbeusedin structuraljointswheretheirlowerstrengthissufficient,primarilyforshearandbearing.High strength bolts are heat treated during the manufacturing process to acquire their necessary strength. Depending upon the installation technique, highstrength bolts develop their connectingabilitythroughtheirshearresistanceorthroughtighteningtothepointinwhichthe members they join are kept together by friction. Washers may or may not be required dependingonthetypeofboltanditsspecification;awasherwillberequiredincertaincasesto spreadtheloadoftheboltoveralargerarea. Welding offers unique capabilities to structural designers. Welding can join members of a steel frame as if they were a massive whole, as well as provide a stronger connection for the members they join in resisting both shearandmomentforcescomparedto bolting.Often,acombinationofbolting
F IGURE 7: O NETYPEOFRIGID ( MOMENT ) CONNECTION

and welding can be used to take advantage of each ones capabilities.

Boltscanresisttheshearforcesassociatedwiththedeadloadofthememberwhilefieldwelds are being performed. These field welds will then be the primary permanent structural connection.

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R ESISTINGLATERALFOR CES
Typical connectionsforsteel frame construction includeangles,plates,or tees astransitional parts of the members being joined. A simple bolted connected from beamtocolumn may involveoneortwoanglesboltedtothebeamswebduringprefabricationandthenboltedto theflangeoftheconnectingcolumninthefield.Becausethebeamflangesarenotconnected to the columns, there is limited transfer of bending moment. A momenttransmitting connectionismadewhentheflangesofabeamareconnectedstronglybythemeansoffull penetrationgrooveweldstothesupportingcolumn. Threebasicmechanismsarecommonlyusedtostabilizebuildingsagainstlateralforcessuchas windandearthquakes:diagonalbracing,shearpanelsandrigidframes.Diagonalbracingworks bycreatingstabletriangularconfigurationswithinthe otherwise unstable rectangular geometry of a building frame. Connections within a diagonally braced frame dont need to transmit moment since theybehavelikeshearconnections.Shearpanelsare stiffwallsthataremadeofconcreteorsteelandact likebracedrectangleswithinthebuildingframe.Rigid frames, constructed using moment connections, are capable of stabilizing a frame against lateral forces without using diagonal bracing or shear panels. A larger number of the connections in a frame stabilized in this manner must be moment connections, but many may also be shear
F IGURE 8: L ATERALLOADRESISTANCE connections. MECHANISMS ; RIGIDFRAME ( TOP ), DIAGONALBRACING ( MIDDLE ), ANDSHEAR There are three types of steel frame construction PANELS ( BOTTOM ).

defined by the American Institute of Steel Construction(AISC),eachofwhichisclassifiedaccordingtothemannerinwhichtheyachieve stability against lateral forces. AISC Type 1, rigid frame construction, assumes that beamto

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columnconnectionsaresignificantlyrigidsothatthegeometricanglesbetweenmemberswill remain virtually unchanged. AISC Type 2 construction, simple frame construction, assumes shearconnectionsonlyandrequiresdiagonalbracingorshearpanelsforlateralstability.AISC Type3constructionisclassifiedassemirigid,inwhichtheconnectionsarenotasrigidforthose required for AISC Type 1 construction, but possess a dependable and predictable moment resistingcapacitythatcanbeusedtostabilizethebuilding(Allen&Iano,2004,p.391).

F LOORANDROOFS YSTEM S
The floor and roof decking of a building, along with the supporting structural members comprise a significant portion of the dead loads that act within a steel frame. Several floor systems such as metal decking with concrete topping, composite metal decking, castinplace concrete, and precast concrete slabs can all serve economical choices for construction. Each option has advantages and disadvantages that must be address preconstruction to format properschedulingandtofinalizedesignissues. Metal decking is a thin sheet of steel that has been corrugated to increase its stiffness. The spanning capability of a metal deck is determinedbythethicknessofthesheetfrom whichitismadeandthedepthandspacingof the corrugations. The spacing also depends on whether the decking sheets are single or cellular.Singlecorrugatedsheetsarecommonly used where concentrated loads are not
F IGURE 9: T YPESOFMETALDECKING ; STANDARD FORMDECKING ( TOP ), COMPOSITEDECKING ( MIDDLE ), ANDCELLULARDECKING ( BOTTOM ).

expected and deflection criteria are not stringent. Single corrugated decks are used as permanent formwork for concrete floor decks,

with a wire fabric reinforced concrete slab supported by the steel decking until the slab can support itself and its live loads. Cellular decking is manufactured by welding together two sheets,onecorrugatedandoneflat.Itcanbemadestiffenoughtosupportnormalfloorloads

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without structural assistance from the concrete topping. Cellular decking can also add the benefit of providing extra space for electrical and communications wiring. Metal decking is usuallypuddleweldedtothebeams,joists,andgirdersbymeltingthedecktogetherwiththe supportingmembersbelow. Compositemetaldeckingisdesignedtoworktogetherwiththeconcretefloortoppingtomake astiffer,lighter,andlessexpensivesystem.Themetaldeckingservesastensilereinforcement for the concrete, to which it bonds bymeans of special ribpatterns inthe sheet metalor by smallsteelrodsorwirefabricweldedtothetopsofthecorrugations.Compositeconstructionis oftencarriedbeyondthedeckingtoincludethebeamsinthefloor.Intheseapplications,shear studs are welded to the top of each beam every few inches before the concrete topping is placed.The purposeofthese shear studs is to create a strong shear connection betweenthe concreteslabandthesteelbeam.Thus,theconcreteactsasapartofthebeamstopflangeand helps resist bending forces. The load bearing capacity of the steel member has been greatly increasedbytakingadvantageoftheunusedstrengthoftheconcretetopping. Solid concrete floor and roof slabs can also be used in steel building frames instead of metal decking and concrete fill. Concrete can be castinplace over removable forms made of plywood, fiberglass, or steel plates. The cost of such a procedure varies greatly with the size and complexity of the project, as well as the ability to reuse forms within a project or reuse forms from a previous project. Concrete floors can also be erected in the form of precast concreteplanks,describedinmoredetailinthePrecastConcreteConstructionsection.

L OAD R ESISTANCE F ACTOR D ESIGNINS TEELSTRUC TURES

The design of most structures is controlled by building codes and design specifications. Municipal and state governments concerned with the safety of the public have established buildingcodestocontroltheconstructionofvariousstructureswithintheirjurisdiction.These codesinparticular,areactuallylawsorordinancesthatspecifyminimumdesignloads,design stresses,constructiontypesandmaterialquality.

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Currently, the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) has published recommended practicesforregionalandnationaluseinsteelconstruction.UsingtheAISCspecification,two main design techniques are accepted: the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) and the Allowable Strength Design (ASD). The International Building Codes (IBC) was also published becauseoftheneedforamodernbuildingcodethatemphasizesperformance.Itisintendedto provide a model set of regulations to safeguard the public. Nearly all municipal and state buildingcodeshaveadoptedtheAISCspecificationandtheIBC. Oneofthemostdifficulttasksfacedbyanystructuralengineeristheestimationoftheloads that may apply to a structure during its operation. Loads are classified according to their characteranddurationofapplication.Thethreemaintypesofloadsactingonanystructureare deadloads,liveloadsandenvironmentalloads. Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. They consist of the structuralframesownweightandtheweightsofotherfixturesthatarepermanentlyattached totheframe.Forasteelframebuilding,theweightsoftheframe,walls,floors,plumbingand fixturesareallexamplesofdeadloads.TheweightsofmanymaterialsaregiveninPart17of theLRFDManualandevenmoredetailedinformationondeadloadsisprovidedinASCE705, MinimumDesignLoadsforBuildingsandOtherStructures. Live loads are loads that may change in position and magnitude. They are caused when a structureisoccupied,used,andmaintained.Liveloadsareclassifiedasbutnotlimitedtofloor loads,trafficloadsforbridges,impactloadsandlongitudinalloads.Agreatdealofinformation onthemagnitudeofthesevariousloads,alongwithspecifiedminimumvalues,ispresentedin ASCE705. Environmental loads are the external forces that are likely to occur based on geographic locationandsurroundings.Forbuildings,environmentalloadsarecausedbyrain,snow,wind, temperature change, and earthquakes. Sections 6 through 9 of Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures provide a great deal of information concerning these loads, includingchartsandformulasforestimatingtheirmagnitudes.

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The load and resistance factor design method (LRFD) has become a common steel design method taught to students in most colleges and universities in the United States. Load and resistance factor design is based on a limit states philosophy. The term limit state is used to describe a condition at which a structure or some part of the structure fails to perform its intended function. The two categories of limit states are strength and serviceability. Strength limit states are basedonthe safety or loadcarrying capacityof structures and include plastic strengths, buckling, fracture, fatigue, and overturning. Serviceability limit states refer to the performanceofstructuresundernormalserviceloadsandareconcernedwiththeusesand/or occupancy of structures including excessive deflections, slipping, vibrations, cracking, and deterioration.Notonlymustastructurebecapableofsupportingthedesignorultimateloads, itmustalsobeabletosupporttheserviceorworkingloadsinsuchamannerastomeetthe requirementsoftheusersoroccupantsofthestructure. TheLRFDSpecificationconcentratesonveryspecificrequirementsrelatingtothestrengthlimit stateandallowsthedesignersomefreedomofjudgmentregardingtheserviceabilityarea.This method is a probabilistic approach, using safety factors to increase the ultimate loads and decreasethestrengthssothattheprobabilityoffailureisapproximatelyonein10,000.Inthe LRFDmethod,theworkingorserviceloads(Qi)aremultipliedbycertainloadorsafetyfactors (i)whicharealmostalwayslargerthan1.0andtheresultingfactoredloadsarethenusedfor designing the structure. The purpose of these factors is to account for the uncertainties involvedinestimatingthemagnitudesofdeadorliveloads.Themagnitudesofloadfactorsvary dependingonthetypeandcombinationoftheloadsandarepresentedintheASCE7,section2. A structure is proportioned to have an ultimate strength sufficient to support the factored loads.Thisrelationshipisrepresentedbythefollowingequation: Thelefthandsideoftheequationreferstotheloadeffectsonthestructure,whiletheright hand side refers to the resistance of the structure. The strength is considered to equal the nominalstrengthofthememberorcomponent(Rn)multipliedbyaresistancereductionfactor

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(), which is typically less than 1.0, to account for uncertainties in material strengths, dimensions,andworkmanship.Foranyparticularmember,thesumofproductsofloadeffects andloadfactorsmustbelessthanorequaltotheresistancefactormultipliedbythenominal resistance.

P RECAST C ONCRETE C ONSTRUCTION

Precast concrete is a versatile building material that can be used to create nearly all components of the structure and shell. It can also be used in conjunction with any other materialtocreatethemostdesirablebuildingpossible.Precastunitsarefactorydesignedand made,andaretypicallyavailableinarangeofpreselectedsizesandstylesforwhichstructural information is available on an individual basis. Structural precast components are often pre stressed as well. This process involvesplacingtensionedsteel strands in the positive moment regions ofthe precast element. This accomplishes two things.
F IGURE 10: T YPICALHOLLOW CORESLABSECTION

First, the reinforcement causes the surrounding concrete to

startoffincompression,allowinggreaterloadstobeaddedwithoutcrackingoftheconcrete. Also,thepretensioningcreatesacamberinthememberthatdecreasesthefinaldeflectionto allowgreaterspansthanconcreteelementswithoutprestressedstrands.

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The structural units most typical in precast concrete construction are floor and roof units, beams,girders,columns,andloadbearingwalls.Floorandroofunitsareusuallyteeshapedor slabtypemembers.Teeshapedelementsconsistofatwotofourinchslabcasttogetherwith one or two joists up to 32 deep, and they can span up to 100. Singletee shapes require

temporary bracing to keep them from tipping over while they are installed, but they can achieve slightlylongerspans.Precastslabs come in two general varieties, solid flat slabs, and hollowcore slabs. The most popular style of precast slab is hollowcore,
F IGURE 11: D OUBLE TEEATOPAN L SHAPEDBEAM

deliveringflexuralstrengthinthecriticaltopandbottomsections,andremovingweight from the lowstress central areas. These slabs are lightweight and easy to erect in any weather conditionsthatwoulddelaythepouringofconcrete.Dependingupontheuseofthebuilding, teeshaped and slabtype floors may require the addition of a thin castinplace concrete toppingtosmoothoutthefloorandenhancethediaphragmperformanceofthefloorsystem. Forparkinggarageapplications,thistoppingmaybealayerofasphalticconcrete.Atthevery least,theremaybeshearkeysalongtheedgesofthesememberswhichwhengrouted,cause theindividualmemberstomovetogether. Precastbeamsareavailableinthreemajorshapes.Rectangularbeamsarethemostsimple,and areusefulifanothermembermustbesupportedacrossthetop.LandinvertedTshapesallow forfloorandroofmemberstorestononeortwosidesrespectively.Anothercommonshapeis theAASHTOgirder,anhourglassshapedbeamoriginallydesignedforhighwayoverpasses.Itis a strong shape, capable of carrying heavy loads at spans over 50, and its use has been extendedtosomebuildings(Ching&Adams,2001).Precastbeamstypicallyrestonprotrusions,

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or corbels from precast columns. They come in a variety of sizes, but they are typically rectangular. These columns can be symmetrically loaded resulting in a concentric load condition,orunevenlyloadedresultinginaneccentricloadcondition.Thisplaysaroleinthe designofthememberanditsreinforcement. Floorandroofunitsdonothavetorestuponbeams,however.Loadbearingprecastwallsoften have corbels or slots on which precast slabs can rest. Not all precast wall panels are load bearing,butallplayimportantroles.Thesewallpanelsareoftenusedasshearpanelstoresist lateral forces in steel framed construction. Besides ordering these precast panels from a manufacturer,theymayalsobecastinplaceonthegroundandputinplaceoncecuredina methodknownastiltupconstruction. Nearly all oftheseprecast elements are connected in similar ways. Most typically,plates and boltsarecastintotheunitbythemanufacturer,andconnectedonthesitewithplates,angles, nuts,andwelds.Whenoneelementmustrestuponanother,plasticorrubberbearingplates areusedtopreventthepotentialdamageresultingfromcontact.

R ESIDENCE H ALL D ESIGN

The design of a residence hall has few unique requisites distinguishing it from an average apartmentbuilding.Typically the considerationsspanning alldormitories are not structural in nature,butratherdealwithfinishesandhardware.Theconstantuseandabuseofthestructure suggeststhatwhenlifecyclecostsofdoorhardware,toiletaccessories,drywall, etceteraare takenintoaccount,thecostofhighergrade(abuseresistant,institutional)itemsisactuallyless. Thecostdisparityisduetothehighexpenseoflaborandmaterialsforrenovation,butitisalso importanttoconsiderschedulingissues,sincethebuildingisoccupiedthroughoutmostofthe year. Thestructuralimplicationsofaresidencehallaremainlyconfinedtothedeterminationofthe proper live load. ASCE 705 suggests a live load of 40 psf for private apartments. Due to the denser living conditions of a dormitory where there will be fairly small twooccupant rooms

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(presumably with double the furniture and belongings of a single), the value is taken to be higherinmagnitude.CannonDesignusedavalueof60psf(fromtheirconstructiondocuments) fortheprivateareasofthebuilding,whichwillbethevalueusedinthisstudy. Thebiggestconsiderationinthedesignofaresidencehall,whichistypicallydeterminedatthe beginning of the design process, is the number of beds. This end unit and its corresponding price are integral, because in effect, all economy of the building will be based on this parameter.

P ARKING G ARAGE D ESIGN

Similar to the number of beds in the residence hall, the end unit of parking spaces and the correspondingpriceareintegraltothedesignofaparkinggarage.Theseconsiderationscarry themostweightduringconceptualphasesofthepreconstructionprocess.Moreimplicitinthe structural design is the functionality of the building. Most parking garages, in one structural bay,willhaveparkingoneachside,andeitherasingleordoublelaneroadwaybetween.These longspansrequiretightspacingoflargebeamswhendealingwithasteelframedstructure.The precast equivalent is the doubletee shaped element, which in effect is comprised of tightly spacedconcretejoistscastintegrallywithaprecastfloorslab.

C OST E STIMATINGIN B UILDING C ONSTRUCTION

Inpractice,costestimatingisaveryinvolvedprocessinwhichmanyfactorsmustbetakeninto consideration.Dependingonthetypeofproject,acostestimatemaybeusedtogivetheowner an idea of how much the project will cost, provide the owner with a guaranteed maximum price,orbeusedasacompetitivebid.Witheachofthesesituations,theaccuracyofthecost estimate becomes increasingly important for the welfare of the company providing it. If an estimateistoohigh,thecontractormaynotgettheprojectorwillnotgetrepeatbusinessfrom thatowner.Alternatively,ifthebidistoolow,thefirmprovidingitwilllikelylosemoneyonthe project.

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The process of estimating cost typically starts with the quantification of building materials, known as a takeoff. This involves reviewing construction documents and determining the amount of materials used in the proper units. These may be cubic yards as with concrete, squarefeetaswithmostfloor,wall,andceilingfinishes,tonsaswithasphaltorstructuralsteel, oranyothersuitablestandard. Applying an accurate cost to these materials is one of the challenges of cost estimating. The most common and most accurate methods are requesting quotes from vendors and subcontractors and using historical data from previous jobs. When these methods are unavailable, a cost estimating publication may be used to approximate the cost. Typical publications include RSMeans, Sweets, ENR, Craftsman, and BNi, among others. Simply multiplying the takeoff quantity by the cost retrieved by any of these means will yield an approximatebasepriceforthebuildingmaterialsandinstallation. Toimprovetheaccuracyofacostestimate,itisnecessarytoconsidermanyadditionalfactors. Laborandequipmentareanareathatoftenrequiresspecialattention.Oftentimesproductivity rateschangeduetoregionalorweatherrelatedreasons.Achangeinproductivitycantendto changetheunitpricegreatly,especiallywhentherelativecostoflabortomaterialsishigh,as withmanyfinishes.Theproductivitywillalsochangetheschedulingoftheproject.Ifthetaskis onthecriticalpathofaconstructionproject,thischangeisevenmoredrastic.Whenthetime value of money is considered, this change in productivity may cause large changes in cost. Laborandequipmentcostsarealsoveryimportantwhendealingwithsmallamountofwork. Forexample,whetherasawcuttingcontractorisbroughtintocuttenfeetofahundred,the cost of equipment and mobilization remains the same. The unit prices found in publications moreaccuratelyreflectthecostofcuttingonehundredfeet,andiftheyareusedtocalculate thecostofthetenfootcut,theactualpricewillbeundershot. Another factor to consider, already mentioned briefly, is the time value of money and the increaseinmaterialcosts.Ifaneighteenmonthjobistobegininthespringof2008,using2008 basepriceswillcausetheestimatetobeinaccuratelylow.Foraroughestimate,itiscommon

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toprojectallcoststothemidpointoftheproject.Foramoreaccuratecost,eachtradeshould be projected individually using the construction schedule. Some material costs may tend to increaseatgreaterratesthanaverage.Steel,forexample,hasbeenincreasingmuchfasterthan many other building materials due to growing foreign demand. ENR is renowned for maintainingandpublishingaccuratetimecostindices. Another factor to consider, and the final one discussed in this section, is that of location. Materialcostsdependgreatlyonsupply,demand,andlocationoforigin.Dependingonwhere theprojectislocated,theactualcostofmaterialsmaybesignificantlyhigherorlowerthanthe national average. Pricing labor is much the same, varying due to supply, demand, and the presenceofunionlabor.RSMeansprovideslocationindicesforbothmaterialsandinstallation (includeslaborandequipment),dividedbydivisionforgreateraccuracy.

LEED C ERTIFICATION
A BOUT LEED CERTIFICATION
LeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesign(LEED)isanonprofitorganizationcreatedand developedbytheU.S.GreenBuildingCouncil(USGBC).Itwasestablishedinhopesofdefininga benchmark standard in the construction industry that would work to make the concept of green building a more commonplace and competitive part of the industry. The goal is that ultimately green building will become the common practice and incentives like LEED certificationwontbenecessarytopromote.1 The LEED standards work to promote a whole building approach that helps to provide sustainability to the building as well as contribute to human and environmental health. The standardsofLEEDaddressfivemainareas:watersavings,sustainablesitedevelopment,energy efficiency, materials selection, and indoor environmental quality. Within these five sections therearemanysubsectionsthatspecifytheuniqueconditionsthatneedtobemet.Theseare

U.S.GreenBuildingCouncil,LEEDRatingSystem:http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID

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thebroadsubjectsthatLEEDisconcernedwithandtheyworkasajumpingoffpointforwhich requirementscanbecreated. Keeping the whole building method in mind, the LEED system provides certification levels uniquetodifferentconstructiontypes.Currentlythereareninetypesofapplications: NewCommercialConstructionandMajorRenovationprojects ExistingBuildingOperationsandMaintenance CommercialInteriorsprojects CoreandShellDevelopmentprojects Homes NeighborhoodDevelopment GuidelinesforMultipleBuildingsandOnCampusBuildingProjects LEEDforSchools LEEDforRetail

The USGBC is also working on creating a LEED standard for Healthcare and Laboratories. The classificationstrytomakecertificationforbuildingsauniqueprocesswheretheindustrycanbe assured that if a building is LEED certified it is positively a green building in a consistent view whencomparedtosimilarbuildings. TheprocesstoacquireaLEEDcertificationrequiresthebuildingtoearnpointsbasedonfulfilling certain assignments. There are four levels of certification: certified, silver, gold, and platinum. Thelevelachievedisdeterminedbyhowmanypointsareobtained. Whyshouldtheindustrywanttobuildgreen?Therearemanyreasonswhybuildinggreenisa positiveexperience.Notonlydoesitworktoimprovethelifeofthebuildingintermsofthelife cycleandrepairsneeded,butitcutstheyearlyoperatingcostsandprovidesanincreasedasset value for thebuilding.It helps to create a morehealthyand comfortable environmentforthe occupantsaswellaslimitstheenvironmentalimpacts.Itreducestheamountofwastebrought to landfills, and saves in energy, water conservation, and the amount of harmful greenhouse gasesemitted.Onceabuildingiscertifieditcanalsoqualifyfortaxrebates,zoningallowances, and many other incentives that are unique to specific cities. Along with that it promotes an

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ownerscommitmenttoenvironmentalhealthandsocialcompassion. Thiscaninturnhelpto attract building residents who may deeply care about helping the environment and may not have been interested in the beginning. Once a building is certified it is allowed to display the LEEDplaquethatisnationallyrecognized.Theplaqueforachievingasilverlevelisshownbelow in Figure 12. For the other three levels, the plaque looks the same, but the word silver is changedtocertified,gold,orplatinumandthecolormaychange. Specifictoourprojectthegrouplookedattherequirementsfor obtainingasilverlevelintheNewCommercialConstructionand Major Renovation projects. In this area six sections were reviewed: Sustainable Sites, Water Efficiency, Energy & Atmosphere, Materials and Resources, Indoor Environmental Quality, and Innovation & Design Process. Each area was reviewed to determine which requirements the new residence
F IGURE 12: LEED SILVERPLAQUE

hall is achieving and the additional requirements that may be achievedwithalittleextraeffort.

H OWPOINTSAREACQUIR ED
There are six major subsections under the LEED for New Construction where a building can obtainpoints.Aspreviouslystated,abuildingachievesoneoffourlevelsofLEEDcertification byaccruingacertainnumberofpoints.Thesepointsareobtainedbydoingcertaintasks,using certain materials, creating certain systems, etc. These six sections and the tasks assigned underneathweredecideduponbytheLEEDorganizationtakingintoaccountthe5mainareas ofenvironmentalconcernthatgreenbuildingistryingtosolve. The first subsection is Sustainable Sites. It has a total of 14 possible points. These points are achievedbywhatsiteischosenforthenewlyconstructedbuilding,howthewasteofthatsiteis takencareofanddisposed,andwhattypeofsitethebuildingisconstructedon.Thissection
2

U.S.GreenBuildingCouncil:http://www.usgbc.org/

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was created because for every piece of undeveloped land that is taken away a habitat and ecosystemisdisrupted.Asnewbuildingsarecreatedtheirsurfacesandpavementsabsorbheat and radiate itback out,increasing the surroundingtemperatures. As rain gathers on theroof andflowsoffthesurroundingsoiliserodedandthelocalbodiesofwaterreceivethatrunoff whichinturnaffectstheaquaticlife.Nothingisuntouchedwhenanewbuildingisconstructed andthissectionworkstomakethatdisruptionassmallaspossible. Water Efficiency has a total of 5 possible points. This is concerned with whether the new building is designed to have efficient landscaping and water use, the option for using alternative water technologies, and options for water use reduction. Efficient landscaping is concernedwithhowmuchwaterisneededforirrigation,ifthatwaterisreused,andhowthat water is collected. Currently the United States water deficit is approximately 3,700 billion gallons.3This means that the US is using 3,700 billion more gallons of water than they are returning to the natural water system and recharging local aquifers and water sources. This sectiontriestoreducetheamountoffreshwaterusedbybuildingsasmuchaspossible. EnergyandAtmospherehasapossible17totalpoints.Thetypicalformsofenergyusedthese days,coal,fossilbasedfuel,andnaturalgas,allhaveharmfuleffectsontheenvironmentand untiltheworldstopsusingthesematerialstocreateenergytheywillcontinuebeingmined,etc andcontinuetoharmtheearthandsurroundinghabitats.Thissectionencompassesstrategies forenergyreduction and points are given if away to reuseenergyon the propertyhasbeen determined.Thetypeofenergyusedcanalsoobtaintheownerpointsifitisamaterialthatis lessharmfultotheenvironmentandtheprocessthroughwhichitcreatesenergydoesnotemit anyharmfulgasesorsmoke. Materials and Resources is the next section that has a maximum of 13 points. This area is concernedwithhowmuchofthealreadyexistingmaterialsarereused,howwasteistakencare of,andhowrecyclablesarestoredandthenthrownout.Finallyithasapartwhereifcertified
3

USGBC,NewConstructionandMajorRenovation.Version2.23 Ed.2006

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wood is used points can be obtained. Material or building reuse is important because construction and demolition wastes create ~40% of the total waste in the US.4By reusing a buildingtheprocessofhavingtodesignandconstructacompletelynewbuildingisgottenrid of. Along with that the manufacturing and transporting of all the raw materials needed to construct that building is gone. Instead it is possible to renovate an existing building and decreasetheamountofnewmaterialsthatwillbesued. The section Indoor Environmental Quality has 15 total possible points. It is expected that Americansthese days spend closeto 90% oftheir time indoors. Indoors is where it hasbeen suggested by the Environmental Protection Agency that harmful levels of pollution reside, sometimestwotofivetimesgreaterthanoutdoors.5InthissectionLEEDisconcernedwithlow emitting materials, ventilation in the building, thermal conditions, the amount of natural sunlight,andthecontrollabilityofallthesesystems.Allofthesecreditswerecreatedinhopes ofmaintainingabetterindoorairqualityfortheoccupantsofthebuildings. The final section is Innovation &Design Process with atotal of 5 points. Herethe owner and buildercangatherpointsbybeingcreativeintheirdesignofthebuildingaswellastakingthe advice of a LEED Accredited professional. As we all know, green building is a field that is constantly growing and LEED wants to be able to acknowledge those people who have ideas thatmaynotcoincidewiththeLEEDchecklistsorthatmaybeaboveandbeyondanythingthat LEEDasksfor.Inthiswayabuildingcanbebuiltasgreenastheownerwantsittobe. A complete list of all the possible ways to gather points for LEED certification can be seen in AppendixD.

4 5

USGBC,NewConstructionandMajorRenovation.Version2.23 Ed.2006 USGBC,NewConstructionandMajorRenovation.Version2.23 Ed.2006

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LEED LEVELS
TherearefourlevelsofLEEDcertification:Certified,Silver,Gold,andPlatinum.Thepointsthat areneededtoachieveeachlevelareshowninTable1.

T ABLE 1: LEED LEVELREQUIREMENTS

Certified 2632pts Silver 3338pts Gold 3951pts Platinum 5269pts

The level of LEED certification that a building obtains truly depends upon what the owner wants.EachrequirementthatLEEDasksforiseasilydoneifpreparedforandthoughtthrough from the beginning. This includes the design time so that a schedule and cost analysis can includeallofthegreenoptionsthatarerequired.

H OW LEED CERTIFICATIONCANAF FECT WPI

LEEDcertificationcanbeveryusefulforboththeownerofthebuildinganditsoccupants.Just by using green techniques the energy usage and operating costs of the building are reduced because the systems are improving its performance. By being green the asset value of the buildingisincreasedandthereputationoftheownerisseentobededicatedtosustainability andsocialresponsibility. Concerning the occupants of the building the greater amount of sunlight that is required by LEED help to improve the productivity of the people. Relating that to students it has been shown through studies that a better air quality and a larger amount of natural sunlight can contribute to students progressing 20% faster on math tests and 26% faster on reading (RS Means Green Building: Project Planning and Cost Estimating). The better working quality can also help in employee retention as the more pleasant working environment is a hard one to leave.

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W HAT G REENREQUIREMENTS WPI IS MEETING

ThefollowingisabulletedlistoftherequirementsforLEEDcertificationandgreenbuildingthat WPI is meeting. This information was obtained through a presentation made by Neil Benner, projectmanagerfromGilbane,tothecivilcourseConstructionProjectManagement. 95%ofwasteformedduringtheconstructionprocessisbeingrecycled. OnehalfofwoodproductsareForestStewardshipCouncil(FSC)certified.Thismeans thatthewoodisForestSafeandisboughtfrommillsthatforestsafelyandfollowthe strictstandardssetbytheFSC. TheFSCaregloballeadersinresponsibleandsafeforestry.Theypracticesustainableforestry practices and are responsible for supporting other organizations in being environmentally friendly. Theresidencehallusesadhesivesthatdonthaveroguevolatileorganiccompounds (VOCs). Volatileorganiccompoundshaveahighvaporpressureandlowwatersolubility.Theyaremost commonly humanmade and are used and produced in the manufacturing of refrigerants, paints, and pharmaceuticals. They are common contaminants of groundwater. 6 Organic compounds can stay in the air long after they are emitted and are commonly at a higher concentrationindoorsthanout.Thedangerofthemistheireffectonhumanhealth.Itcanvary from causing cancer to causing nothing, but what types cause what is basically unknown. Nothingisknowneitheraboutthelevelsoforganiccompoundsfoundinahome.7 Theresidencehallwillnotuseplywoodthathasaddedformaldehydes.

6 7

U.S.GeologicalSurvey:http://toxics.usgs.gov/definitions/vocs.html U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency:http://www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html

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FormaldehydeisthemostcommonVOC.Itisacolorless,butverypowerfulsmellinggasthat can cause eye, nose, and throat irritation, allergic reactions, skin rash, and more. High concentrationsofformaldehydecanalsotriggerallergicreactionstopeoplewithasthma.8 Thecarpetinstalledintheresidencehallwillhavelowformaldehydeconcentrations. PaintcontaininglowVOCswillbeusedintheresidencehall. Allmaterialsusedintheconstructionoftheresidencehallarefabricatedandharvested within500milesoftheconstructionsite. Mechanicalsystemsinstalledintheresidencehallwillhaveoptimizedefficiency. Concreteusedintheresidencehallwillcontainflyash.

Flyashisoneofthethreebyproductsofcoalcombustion.ItisdefinedbytheACICommitteeas thefinelydividedresidueresultingfromthecombustionofgroundorpowderedcoal,whichis transportedfromthefireboxthroughtheboilerbyfluegases.9Itiscommonlyformedincoal fired electric plants. There are two types of fly ash: Class F and Class C. The classes were determinedbythechemicalcomposition.ClassFisproducedfrombituminousandanthracite coal while Class C is created by burning subituminous or lignite coal, and is the preferable choiceofdistributorswhocreatethisreadymixsolution. Fly ash is used in Portland Cement and decreases the amount of cement that is needed, reducestheenergyneededtoproducecompletelynewmaterials,conservesalreadymadenew materials,andhelpstoreduceairpollution.Companiesthatuseflyashusuallysubstituteabout 2035%ofPortlandcementwiththeash.ThisinturnlessenstheamountofPortlandcement used and allows us to recycle already created materials. Not only does using fly ash help to support the environment it is actually a positive thing concerning cement. It improves the qualityandperformanceoftheconcreteaswellastheplasticproperties.Thismeansthatthe
8 9

RSMeansGreenBuilding:ProjectPlanningandCostEstimating:2002 ASourcebookforGreenandSustainableBuilding:http://www.greenbuilder.com/sourcebook/Flyash.html#Define

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workabilityoftheconcreteisbetter,thereislesswaterdemand,lowerstheheatofhydration of the concrete, reduces permeability and corrosion of reinforcing steel and segregation and bleeding,andincreasessulphateresistance.(3)TheuseofflyashinPortlandcementneedsto fulfill the requirements of ASTM C 618 Standard Specification for Flyash and Raw or Calcined NaturalPozzolanClassCFlyashforuseasaMineralAdmixtureinPortlandCementtobeableto beusedlegallyinconstruction. IntermsofpointswhatfollowsisthecurrentstatusofhowWPIisdoinginachievingtheLEED credits.Thereareatotalof38pointsthatareplannedonandareimplicittothecurrentdesign, arecurrentlyinconstruction,orarealreadyachieved.ConsideringthesixsectionsofLEEDfor new construction, there is a total of 8 points in the Sustainable Sites section with 4 already closedandset,1currentlyinconstruction,and3areinthedesignandplannedon.Atotalof4 pointsisseenfortheWaterEfficiencysection,allareinthedesignofthebuilding,butasofyet arenotachieved.6pointstotalareplannedforthesectionEnergy&Atmospherewith5points inthedesignand1currentlybeingconstructed.MaterialsandResourceshasatotalof5points with all 5 being constructed right now. 11 points are chosen for the Indoor Environmental Quality section with 6 being constructed and the last 5 in the design. In the last section, Innovation & Design Process, there is a total of3points, 2 indesign, andthe last anongoing processasitconcernsaLEEDaccreditedprofessional.

G REEN B UILDING O PTIONS

ThissectionofthebackgroundresearchesdifferentgreenbuildingoptionsthatareopentoWPI aswaystosuccessfullyachieveaLEEDcreditorjustasanoptiontohaveagreenerresidence hall.Therearefourmainoptionsthatwerelookedinto: A green roof One of which is already being installed on approximately 1/3 of the residenceshall. RainwaterHarvesting GreywaterSystem DualFlushtoilets

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A number of materials that are coined green were also researched to see if they could be usefulintheconstructionofthenewresidencehall.Theseare: CorkFlooring LinoleumFlooring RecycledGlassCountertops

G REENROOF
The main objective of a green roof is to replace the environmental

footprint that is to be lost when the building is constructed. They are helpful in limiting the amount of waterlossbyabsorbing,filtering,and detaining any rainfall. This in turn keeps large amounts of water from pouring off the building and eroding soil that lies immediately below. The layers of a green roof are set in how they work and the only variance are the plants used. The layers can be seenin .
F IGURE 13: T YPICALGREENROOFLAYERS ( L OW I MPACT
D EVELOPMENT C ENTER , I NC ., 2007)

Thetypeofgreenroofcanvaryfromintensivewhichcanhavealargevarietyofplantsand canevenincludetreesandshrubstoextensivewhichisusuallyonlygrassesandmosses.The intensiveroofsrequirealargeamountofmaintenance,butareusuallyopentothepublicand have the atmosphere of a park or large open space. The extensive roofs require low maintenance,canbeconstructedwithaslowas1.5depthofsoil,andareusuallynotopento

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thepublic.Thesecanbeagoodoptionifyoudontwanttoputtoomuchtimeorenergyinto theroofafterithasbeenconstructed.10

R AINWATERHARVESTING
Rainwaterharvestingisanideathatisbecoming increasinglywellknowntothepublic.Itisa solutionforreducingtheamountofwaterabuildingmayuse.Thebasicconceptisthatwhenit rains the water from the roof is caught anddirectedto aholding andfiltration system. From thereitcanbeusedforirrigationpurposesorsecondarywateruse,suchastoilets. Therearefourmaincomponentsofrainwaterharvestingtoconsiderwhenfirstdecidingifthe building will work for this system: capture, conveyance, holding, & distribution. To capture it needstobeconsideredhowbigtheroofisandhowmuchwateritwillbeabletocatchwithits specificsurfacearea.Thiscanbefoundbycalculatingtheareaoftheroofandthenmultiplying that by the annual rainfall, which can be found for any geographic location online. Now it should be noted that the number calculated will be the ideal situation so there will be some inefficiencies that will need to be considered. These inefficiencies are the roofing material, whichcanslowdownthewatertransportorsoakupsomeofthewateritself. The next step is how to take the captured rainwater and transport it down from the roof to a holding tank. These conveyance systems are usually a more hightech gutter system that leads to holding tanks. The only difference between these gutters and a normal system would be that there is a screen installed so that before the water hits the tanks the screen can filter out some of the larger debris that might be floating in the water. The screen should have holes largerthananormalscreen,sayoneusedforadoor,sothat
F IGURE 14: B ARRELSTORAGE
TANK (C ITYOF P ORTLAND , OR)

10

"TheGreenRoofResearchProgramatMSA"http://www.hrt.msu.edu/faculty/Rowe/Green_roof.htm

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the waterdoesnt clogup and startto run over, but small enough thatlarger sticks or leaves canbeblocked.Thereisamaintenanceissuewiththeseguttersthoughbecauseitwillneedto becheckedthattherearenoblockagesanywherealongtheline.Thiswouldprobablyrequirea weeklycheckoratleastonebeforeabigrainstormispredicted. Theholdingtankfortherunoffwateristhenextconcern.Whatthecapturedrainwaterisgoing tobeusedfordetermineshowmanytankswillbeneeded.Withoutpurification,therainwater isusefulforlandscapingandirrigationpurposesortoiletwater.Dependingonthedemandsthe storagecanbesimple,asseeninFigure14orcomplicatedasseeninFigure15. Thestoragetankswilltendtobeonthelargersizeasallofthewater collectedduringeachrainstormwontbeusedatoncethetankswill havetobebigenoughtocontainalargeenoughamountofwaterto supplytherequireddemandsevenwhennotraining.Consideringthe geographic locations and that available space can be limited there are both above and below ground tank options. A complete rainwater holding system can be underground if planned for at the beginning of the process. Unfortunately there are maintenance factors where the barrels must be checked regularly to make sure therearenoleavesordebrisinthemaswellasthebarrelsmustbe
F IGURE 15: F LOWERPOT
PURIFICATIONSYSTEM (C ITY OF P ORTLAND , OR, 2008)

emptiedwithin10daystoensurethatnobugsorsimilarthingsare breedinginthem.Thiswouldrequirethatifthebarrelswerestored undergroundthattherewasawaytoreachthem.

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G REYWATERSYSTEM
Greywaterisanywaterthatcomesfromyourhomeexceptingtoiletandfoodwastewater.This leaves laundry, kitchen/sink water, bathroom & miscellaneous. The breakdown of a householdswastewatercanbeseeninFigure16.Allofthiswaterisonlyslightlydirtywhenitis consideredusedandthrownoutwhenintruththereareotherthingsitcouldbeusedforrather thanusingacompletelynewbatchoffreshwater.Anytoiletorfoodwastewateriscalledblack water and must have a government directed cleaning process before it is usable again. The differencebetween grey water and black water is that there is less nitrogen and much fewer pathogensingreywater.

F IGURE 16: G REYWATERBREAKDOWN (C ARL L INDSTROM , 2000)

Thepositiveaspectsofgreywaterotherthanjustsavingthesmallamountsoffreshwaterin this world are many. Looking at personal reasons there is less strain on the septic tank and treatment plant because there is less water being piped through. Along with this if the surroundingareadoesnothaveroomforasepticsystemagreywatersystemcansubstitutefor ahigherupfrontcost,butagreateroutcome.Thiswillhelpwiththewearandtearthatthese systemsusuallyexperience.Whenthegreywaterisusedforirrigationpurposesithasfarmore nutrients that help the soil and plants to grow faster and become healthier. Even if your householdcannotusetheentireamountofgreywateryouhaveallowingittogobackintothe

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groundafteritstreatmentisabetterchoicebecausethentheearthcanreclaimthenutrients andreusethem. Theconstrictingfactorwithagreywatersystemisthatthoughthegreywaterisfairlycleanit doesstillhavebacteriainitandcanbecomeanaerobicanddecompose.Thismeansthatthere does need to be a purifying system of some level. Once the grey water is piped out of your house it should enter a settling/filtration tank. This tank should be twice the size of your expecteddailyoutputandthegreywaterwillwanttomoveslowlythroughitsothatanylarger debris and sludge can settle to the bottom. A sand filter is a typical option because it allows gradualmovementofthewater,butthemillionsoftinysandparticleshavealargeamountof surface area where bacteria and sludge can stick. Finally you will need to disinfect the grey water,chlorineiscommonlyused,andthenitcanbeusedagain.Ifusedforirrigationpurposes itisimportanttonotethatthewatermustbeinsertedunderground,neverontopofthesoil.A portrayalofonetypeofsystemcanbeseeninFigure17.

F IGURE 17: O NETYPEOF G REYWATER T REATMENT S YSTEM 11

11

BiolooCompostingToilets&GreywaterSystems:www.bioloo.co.nz/GREY%20WATER%20cutaway.JPG2005

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D UAL FLUSHTOILET S
Ithaslongbeenastandardthatthereisoneflushforatoiletnomatterwhatwasputinthe bowl.Inthepasttheaveragewas3.5gallonsperflush.Thishassincethenbeenupdated,and currentlythestandardistheequivalentof1.6gallonsperflush.RightnowNorthAmericaisone of the only countries that still using only single flush toilets. Europe and Australia have been using dual flush toilets for a while now and have seen a significant decrease in overall water use. DualFlushtoiletsareexactlywhattheysoundlike.Theyhavetwoflushoptions,oneforaliquid andone for solids. Thebasinhastwodifferentholds anddependingon whichflush optionis chosenthecorrectholdopensandflowsintothebowl.Eachoptionusesadifferentamountof water, with the large flush using ~1.6 gallons per flush and the lighter using about half that, ~0.8gallonsperflush. Dualflushtoiletsareveryflexibleandcanworkbythemselvesorcanbeinsertedintoanentire water saving system such as rainwater harvesting or a grey water system. By doing this a household or building can effectively cut out the fresh water usage in terms of toilets and irrigation. This in turn doesntonly help the environment,but decreases the water payments neededtobemade.

G EOTHERMALHEATING
Geothermalheatingusestheenergyoftheearthtoeitherheatorcoolabuilding.Thepractice hasbeeninusesincethe1940s(U.S.DepartmentofEnergy,2005).Theideaisthatinsteadof using the outside air temperature as the medium through which we heat our houses we are using the constant temperature of the earth. This means that rather than the heat having to adjustwiththeseasonsitisalwaysrelatedtooneconstanttemperature.Dependinguponthe buildings location in the world, the ground temperature ranges from ~45 degrees F to ~75 degrees F. Then as the weather gets hotter, the earths temperature is cooler, and as the weathergetscolder,theearthstemperatureiswarmer.

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By inserting a pipe several feet below the ground surface, it is possible to tap into either a constant temperature water pocket or the earths energy. With this heat, water is then run throughaloopwheretheheatisdepositedintothehouse.Thisisalowenergysystembecause toincreasethetemperatureofahousebyfivedegrees,thewatertemperatureflowingthrough thelooponlyhastoberaisedbyonedegree.Thesesystemscanbeusedforcoolingaswell. Ratherthanwatergainingheatfromtheearthandtransportingitintothehouse,heatistaken fromthehouseandtransportedbackdowntotheearththuscoolingthetemperatureofthe building.Duringthemonthsthesystemisbeingusedforcoolingtherewillusuallybeanexcess amountofheatwhichcouldthenbeusedtoheatthebathandshowerwaterratherthanusing ahotwaterheater,thusadditionallycuttingcosts. There are two different ways to set up the geothermal heat pipes, a closed or open loop system.Anopenlooptakeswaterfromawellandthenoncethewaterhascompleteditspath throughtheearthandthehouseitisdepositedintoanotherwelloradrainagefield.Aclosed loop contains a mixture of water and antifreeze and the same quantity of liquid is circled through the pipes. It is possible for the pipes to be placed vertical or horizontal, but vertical tendstobemoreexpensive. Mostoftheenergyusedforthesystemgoestowardthepumpandcompressorthatmovesthe waterthroughtheloop.Therestoftheenergyisthenusedforfansandcontrolsthatwillhelp to distribute the hot or cold air throughout the house. The upfront cost for a geothermal heatingsystemis$2500pertonofcapacity.12Soatypicalresidentialsize3tonunitwouldcost approximately $7500. A normal heating system usually costs around $4000 dollars.13Even though there is approximately an extra $3000 to purchase the geothermal system, over a lifetimeofpayingforfuelwithaconventionalsystemtheupfrontcostwouldbepaidbackin onlyafewyears.

12 13

U.S.DepartmentofEnergy:http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/ U.S.DepartmentofEnergy:http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/

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Thegeothermalsystemsoundslikeagoodideaandseemslikeitwouldbeareasonablesystem tohaveforastudentresidencehalleventhoughitisalargebuilding.Unfortunatelyitwould need a much higher upfront cost and it would have to be the decision of the college if they wantedtoputthatmuchmoremoneyintotheirbuildingrightatthebeginning.Thesystemas wellwouldrequiremaintenancetomakesuretheappliancesareallrunningsmoothlyandthat therearenoblockagesorbreaksanywhere.

C ORK F LOORING
Cork flooring is the bark taken from the Cork Oak trees found in southwest Europe and northwest Africa. The bark is harvested approximately every 10 years where the harvesting requireshavingthebarktakenfromthetree. Itdoesnothurtthetreeandanewlayerofbarkstartstogrowassoonastheoldlayeristaken off.Thecorkoaktreescanlastfor150250yearsmeaningthatonetreecanhaveataminimum 15 harvesting times. This makes cork an extremely useful and environmentally friendly material. A picture of a cork oaktreecanbeseeninFigure18. Corkflooringhasmanyspecialqualitiesthatstemfromthe factthatitisabark.Becauseitisabarkthatmustprotect thetreeitisnaturallyantifungal,antimicrobial,andhypo allergenic making it an excellent choice for people with allergies.Thestructureofthecorkintermsofcellularlevel also makes it very resilient to blows, dents, and scratches. Thecorkalsoabsorbssoundwell,whichwouldbeaplusin a residence hall where you do not want sound to transfer far. The cork floor can also be coated with a polyurethane finishthatwillallowittobeabletoresistlotsofuse,asina commercialbuilding.Thisfinishcanberepaintedeveryyearorsoasseenfitbytheownerto stayfreshandlookingnice.Corkflooringcanalsobeusedinanyroominyourhousethough
F IGURE 18: C ORKOAKTREE (M ARTIN O LSSON , 2006)

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there are special considerations if you decide to use it in your bathroom. Cork is resistant to waterandwithapolyurethanefinishisevenmore,butitdoesreachapointsoownersshould becarefultonotleaveanylargepuddlesofwateronthefloor.

L INOLEUM F LOORIN G
Linoleumflooringwasinvented150yearsagoandwasverypopularuntiltheinventionofvinyl caused it to be forgotten about. Linoleum is made up of mainly renewable resources such as corkdust,linseedoil,rosin,limestone,woodflour,andpigmentsthatdeterminethecolor.This isthenpressedontoajutebackingandhungindryingroomstocure.Theflooringisavailable intileorsheetsandistheninstalledwithanadhesive.Afterthelinoleumismadeallremnants of the process are then recycled back into the production process. The manufacturing and disposal of linoleum creates no toxins and is biodegradable. Linoleum is very durable and maintains a fresh clean look for years with a low amount of maintenance. It is also water resistant which makes it a good choice for bathroom, laundry rooms, mudrooms, or counter tops.Ifsomethingspillsonitthesimplestcleanupwouldrequiresweepingandanoccasional mopping.

R ECYCLED G LASS
Recycling has grown in popularity over the years and one of the newest fads is to create countertops, floors, objects, decorations, tiles, etc out of glass objects that would be put intoalandfill.Anytypeofglassthatcanbeconsideredtrash canbetakenandformedintosomethingelseuseful.Different companies specialize in certain types of recycled glass. One may use a lot of airplane windshields while another may use onlybottlesofallcolors.Thisglasscanbemixedwithceramic tileifwantedandisthenplacedinconcreteandsandeddown tofeelassmoothasagraniteorstonecountertop.Anexample of what a recycled glass countertop can look like is shown in Figure19.Thesecountertopscanbecreatedinanycolorordesign.

F IGURE 19: R ECYCLED G LASS C OUNTERTOP (V ETRAZZO , 2007)

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LEED B ACKGROUND W RAP U P

The environmental background section was written to enlighten the group members and readers abouttwomain objectives.Thefirst was to learn more about what LEED is so that it can be understood why WPI is putting such large amounts of time, energy, and money into obtaining a LEED certification. After understanding the goal of LEED it was important to researchtheprocessforanewconstructionbuildingandwhatspecifictaskswouldneedtobe donetosuccessfullyachieveit.FinallyitneededtobeknownwhatWPIwasalreadydoingto achievethiscertificationsincethisMQPstartedduringthemiddleoftheconstructionprocess. Thesecondobjectiveofthissectionwastoincreaseknowledgeofgreenbuildingoptionsthat aredesignedandinstalledinabuildinginhopesoflesseningthebuildingsoveralluseofwater orenergy.Differentmaterialsthatareknownasbeingmoreenvironmentallyfriendlywerealso looked into. The options that were researched were considered to see if they could help to achieveaLEEDcreditwhichwouldhelpinturntoachievecertificationortoseeiftheywould bepossibletorunandmaintaininadormitorywhichwillseelotsofactionanduse.

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C HAPTER 3: M ETHODOLOGY
S TRUCTURAL A NALYSIS & D ESIGN
R ESIDENCEHALL
The design of the residence hall was initiated by introducing the reader to the layout of the building. An alphanumeric grid allowed for easy reference to columns, and all unique girders and structural bays were named with a logically based designation system. In addition, an elevationviewwasusedtodisplaythetopofslabelevations. Thedesignofthecastinplacefloorsystemsbeganwiththedeterminationoftheproperslab thickness for fire resistance. Using the corresponding weight of this slab, it was possible to choose spacing of the structural infill members based on two limiting factors: the allowable spanofthedeckandtheallowabledepthofthesupports(briefcalculationswereperformedto guesstheprobabledepthofthesemembers).Thereinforcementintheslabswasthendesigned basedontheforceslikelytooccurintheslab.Theslabswerecheckedforshearresistanceand bendingmoments. The supporting members of the castinplace floor systems were then designed using LRFD methods.Inthecaseoftheopenwebjoistsystems,designtablesprovidedbytheSteelJoist Institute provided reference for selecting member sizes. The rolled steel beams were chosen according to American Institute of Steel Construction guidelines in the Manual of Steel Construction. The beams of the castinplace systems were designed to work in partial compositeactionwiththeconcretefloor,whichrequiredtheselectionofthepropernumberof shearstuds. Inordertodesigntheprecastfloorsystems,thelongestspanwasconsidered.Usingtheservice loads, as specified by the Precast Concrete Institute, the minimum possible thickness of the castinplace floor was chosen from the PCI Design Handbook. Using this thickness, the appropriatepretensionedstranddesignationwasselectedforallofthespans.

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With each of the floor systems designed, the area of focus shifted to the frame design for gravityloads.Foreachofthecastinplaceoptions,thedeadandliveloadsactingthroughthe infillmemberstothegirderswereusedtodeterminetheminimumpossiblesizeeveryunique girder, using partial composite action, according to the AISC Manual. A similar approach was takenfortheprecastsystem,exceptthatthegirderswerenotdesignedforcompositeaction. Theweightsoftheselectedgirdersforeachsystemwerethenincorporatedintothedeadloads of the structure. Using these loads, and the tributary area of each column, the magnitude of axialcompressionwasdeterminedforeachcolumnoneachfloor.UsingtheAISCManual,the appropriatecolumnsizeswerechosen.Forconstructabilitypurposes,onesetofcolumnswas selectedforthefirsttwofloors,anotherforthethirdandfourth,andafinalsetofcolumnsizes wasselectedforthefifthfloor. The final element of the structure was the foundation. A simplified approach was used to determinetherequiredbearingareaofthefoundations.Theforcesactingonthe foundations through the columns and the net allowable pressure of the soil were used to determine the required are for all spread and strip footing. These areas were compared to similarly sized footingsinordertoestimateafootingdepth,aswellaspedestalsizesforthespreadfootings, andfrostwallsforthestripfootings.

P ARKINGG ARAGE
Thedesignfortheparkinggaragepresentstwodifferentstructuralalternatives:asteelframe andaprecastconcretedesign.Thescopeofdesigninvolveddeterminingtheprimarystructural supportssuchasfloorsystems,girdersandcolumns. Suggestionsforthelateralloadresisting systemswerealsoaddressed. Indefiningeachalternative,bothgarageshavethesamestructuraldesignandlayout.Themain functionofthegarageistosupporttwowaytrafficandparkingonbothsides. Layoutsofthe garageareestablishedalongwithlabelsforeachmember.AplanviewgivenbyCannondesign isusedasthebasisfordefiningthegaragelayout.

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TheselectionoffloorsystemsforeachgarageisbasedonprecastdesignvaluesgiveninthePCI DesignHandbook.Sinceprecastdoubleteesarecommonlyusedinparkinggarages,theywillbe usedasthetypeoffloorsystemineachdesign.Eachfloorsystemwillbecapableofsupporting the superimposed load acting along their span. Images are used to illustrate the interface of thesedesigns. Design of the steel frame garage is based on the design strength values given for structural steelshapesinTable32oftheAISCDesignManuelusingtheLRFDmethod.Eachgirderwillbe designedbasedontheirflexuralstrengthanddeflectionunderloading.Thecolumnsizeswillbe selected by their axial compressive force in relation to unbraced length in Table 42. Other elementsofthedesignthatwereconsideredaretheeffectiveflangewidthsofthegirdersfor support of the floor systems; as well as, flange length and web depth for the connection of girders to columns. Examples of bracing for lateral loads within this structure were also explored. ThePCIDesignHandbookisusedforthedesignoftheprecastconcretegarage.Usingpublished values for L beams, inverted tees and rectangular beams; girder sizes are selected. Girder designisbasedonthecalculatedloadactingperlinearfootalongthebeamsspan.Columnsare designedtohandletheloadactinginaxialcompressionandtheirfactoredmoment.Again,PCI design tables will be used to specify the column dimensions. Lateral force resisting systems such as shear walls are also specified and analyzed. All finalized designs will be based on keepingthegarageassimplisticaspossiblewhilestillbeingvisuallyappealing.

C OST E STIMATE
Acostestimateofthestructuralelementsoftheparkinggaragewasperformed.Thisincluded the superstructure and the substructure of the building. In order to accomplish this, the first step was to take off the quantities of all the structural building materials. The materials associatedwiththefloorslabsweretypicallytakenoffinsquarefeet,orsquares(100SF).The exceptiontothisisthesheetsteeledgeforms,takenoffinlinearfeet.Joists,beams,girders, and columns were taken off in linear feet. The elements of the substructure were taken off

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individually by cubic yard, excepting the slab on grade, taken off in SF, and the associated reinforcement,takenoffinsquares. The next step to creating the cost estimate was determining unit costs of all the structural elements taken off. In some cases the typical unit costs were available in RSMeans Building Construction Cost Data 2008. For most other materials, the unit costs had to interpolated or extrapolatedfromthecostsofthesameitemofdifferentsizes.Inafewcases,itwasnecessary tomakeaneducatedguessbasedonasimilarbuildingmaterial,aswithfoundations. Inallcases,theunitcostswereadjustedtotheprojectedWorcestercostusinglocationindices from the reference section of RSMeans Building Construction Cost Data 2008. It was not necessary to adjust the cost for time, because the midpoint of the structural activities of the construction project was approximately the end of 2007, making the 2008 costs sufficiently accurate. In order to obtain an estimated cost of the structure, the takeoff quantities were simply multiplied by the unit costs. A final cost was determined for each element, the sub and superstructures,andtheentiresystem.Finally,thesevalueswerecomparedtotypicalsquare footcostsofsimilarstructuresinordertogaugetheaccuracyoftheestimate.

E NVIRONMENTAL S TUDY
Thefollowingsectionsdetailtheprocessthatwascompletedtodiscoverhowmuchhigherofa costitwouldbeforWPItoachieveagoldlevelLEEDcertificationratherthantheplannedfor silver.Itwillalsoshowhowcertainoptionsforgreenbuildingwouldaffecttheresidencehallif WPI chose to include them. This section shows the thoughts that went behind what options were chosen to be used in the cost analysis. What follows is how the LEED credits this MQP wantedtoshootforwerechosenandwhatanalysiswentintothemaswellashowthegreen building alternatives were used toeither achieve a LEED credit orto make thebuilding more environmentallyfriendly.

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U.S. G REEN B UILDING C OUNCIL S LEED C ERTIFICATION

It was common knowledge at the beginning of this project that WPI was striving to obtain a Silver LEED certification for the new student residence hall. For each LEED project there is a checklist that specifies what the project owner needs to do to achieve each point. For this project we needed to know what tasks WPI was doing to accrue points. To do this, we downloaded the LEED checklist from the USGBC website, which is open and accessible to all, anditwasreviewedtoseewhichoptionsWPIwaslikelytochoose.Theseoptionsweredecided upon using common sense and the limited knowledge the group had at the beginning of the project. An example of this is credit 2.1 Construction Waste Management where 50% of the waste from the construction process has to be reused instead of disposed. This credit was known to be achieved by attending a presentation by Neil Benner, project manager from Gilbane,wherehesaidthat95%ofthewastewasbeingrecycled.Unfortunatelythiscommon sense review left many questions, as the list of probable tasks and practices seemed greater thanwhatWPIwasexpectingtocomplete. ThenextstepwastotalktopeoplewhoknewmoreabouttheLEEDsectionoftheconstruction projectandwouldbeabletosupplytheneededinformation.AlfredDimoura,AssistantVPfor FacilitiesatWPI,wasabletosupplyuswiththeLEEDchecklistcompletedbymembersofthe residencehallproject.ThisallowedustoseeexactlyhowWPIwasplanningonobtainingtheir silvercertification.OnceitwasdeterminedwhereWPIwasobtainingitspoints,thenextstep wastoseehowmanyextrapointswereneededtoincreasethecertificationfromasilverlevel to a gold. A list of possible additional tasks to accrue points was examined, and the correspondingnumberofpointswastallied. Using information from the background if WPI succeeds in obtaining all of their planned 38 points, then one extra point would bump them up to 39 points and a Gold level certification wouldbeachieved.ForthepurposeofthisreportwewilllookintowhatitwouldtakeWPIto achieveanextra5points,thusensuringthatagoldcertificationwouldbeobtained.

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The next step was to see what points that werent planned on being achieved would be possibletoincludeintheresidencehalldesignorconstructionwithoutcreatingalargeamount ofextraworkforallpartiesinvolvedinthedesignandconstructionoftheresidencehall.This workcouldbethatitrequiresadayofinstallation,whichwouldnotonlycausethescheduleto change,butrequire money topaythe laborersfora day of work. A day may not seem like a hugesetbacktosome,butintermsofthisMQPadayissimplyusedasanexamplethatwould changethecurrentscheduleandmightrequirechangesindeliveriesordisposals.Itcouldalso require time in the design phase if the credit required certain appliances to be incorporated intothebuilding.Theseareafewexamplesofwhatcreditsmightrequirefromthedesignor constructionprocess.Thechecklistwasreviewedandeachtaskthathadanobesideitwas further researched. The no signified that it was a credit that WPI was not planning on obtainingintheprocessofachievingaLEEDcertification.Thetasksresearchedwere: BrownfieldRedevelopment Alternative Transportation, Bicycle Storage and Changing Rooms & LowEmitting and FuelEfficientVehicles SiteDevelopment,ProtectorRestoreHabitat&MaximizeOpenSpace HeatIslandEffect,NonRoof InnovativeWastewaterTechnologies OptimizeEnergyPerformance BuildingReuse(3creditsequaling3points) MaterialsReuse(2creditsequaling2points) RapidlyRenewingMaterials IncreaseVentilation IndoorChemicalandPollutantSourceControl ThermalComfort,Design&Verification InnovationinDesign(2creditsequaling2points)

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Out of these 20 credits there are options that are not possible for this construction project. They were considered not possible because of things such as Brownfield Development credit where that point is achieved by the nature of the building site or the Building reuse credit wherepointsareearnedforreusingmaterialssalvagedfrombuildingsthatpreviouslyexisted on the construction site and were torn down to construct the new building. Consequently elevencreditswerediscardedbecauseofthespecificcircumstancesoftheresidencehall.This leftninecreditstoberesearched. Followingaretheninecreditsthatwereconsideredtobethepotentialfivecreditsthatwillhelp WPIachieveagoldLEEDcertification.Thecreditrequirementsarestated,andthentheeffects ofachievingthecreditwereresearched. A LTE R NA T IV E T RA N SP O R TA T I ON , B I C YC LE S T O R A GE & C H A N G IN G R OO M S The cost, installation, and maintenance were researched. The total costs of bike racks were foundbyviewingnumerousvendorsandcalculatinganaveragecostforbothmovableandfixed bicycle racks. A discussion with graduate student Susan Peyser confirmed the fact that even thoughthiscreditseemedveryeasy,itistruethatitisachievedbyjustsupplyingbikeracksand changingroomstotheoccupantsofthebuilding. S I TE D E V E L OP M E N T , M A X IM IZ E O PE N S P A C E The site development credit required the group to approximate the area of the total constructionsite.Usingthat,theareaoftheopenspacethatwouldberequiredwascalculated tobe20%ofthetotalarea. ()0.20 = (sf) Thissquarefootagewastoobigofasizeforjustonesingleopenspacetobecreatedsoitwas splitintotwosections.Onewasthegreenroofandtheotherwasanopenspacebetweenthe parking garage and residence hall. To achieve this credit the green roof would need to be accessibletotheoccupantsofthebuilding.Thusthecostandmaintenanceofmaintainingboth thegreenroofandtheopenspacewereresearched.

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This credit required research into the materials that weredisposedofaftertearingdownthe two buildings that resided on the site. Unfortunately not much information was able to be foundaboutwhathappenedtothesematerials.Assumptionsweremadebythegroupthatthe materialsthatwouldpotentiallybereusablefromtheoldbuildingswouldbelessthandurable andnotsafetouseinthenewresidencehall.Thematerialsthattheywouldreplacewouldalso notsavethatmuchmoneyforWPIsoitwouldnotbeagreatcredittoachieve. R A P ID LY R E NE W A B LE M A TE RIA L S This credit required intensive research into numerous renewable materials that would be a potential option for the residence hall. Factors such as durability, maintenance required, and installation of the products were considered in the decision to suggest that material for use. Vendors will also found and approximate costs were calculated for each specific material. To supplyWPIwithatotalapproximatecostaroughestimateofhowmuchsquarefootagewould berequiredforthematerialtofillwascalculatedandusedtocalculateatotalcostofoutfitting the residence hall with renewable materials. For the cork flooring, which was assumed to be usedfortheflooring,anestimatedsquarefootageoftwothirdsofthebuildingstotalareawas used.Forthelinoleum,assumedtobeusedinbathroomandkitchenflooring,theapproximate squarefootagewasonesixthofthetotalbuildingarea.Andtherecycledglass,usedforkitchen countertops,wasapproximatedatonetwelfthoftheentirebuildingsarea. I NC RE A SE D V E N TI LA TI O N Thiscreditrequiredresearchintohowmuchanincreasedindoorairqualityactuallyeffectsthe occupantsofthebuildingandwhetherthisincreaseofairqualityisworthwhattheextracost wouldbe.Verylittleanalysiswasdoneintermsofcostbecausethegroupwasunabletogain informationaboutwhattypeofHVACsystemsarebeinginstalledintheresidencehallsincethis isafasttrackprojectandthosedecisionswerenotmadewhenwebeganthisproject.

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Thiscreditrequiredthoughtintowhatitwouldtaketosupplyanentiredormitoryeachwitha specificthermostatthatwouldbeabletocontrolthatsuiteandthatsuiteonly.Logicalthinking was used to decipher what kind of factors and characteristics a complicated system like that would require. Research was done into whether it was possible for WPI to save money by installing separate thermostats and if there would be any major or extraneous maintenance andinstallationissuesthatwouldbecausedbyhavingthiscomplicatedofasystem. O PTI M I Z E E NE R GY P E R F O RM A NC E This credit required informationaboutthetotalenergy usage of the residence hall. Extensive researchintoexactlywhatthiscreditrequiredwasneededtoensurethatthegroupunderstood howtoanalyzeandprovideanintelligentsuggestionforWPI.Informationwasreceivedbythe Cannon Design team tosee whattheir potential thoughts were on how WPI was going to be able to achieve this credit. This information was then used to decipher if it was possible for extrapointstobeacquiredthroughthiscreditbyincreasingtheamountofenergysavedinthe building. I NN OV A TIV E W A STE W A T E R T E C H N O LO G IE S Thiscreditallowedthegrouptoutilizethegreenbuildingalternativesthatwereresearchedin the background. Rainwater harvesting and dual flush toilets were chosen to successfully achievethiscredit.Thisdecisionthenrequiredresearchintothecostofinstallingarainwater harvestingsystemandthepotentialsetupsthatarepossible.Thedecreaseinwaterusageand thecorrespondingcostsavingswerenotedaswell.Lastlytheprocessesneededtoattachthe rainwaterharvestingsystemwiththedualflushtoiletswerelookedinto. Outofthesenineoptions5werechosentobeconsideredthe5extrapointsWPIshouldhave made a part of their goal to successfully achieve a gold certification for the new student residencehall.The5creditschosenare:

AlternativeTransportation,BicycleStorage&ChangingRooms SiteDevelopment,MaximizeOpenSpace

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InnovativeWastewaterTechnologies RapidlyRenewableMaterials

Theeffectsofthisresearchcanbeseenintheenvironmentalresults.

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C HAPTER 4: S TRUCTURAL A NALYSIS & D ESIGN

R ESIDENCE B UILDING
Thissectioninvolvesallstructuralactivitiesconcerningtheresidencehallbuilding.Itleadsthe reader from familiarization with the building to the design of the structural alternatives. The designofeachfloorsystemwillleadtothedesignofitscorrespondingframe,fromgirdersto columns, bracing, and foundation. The computer program AutoCAD was employed often to conveydiagrammaticinformationtothereader.

D EFINITIONOFFRAMELAYOUT
B UI L DI N G FO O T P R I N T Figure20isaplanviewofthenewWPIresidencehalldepictingthefootprintfromwhichthe framesweredesigned.Itincludestheenclosures,elevatorshafts,andstairwayshafts.

F IGURE 20: B UILDINGENCLOSURES & SHAFTS

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Figure 21 shows Cannon Designs oncenter location of the columns in relation to the skin of thebuilding.Thesearenotthelocationswhichwereusedforourdesign,buttheyareshownin ordertodisplaythechangeswemade.Dimensionsandotherinformationneededtocomplete Figure 20 and Figure 21 were taken from the construction documents prepared by Cannon Design.

F IGURE 21: C OLUMNLOCATIONS (C ANNON D ESIGN SLAYOUT , DIMENSIONED )

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F IGURE 22: S IMPLIFIEDCOLUMNLOCATIONS ( DIMENSIONED )

Figures 26 and 27 show the column locations that were used for structural design. Cannon Designslocationsweresimplifiedtocreatetheschemethatwasused,takingcarenottomake changes that would affect the functionality of the building or require major architectural changes.Theprincipledifferencesareasfollows: One column was added to each end, north and south, and the spacing of surrounding columnswasadjustedinordertoprovidemoreconsistentlysizedbays.SEETHELIGHTBLUE
BOXINFIGURE23.

Thecornercolumnsofthestairwayswereadjustedtolineupwiththeadjacentcolumns. The result was a 5 increase in the eastwest length of the stairwell, which does not affectthemeansofegressorrequiremajorarchitecturalchanges.SEETHEGREENBOX. Therowofcolumnsalongthecenteronthenorthsouthaxiswasmovedapproximately five feet to align with the new center column on the ends. These columns will were relocatedfromonesideofthecentralcorridortotheotherwithoutrequiringchangesto thelayoutoftherooms.SEETHEPINKBOX.

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F IGURE 23: S IMPLIFIEDCOLUMNLOCATIONS ( CHANGESHIGHLIGHTED )

Figure24,following,presentsthealphanumericgridforcolumnlocationsthatwasestablished forreferenceinthereport.

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F IGURE 24: A LPHANUMERICGRIDFORCOLUMNLOCATIONS

C H A P TE R 4: STRUCTURALANALYSIS&DESIGN R E SI D EN CE H AL L UN I T S

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Theresidencehallisdividedintofourmaintypesofunits.Figure25outlinestheseunits.Eachis repeated often throughout the building. Their functions, floor plans, and finishes remain constant throughout the building. These units served as areas of focus for the design of the variousflooringsystems. Eachtypeofunitisrepeatedonfloorstwothroughfive.Unittypes1and3eachcontaintwo apartmentsandunit2containsoneapartment.Unittype4isreservedforacommonlounge, kitchen,andbathroom,anddependingonthenorthorsouthlayout,eitherarecyclingroomor aprojectroom.

F IGURE 25: U NIT T YPES

AscanbeseeninFigure25,units1,2,and4aresymmetricalabouttheverticalcenterlineof thebuilding.Unitsoftype3aremirroredaboutboththeverticalandhorizontalcenterlinesof thebuilding.Thismeansthatthereareonlyfouruniqueareasonwhichtofocus,andtherest aresimplyrepeated.

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Figure26throughFigure28providefurtherdetailoneachunit(2and4aregroupedtogether), includingthedistancesbetweencolumnsandgirders.

F IGURE 26: U NITTYPE 1 FRAMEDETAILS

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F IGURE 27: U NITTYPE 2 & 4 FRAMEDETAILS

F IGURE 28: U NITTYPE 3 FRAMEDETAILS

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Figure29showsthebeamandgirderlayoutfortheentirebuildingtoputtheindividualunitsin perspective. This layout of the girders is the same for each of the alternate floor systems, though there are differences amongst the various systems. For instance, the precast slabs sit directlyuponthegirders,andtheotherconcretefloorsincludesecondarybeamsorjoists.

F IGURE 29: F RAMEDETAILS ( WHOLEBUILDING )

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Figure30designatesanumberforeachgirderintheframeofthenewresidencehall.Theyare referredtointhedesignofgirders.

F IGURE 30: G IRDERDESIGNATIONS

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Figure 31 contains the bay designations that are referred to for the design of their infill members.Noticethatallarerepeatedtwoorfourtimes.

F IGURE 31: B AYDESIGNATIONS

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Figure 32 depicts a west elevation (from Boynton St.) view of the building. It shows the elevationsofthetopoftheslabsinrelationtosealevelandinrelationtoeachother,notthe locationofthegirders.Thetopofsteelelevationsofthebeamsandgirderswilldependonthe floorthickness,andwillbespecifiedinalatersection.Theelevationisshownintwopartsthat arethe mirror images of each other. Theforemost columns are shown in black, and columns thataresetbackareshowningray.

F IGURE 32: W ESTELEVATIONWITHTOPOFSLABELEVATIONS (S OUTHENDABOVE , N ORTHENDBELOW )

Inthissection,theoncenterlocationsofthecolumnsandbeamsandthetopofslabelevations weredefined.Thebuildingwasalsodividedintounitswhichservedasareasoffocus.Columns, girders, and bays were all assigned designations based on location or unit number. With the location of the primary structural members defined, the next task was to design each of the fouralternativefloorsystems.

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F LOORSYSTEMS
This section guides the reader through the steps involved in the design of each floor system. Thefoursystemsinvestigatedwere:(1)steelopenwebjoistswithsteelformdeckandcastin placeconcrete,(2)rolledsteelbeamswithsteelformdeckandcastinplaceconcrete,(3)cast inplace reinforced concrete slabs, and (4) precast concrete slabs. The design of the precast systemwasassimpleaschoosingstandardslabsizesfromalistbasedontheirserviceloading, whiletheothersystemsrequiredmorecomplicatedcalculations.Theconcretefloorsandtheir reinforcementweredesignedtospancertainlengthsbetweenbeamsorjoists.Thosemembers werethenchosenforadequatestrengthanddeflection. D E SI GN L O A D S Table2showstheloadsthatwereusedinthedesignofthefloorsystems.Thisincludesthelive anddeadloadswhichweresuperimposedonfloorstwothroughfive.Table3containstheload information for each of the four load zones. Note that the mechanical enclosures and green roofloadsonlyactoncertainareasofthebuilding.TheloadinformationinTables2and3was gatheredfromtheconstructiondocumentspreparedbyCannonDesign.Figures38and39,on thenextpage,accompanythesetablesanddisplaytheareasonwhicheachloadtypeacts.
T ABLE 2: S UMMARYOFSUPERIMPOSED
FLOORLOADS

L O A D T Y PE LIVELOADS Typicalrooms Corridorsabove1st floor Allotherpublic spaces,corridors, stairsandlobbies DEADLOADS Ceilings Suspended mechanical Partitions

I NTE N S IT Y 60psf 80psf

T ABLE 3: S UMMARYOFROOFLOADZONES

LOAD Z O NE ZONE1 ZONE2 ZONE3 ZONE4

L O A D T YPE S Mech.Enclosure:50psf Snow:35psf Snowdrift:35to60psf (linearincrease) Snow:35psf GreenRoof:40psf Snow:35psf

100psf 5psf 10psf 20psf

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F IGURE 33: L IVELOADSACTINGUPONTHEFLOORS

F IGURE 34: R OOFLOADZONES

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Steelformdeckingisthestyleofmetaldeckingchosenforthisdesign.Itisessentiallyastayin place form for the casting of the concrete. It provides little to no permanent tension reinforcement because there is little bond between the steel andconcrete. Typically with steel form deck, the spans are restricted by the deflection of the ribbed sheet metaldeckduringthecastingoftheconcrete.Thereareseveralthingsthatmustbeconsidered beforedeterminingthese allowable spans. Tobegin with,the requiredthickness of concrete forfireresistanceratingmustbedetermined.FromtheInternationalBuildingCode(2006),the fireresistanceratingforaresidentialoccupancybuildingmustbetwohours.Thisreferstothe requiredbarrierbetweenfireareas.Thesebarriersincludethefloorsandthewallssurrounding elevatorsandstairs.Therefore,theeffectiveslabthicknessforsiliceousconcrete(fromTable4) mustbeatleastfiveinches. Twomoreconsiderationsaretheweightandstyleofthesteelformdeck.Theformsusedinthis design were 20 gauge steel sheet, a common size for this application. The crosssections of thesedeckstylesareillustratedintheirstandardwidthsinTable5,alongwitheffectivedepth, moment of inertia, and crosssectional areas of concrete and steel. Because the widths are uniqueforeachstyleofdeck,themomentofinertiaandcrosssectionalareasgivenarefora one foot section of the deck, so that the values for one style can be compared to those for another.
T ABLE 4: M INIMUMEQUIVALENTTHICKNESSES (S TEEL D ECK I NSTITUTE , 2003)

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T ABLE 5: T YPICALFORMDECKSTYLES . D IMENSIONSFROM D ESIGNINGWITH S TEEL F ORM D ECK (SDI, 2003).

T YPIC A L 1 F O RM D E C K

deff=5.000 Aconcrete=60.000in.2 Asteel=0.574in.2 I=0.0867in.4

T YPIC A L 2 F O RM D E C K

deff=5.000 Aconcrete=60.000in.2 Asteel=0.609in.2 I=0.03676in.4

The next step was to calculate the loads during construction, and from there, the allowable spans ofthe form decks during casting of the concrete. Table6 shows thedead loads during construction.Theyaregivenaspoundsperlinearfootforaonefootslicealongthespanofthe deck. Theallowablespanswerecalculatedforeachoftwotypicalpatterns,1standarddeckand2 standard deck. Inorderto calculatethe allowable lengths,themomentof inertia ofthedeck along its neutral xaxis was first calculated. This moment of inertia, along with the loading during construction, and the modulus of elasticity of steel were used to determine the maximumpermissiblespanwhichwouldkeepthedeflectionunderL/240.Theallowablespan during construction for a 1 deck was calculated to be 56. This is assuming the deck is continuousoveratleastthreeconsecutivespans,whichissatisfiedinallareasofthebuilding. For2deckthespanwasfoundtobe810.

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T ABLE 6: C ONSTRUCTIONLOADSFORSTEELFORMDECK DeckType 1" 2" ConcreteLoad14 (plf) 62.5 62.5 DeckLoad15 (plf) 2.0 2.1 RoundedWtotal(plf) 65 65

Using the allowable deck spans as a reference, the spacing of joists and infill beams was determined. Brief calculations showed that a relatively short deck span of about 3 feet was necessaryforthejoistsystem.Thisdecisionwasmadeinordertokeepthedepthofthejoists downto18orless.Thiswasdonetomakesurethattheoverallfloordepthwaslessthan26, whichwillallowthefloortoceilingheighttoremainabove76.Consequently,thetypical1 formwaschosen.Fortherolledsteelbeams,slightlylongerdeckspansweredesiredinorderto reducethenumberofbeams.Thisispossiblebecausetheycancarryagreaterloadthanopen webjoistsofthesamedepth.Forthisapplication,the2deckformwaschosen,allowingspans of8.9feet.Thefollowingsectionstakethereaderthroughtheremainingstepsinvolvedforthe design of the joist and beam floor systems. This includes determining spacing, selection of reinforcement,andchoiceofmembersizes. M ET A L D E CK A N D CO N C R E T E AT O P O P EN W E B J O I ST S Thenextsteptowardcompletionoftheopenwebjoistdesignwasspacingthejoistssothatthe maximum spacing for form decking spans was not exceeded. Figure 35 shows a plan view of floorstwothroughfivewiththespecifiedjoistlocationsusedtodesignthefloorsystem.Table 7summarizesthenumberofjoistsandtheirspacingbybay.

14 15

Theconcreteloadsweredeterminedusingdensityofconcrete=150pcf Thedeckloadswerecalculatedusingdensityofsteel=490.pcf

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F IGURE 35: O PEN WEBJOISTLAYOUT ( ENTIREBUILDING )

On the north and south ends of the building, the joists run in the eastwest direction. This meansthestiffnessofthedeckandslabrunsalongthenorthsouthaxis.Theoppositeistruein thecentralsection.
T ABLE 7: S PACINGOFJOISTS

Bay# 11 12 13 14 15 16 21 22 31

#ofJoists 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 11

Span 18 115 179 18 115 179 186 2111 148

Spacing 3 3 3 31 31 31 3 3 3

Bay# 32 33 34 35 41 42 43 44 45

#ofJoists 7 7 7 9 4 3 6 7 8

Span 18 18 1211 1211 186 610 13 2211 13

Spacing 3 3 3 3 3 3 26 3 26

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Thenextstepwastoverifytheadequacyofthethicknessoftheslabandtocomputethe requiredareaofsteelanddetermineproperreinforcement.Forthisprocedure,the1deck with4.5concretetopping(totaldepthof5.5)wasmodeledasa4.5thickbalancedsectionof concrete.Theconceptofabalancedsectionmeansthatthelimitstatesoftheconcreteand reinforcingsteelwillreachtheirlimitstatesatthesameloadingconditions.Thedesignprocess ofconcreteslabsusesasystemofloadandresistancefactors,employingmomentandshear coefficientsspecifiedbytheAmericanConcreteInstitute(ACI).Allcalculationscanbeseenin AppendixB. Theconclusiondrawnfromthesecalculationswasthattherequiredtemperatureandshrinkage steelforthejoistsystemgovernedinbothdirections.Thisareais0.108in2perfootofslab. Withtherequiredareaofsteeldetermined,thesteelproductwasselected.Forthisapplication, withsmallareasofsteelandthesimilarrequirementsineachdirection,weldedwire reinforcement(WWR)isthemostsuitablechoice.FromtheWireReinforcementInstitutes ManualofStandardPractice,itwasfoundthattwosheetsof6x6W2.9xW2.9WWRwill yieldanareaofsteelof1.16in2.Theweightforeachwireis0.170plf,resultinginatotalweight of0.680poundspersquarefootoffloorarea.Onesheetwillbeplacednearthebottomofthe slab,andonenearthetop,providingadequatecoveroftoresistsurfacecracking. Thefollowingisasummaryofthefloorsystemscharacteristics: Deck:20gaugeA36steelsheet,1typicalformdeck,2.0psf. Concrete:5totaldepth,3000psi,normalweightconcrete,63.0psf. Reinforcement:Grade60steelweldedwirereinforcement,2sheetsof6x6W2.9x W2.9,lessthanonepoundpersquarefoot. The design of the joist system was concluded with selection of member sizes based on the factored dead andlive loads and the spacing and spans given in Table 7. The process ofjoist selectionwasassimpleascomputingthefactoredloadperlinearfootofthejoistandchoosing asuitablememberbasedonthisloadandthespanfromtheLRFDDesignTablesprovidedby

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theSteelJoistInstitute(SJI).Table8detailsthechosenjoistsizesforeachbay.Thesuffixa after a bay number means there is one member in that bay under a corridor which requires additionalsupport.Thecorrespondingjoistshapeisthatuniquemember.
T ABLE 8: J OISTSELECTION ( FLOOR )

BayNumber 11 12 13 14 14a 15 16 16a 21 21a 22

JoistDesignation 12K5 10K1 12K5 12K5 14K4 10K1 12K5 14K4 12K5 14K6 16K5

BayNumber 22a 31 32 33 34 35 41 42 43 44 45

JoistDesignation 16K7 12K3 12K5 12K5 10K1 12K1 12K5 8K1 10K1 16K6 10K1

The roof presents a special case in the joist system design. To more adequately support the varying loads of the mechanical enclosures and snow drifts, joists were used only under the greenroofsectionofthebuilding,androlledsteelbeamswerechosentospanthebaysofthe north and south ends. Table 9 contains the chosen member sizesfor allbays ofthe roof. For moreinformationonhowWshapebeamsarechosen,refertothenextsection.
T ABLE 9: M EMBERSELECTIONFORJOISTSYSTEM ( ROOF )

BayNumber 11 12 13 14 15 16

MemberShape 12K5 8K1 12K5 12K5 8K1 12K5

BayNumber 32 33 34 35 41 42

MemberShape W10x15 W10x15 W10x12 W10x12 W10x17 W10x12

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C H A P TE R 4:STUCTURALANALYSIS&DESIGN 21 22 31 W10x22 W10x22 W10x12

43 44 45

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M ET A L D E CK A N D CO N C R E T E AT O P R O L LE D ST E E L B E A M S Thedesignprocesswasmuchthesameforsteelbeamsasitwasforopenwebjoists.Figure36 illustratesthelocationsofbeamsonfloorstwothroughfive.

F IGURE 36: B EAMLAYOUT (E NTIRE B UILDING )

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Table10documentsthechosenspacingofthebeams.Thebaystowhichthetablereferswere designatedinFigure31.
T ABLE 10: B EAMSPACING

Bay# 11 12 13 14 15 16 21 22 31

#ofBeams 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4

O.C.Spacing 98 98 98 84 84 84 89 89 86

Bay# 32 33 34 35 41 42 43 44 45

#ofBeams 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 2

O.C.Spacing 93 94 89 94 N/A* 63 71 94 84

*Thisbeamisnotcentered,butislocated94fromonegirder,and61fromtheother.

The process for determining requirements for reinforcement is the same as with the joist system.Therequirementfortemperatureandshrinkageisdependentuponthecrosssectional area of concrete. Therefore, since the area of concrete for the 1 deck and 2 deck are identical, so is the required steel, 0.108 in2. Testing the thickness of the deck for deflection, moment,andshear,aswasdoneforthejoistsystem,theeffectivethicknessof5wasfoundto be adequate. Also, the cantilever area did not change at all from the joist system, so temperaturerequirementsgovernedinthoseareas. Due to the longer deck spans between steel beams, a more indepth study of the required reinforcementwasnecessary.ThisallowedthespecificationofdifferenttypesofWWRforthe different major areas of the building. By specifying two different types of WWR, over reinforcing of the slabs could be avoided, lowering the associated cost. A spreadsheet was utilizedtodeterminethemostcriticalareas. InthetopandbottomoftheI (columnlocations1through5and13through17from Figure 24), where the spans run along the northsouth axis, there are several areas whose required

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steelexceedsthatfortemperatureandshrinkage.Themostcriticalareawasfoundtobeinunit type3wherethenegativemomentaboveasupportadjacenttoadiscontinuousend(moment factorof1/10)wasfoundtobe1,522ftlbs.Thecorrespondingareaofsteelrequiredis0.246 in2.Similarnumberswerefoundthroughoutthenorthandsouthends,sothesamegaugewire wasusedforthoseentireareas.SizeW9.0wireyieldedanareaof0.270in2perfootwhenlaid at 4 intervals, which will suffice for this application. For the transverse direction, W4.0 size wires at 4 yielded an area of 0.120in2, enough to satisfy the criteria for temperature and shrinkage. InthetrunkoftheI(columns5through13fromFigure24),wherethespansruneastwest, thegoverningrequirementoccursaboveasupportadjacenttoadiscontinuousendaswell.This moment was calculated to be 1,470 ftlbs, and required a steel area of 0.238 in2. Wire size W8.0laidat4yields0.240in2,providingthenecessaryreinforcement,andonceagainwiresize W4.0 wires should be laid at 4 intervals for shrinking of the concrete in the transverse direction.

F IGURE 37: W ELDEDWIREREINFORCEMENTDRAPINGDIAGRAM ( TYPICALAREAS )

Becauseofthegreaterdistancebetweenthebeams,theweldedwirereinforcementcanbe drapedinsteadofusingtwosheets.TheInternationalBuildingCodeallowswirereinforcement tobeplacedatthetopofslababovethesupportsandatthebottomofslabatmidspan,for spansunder10feet.ThedrapingoftheWWRisillustratedinFigure37.Inthenegative momentregions,acoverofmustbemaintained,butinallmaximummomentareasthe distancefromsteeltoextremecompressionfibersshouldbeatleastthedesigndepth,3.25. ThisstyleofdrapinginFigure37wasonlyusedforthetypicalareaswithnocantilever.Inthe cantileverareas,thereisanegativemomentabovetheendsupport,requiringthe reinforcementtoberaised,asinFigure38.

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F IGURE 38: W ELDEDWIREREINFORCEMENTDRAPINGDIAGRAM ( CANTILEVERAREAS )

F IGURE 39: W ELDEDWIREREINFORCEMENTSIZESFORBEAMFLOORSYSTEM

Hereisasummaryofthecharacteristicsofthefloorsystemontopofthebeams: Deck:20gaugeA36steelsheet,2typicalformdeck,2.0psf. Concrete:6totaldepth,3000psi,normalweightconcrete,63.0psf. Reinforcement: Grade 60 steel WWR, W9.0, W8.0, and W4.0 wires (see Figure 39 for locationinformation)at4inbothtransverseandlongitudinaldirections. Theinfillbeamsrequiredforeachbaywerethendesigned.Thisprocesswasmorecomplicated than the selection of joists in several ways. The beams will be working in partial composite

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actionwiththeconcreteslabbymeansofshearstudsweldedtothebeams,whosenumberwill be kept down as low as possible for cost effectiveness. So for each beam the strength and serviceabilityduringconstructionmustbeadequate,aswellasthestrengthandserviceability of the composite system during service. Referto Appendix B for a sample ofthe calculations usedto determinebeam size and numberof studs. Table 11 containsthe selectedbeam size and number of studs per beam for each structural bay of the floors, and Table 12 contains thosechosenfortheroof.
T ABLE 11: B EAMSELECTIONS ( FLOOR ) Unit Unit11 Unit12 Unit13 Unit14 Unit15 Unit16 Unit21 Unit22 Unit31 Wshape 10x19 10x12 10x17 10x17 10x12 10x15 10x19 12x26 10x12 Studsper beam 12 8 10 10 8 10 12 12 8 Unit Unit32 Unit33 Unit34 Unit35 Unit41 Unit42 Unit43 Unit44 Unit45 Wshape 10x17 10x17 10x12 10x12 10x12 10x12 10x15 10x12 12x26 Studsper beam 10 10 8 8 8 8 10 8 12

T ABLE 12: B EAMSELECTION ( ROOF ) Unit Unit11 Unit12 Unit13 Unit14 Unit15 Unit16 Unit21 Unit22 Unit31 Wshape 10x19 10x12 10x19 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x22 10x22 10x12 Studsper beam 12 8 12 10 8 10 10 10 8 Unit Unit32 Unit33 Unit34 Unit35 Unit41 Unit42 Unit43 Unit44 Unit45 Wshape 10x15 10x15 10x12 10x12 10x17 10x12 10x12 10x22 10x12 Studsper beam 10 10 8 8 10 8 8 10 8

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C A ST I N P LA C E CO N CR ET E A T O P R O L L E D ST E E L B E A MS Castinplace floors involve using plywood or a similar material as a temporary form for the concreteuntilitcansupportitsownweight.Inourdesign,thefloorwillrestuponsteelbeams in the same configuration as the previous section. This configuration makes the castinplace system nearly identical to the castinplace concrete and metal deck upon rolled steel beam design. The concrete must still have an effective depth of 5 thick for fire resistance, but becausethereisnocorrugation,thetotaldepthcanbekeptat5.Theweightoftheconcreteis thesame(theaveragedepthofthemetaldecksystemis5),andthesuperimposedloadsand span lengths are the same, meaning the amount of required reinforcement is also the same. Thefollowingisasummaryofthecharacteristicsofthesystem: Concrete:5totaldepth,3000psi,normalweightconcrete,63.0psf. Reinforcement: Grade60 steel WWR,W9.0, W8.0, and W4.0 size wires(see Figure 39 forlocationinformation)at4inbothtransverseandlongitudinaldirections. P R EC A ST CO N CR ET E SL AB S The type of precast slab used for this design was hollowcore slabs. Hollowcore slabs have voidsinvariousshapesinthelowstresscentralregions.Thesevoidsdecreasetheweightand allowlongerspans.Hollowcoreslabshaveprestressedstrandsabout1fromthebottomof theslab.Theyaretypicallytoppedwithcastinplaceconcreteinordertoincreasestrength,fire resistance,anddiaphragmaction,andtonegatethecamberofprestressedmembers. The dilemma when designing a hypothetical system using precast elements is that the companieswhomanufactureprecastelementsoftenuseproprietarydesignsandprovidetheir allowablespanstoarchitectsandengineerswhoaredesigningabuildingwiththeirproducts. Since access to these proprietary values was not available, tables for simple, nonproprietary hollowcoreslabsfromthePCIDesignHandbook(1999)wereused. The maximum span between girders across which the precast elements are laid is under 22. Themaximumsuperimposedloadis115psfinthecorridors.Frombriefreferencetothedesign tables in the PCI Design Handbook (1999), it was determined that a slab depth of 6 with 2

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concretetoppingwouldsupportthemaximumloadatthegreatestspan.Anotherconsideration isfiresafety.Thefactthatthereisatleast4ofsolidconcreteandanother4ofconcretewith circular voids suggests that there should be no problem achieving a two hour rating, considering the 5 solid concrete slab requirement from Table 4. To determine actual fire resistance,theprovidingmanufacturerwouldhavetobecontacted.Evenifthetwohourrating is not achieved solely through the concrete, additional measures can be taken such as the additionofafireproofingmaterialtotheundersideortheinsideofthecores. While the thickness remains constant throughout the building, the number and diameter of strandsintheelementsvary.Thereasonforthisisnotonlyeconomic,butiftherearetoomany strands,theprestressingwillbetoogreat,causinganunacceptablecamber.Conversely,ifthe strengthisadequate,buttheestimatedcamberistoonegative,thestrandsmaybeincreased toproduceamoresuitabledeflection. Theprecastslabsspanfromgirdertogirderinthesamedirectionasthebeamsandjoistsinthe previoussections.Thatis,theyspanNSinthecentralpartofthebuilding,andEWinthetop and bottom of the I. For most of the spans of hollowcore and solid flat slabs, the strand designation66S(thatis,sixstrandsatsixsixteenthsofaninchindiameter,Sforstraight)was sufficient. For a fewofthe spans, additional strands of reinforcement were required. The full summaryoftheloads,stranddesignations,andestimatedcambersforeachspancanbefound in Appendix C:Table 30. The information neededfor those tables was retrievedfromthe PCI DesignHandbook(PrecastConcreteInstitute,1999). Thereisoneareaofthebuildinginunittype3wheretheprecastslabswillneedtocantilever outbeyondthegirder,causinganegativemomentintheslab.Typically,precastslabscontain reinforcement in the bottom area only, which can only resist the tension caused by positive moments.Thesenegativemomentregionsrequireacoupleofchangestobemade.Grade60 reinforcingsteelisaddedtothetopoftheslab,andthevoidsforhollowcoreslabsarefilledin thoseareasonly(Seraderian,2007).

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F RAMEDESIGNFORGRAV ITYLOADS
Foreachofthefourfloorsystems,auniqueframewasdesigned.Theframeforgravityloads encompassesallgirdersandcolumnssupportingthebuilding.Forthethreecastinplacefloor systems,thedesignofthegirderswasperformedbythesameprocessastherolledsteelinfill beams.Theymustperformadequatelyduringconstructionaswellasincompositeactionwith thecuredconcretefloor.Fortheprecastfloorslabs,theprocesswasmuchthesame,butno compositeactionwasconsidered.Thefollowingfoursectionsdiscussthedesignmethodsused anddetailthemostcriticalareasforeachofthefourfloorsystems. M ET A L D E CK A N D CO N C R E T E AT O P O P EN W E B J O I ST S Thegirdersthatspanthroughthebuildingfromtheexteriorwallsactasthemainsupportsfor thedesignloadsandarethemostcritical.ThelargestgirderscanbefoundinUnit2nearthe common areas and elevator shafts. These girders span about 30 and their deflection under service loading dictatestheir size. All girders which run perpendicularto the main supporting girdersactlikeregularfloorbeamsinthissystem,andthereforearesignificantlysmaller.They providesupportforthefloorloadsandtheexteriorwalls Thecriticalareaontheroofisunderandaroundthemechanicalenclosures.Thesegirdersmust notonlysupportamechanicalequipmentloadbutadriftloadduetosnow.Thegreenroofalso addsasignificantloadinthemiddleofthebuilding,sothegirdersinUnit1willbelargerthan thoseselectedforthefloorsystem.Thegirdersrunningalongtheexteriorofthebuildingare relativelysmallsincetheysupportasmalltributaryareaanddontexperiencelargeloads. Table37inAppendixCsummarizesthechosencolumnsizesfortheframesupportingthejoist system. The column designations refer to the alphanumeric grid in Figure 24. Unique sizes were chosen for floors 1 & 2, 3 & 4, and 5. The column sizes specified are for half of the structure.Allcolumnsnotinthealphanumericgridlinenumber9arealsomirroredaboutthat line. Designing the columns entailed determining the axial loading of the member and using the effective length to choose a properly sized member from chapter four of the AISC Steel

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Construction Manual. Most columns are typical W shapes, but the columns surrounding the staircaseswerechosentobehollowsquarecolumns,inaccordancewiththeoriginaldesignby Cannon Design. Their designations start with HSS. The first and second numbers are the nominaldimensions,andthefinalnumberisthenominalthicknessofthesection.
M ET A L D E CK A N D CO N C R E T E AT O P RO L LE D ST E E L B E A MS

The girder choices for this floor system are similar to those chosen above. The service load deflectionactsasthemainchecktoensuresafetyandagain,thelargestWshapescanbefound inUnit2.Theaxialloadinginthecolumnsforthissystemwerefoundtobealmostidenticalfor thissystemandthejoistsystem,andnochangeshadtobemade.RefertoAppendixCforafull summaryofthechosengirderandcolumnsizes. C A ST I N P LA C E CO N CR ET E A T O P R O L L E D ST E E L B E A MS Theloadsusedintheframedesignforthecastinplacesystemareidenticaltothoseusedin thesamesystemwithmetaldecking.Therefore,thechosenmembersizesforthissystemare identicaltothoseoftheprevioussystem. P R EC A ST S L A BS Thegirdersselectedfortheprecastslabfloorsystemwererelativelylargerthanthoseofthe othersystems.Thisisduetotheincreasedloadandlackofcompositeaction.Duringdesign,the deflectionofthesebeamsdidntbecomeasimportantbecausetheflexuralstrengthoftheW shape became the newcritical check. Unit 2 again has the largest girders with a depth of 21 inches.SeeAppendixCfortablescontainingchosenmembersizes.

D ESIGNOFFOUNDAT ION
A simple method was used to determine dimensions of the buildings footing sizes. The net allowablesoilpressure,providedintheconstructiondocumentsbyCannonDesign,wasgiven to be two tons per square foot. The unfactored load delivered down the columns to the foundationswasdividedbythisnetallowablepressuretodeterminetherequiredbearingarea ofthefooting.Forstripfootings,thecolumnswerebrokenintogroups,andtheircorresponding strip footing was designed using the load from all of the contributing columns. After these

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approximate dimensions were found, the weight of the foundation was factored in and adjustmentsweremadewhennecessary. Theloadsdelivereddownthecolumnswerenearlyidenticalforallcastinplacefloorsystems. Theonlysystemwhichdifferedwastheprecastslabsystem.

F IGURE 40: F OOTINGLOCATIONS

Thethicknessofthestripfootingswastakentobe12,typicalforfootingsofthiswidth.The thickness of the spread footings depended upon the plan dimensions of the footing. The construction documents from Cannon Design provided reference for the thickness of the footingbasedonthelengthandwidth.Footingswhichendedupbeingwithincloseproximityto another footing were joined together for ease of construction and the corresponding cost benefit. Table13,below,containsthedimensionsofthestripandspreadfootingsforboththeprecast andcastinplacesystems.ThefootingdesignationsrefertothoseshowninFigure40.

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T ABLE 13: F OOTINGDIMENSIONS

Footing Spread SP1 SP2 SP3 SP4 SP5 SP6 SP7 SP8 Strip ST1 ST2 ST3 ST4

CastinPlaceSystems PlanDimensions Thickness 76x166 20 70x160 20 96x96 24 106x106 28 96x96 24 96x226 24 90x206 24 100x100 26 Width Thickness 26 12 29 12 39 12 33 12

PrecastConcreteSystem PlanDimensions Thickness 76x166 20 70x160 20 96x96 24 110x110 28 100x100 26 96x226 24 90x206 24 100x100 26 Width Thickness 26 12 29 12 40 12 33 12

Itwasalsonecessarytochooseasizefortheconcretepiersorpedestalswhichbearuponthe spreadfootings,andasizeforthefrostwallwhichbearsuponthestripfootings.Dimensionsfor these foundation items were estimated based on Cannon Designs construction documents. The piers were chosen to be 24 x 24 and four feet tall (to penetrate below frost line). The frostwallwastakentobe12wideandfourfeethigh.

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P ARKING G ARAGE
Thissectionincludesallstructuralactivatesinthedesignofamultilevelparkingfacility.Itleads thereaderfromfamiliarizationofthebuildingtothecompletestructuraldesign.Eachstructural alternative will lead to the design of its corresponding floor systems, girders, columns and bracing.

D EFINITIONOF G ARAGE L AYOUT

G A RA G E F O O T P R I N T S Two main structural designs were used for the parking garage: a steel frame design and a precast concrete structure. Figures 41 and 42 display the plan view for each structural alternative. They include the parking levels, walkways, access routes and stairway shafts. The maindifferencebetweenthetwoisthattheprecastdesignhasaslightlylargerinteriorspanof 60feetversusaspanof58.

F IGURE 41: S TEELFRAMEGARAGEFOOTPRINT

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F IGURE 42: P RECASTCONCRETEGARAGEFOOTPRINT

E L EV A T I O N V I E W S Forboth garages,the levels located on the east side ofthe garage areall flat and start atan elevationof501feetabovesealevel.Thefloorslocatedonthewestsideareallslopedupward runningsouthtonorthwiththefirstlevelstartingat6feetbelowground. Figures 43, 44, 45, and 46 display the different elevation views for the steel framed parking garage.Theyshowtheelevationofeachgirderinrelationtooneanotherwithanelevationof 501feetnotedasadatumineachfigure.Thesecondleveliseightfeethighandthethirdlevel istenfeetabove.Anestimatedcolumnheightof6.5feetisusedonthetoplevelsofthegarage toconfinetheareawithaprotectivebarrierorwallforsafety.Thecolumnandgirderlocations aredisplayedinbluewhilethetopoftheconcretefloorsystemisdisplayedinred.

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F IGURE 43: S TEELGARAGE , EASTELEVATIONSATTOPOFGIRDERS

F IGURE 44: S TEELGARAGE , NORTHELEVATIONSATTOPOFGIRDER

F IGURE 45: S TEELGARAGE , W ESTELEVATIONSATTOPOFGIRDERS

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F IGURE 46: S TEELGARAGE , SOUTHELEVATIONSATTOPOFGIRDERS

Figures 47, 48, 49 and 50 display the four elevation views for the precast concrete parking garage.Theyshowtheelevationsforthetopsupportofeachgirderinrelationtooneanother, aswellas,thedistancefromthetopoftheconcretefloortotheceiling.Thegirdersactasload bearingmembersandaswalls.Theirdimensionsandelevationsarespecifiedinalatersection. Theoverallcolumnheightsalsodependonthedepthofthegirders.

F IGURE 47: P RECASTGARAGE , EASTELEVATIONSATTOPOFGIRDERS

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F IGURE 48: P RECASTGARAGE , NORTHELEVATIONSATTOPOFGIRDERS

F IGURE 49: P RECASTGARAGE , WESTELEVATIONSATTOPOFGIRDERS

F IGURE 50: P RECASTGARAGE , SOUTHELEVATIONSATTOPOFGIRDERS

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Figures51and52showthedifferentbaysizesthatwereusedindesigningthefloorsystemsfor eachstructuraldesign.Bothlayouts havethesamedimensionsforBaysA,CandDbutBayB variesinlengthdependingonthematerialusedfortheframe.Forasteelframedgarage,two sets of girders are necessary in the interior of the building while only one row of columns sufficesfortheprecastdesign.BayAhasLshapedparkingalongthecornercolumns,BayBhas parkingonbothsides,BayCisthecaraccessroutesandBayDisawalkwayintothestairwell. Every parking spot is 9 feet wide by 15 feet long and directed at a 90 degree angle to accommodatetheflowoftwowaytraffic.

F IGURE 51: S TEELGARAGEBAYDESIGNATIONS

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F IGURE 52: P RECASTGARAGEBAYDESIGNATIONS

G I R D ER A N D C O LU MN D E SI GN AT I O N S Figures 53 and 54 display the girder and column designations for each structural alternative. Theprecastgarageincorporatestheuseofaxialloadbearingshearwallsthroughthecenterof the structure and along the access routes. They are noted by an S symbol on figure 54. Subsequentsectionsonmemberdesignrefertothesefigures.

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F IGURE 53: S TEELGARAGEGIRDER & COLUMNDESIGNATIONS

F IGURE 54: P RECASTGARAGEGIRDER & COLUMNDESIGNATIONS

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G ARAGE D ESIGN
D E SI GN L O A D S Table 14 shows the design loads that were used for both structural alternatives. These loads includelive,snow,andwind.Theweightofthedeadloadisntlistedduetothedifferencesin weightbetweenthealternativedesigns.Itwascalculatedintoourtotalfactoredloaduponits designation.Thetabulatedloaddatawasprovidedthroughconstructiondocumentsprepared byCannonDesign.
T ABLE 14: P ARKINGGARAGEDESIGNLOADS LoadType Live Garages Allotherpublic spaces,corridors, stairsandlobbies Snow Flatroofsnowload Wind EndZone InteriorZone 28psf 20psf 35psf 40psf 100psf Intensity

F LO O R S YS T E M S Usingfigures51and52asareference,Tables15and16providetheselectedtypesofprecast floorsystemsforeachparkinggarage.Usingloadfactors,atotalfactoredloadof81.5psfwas usedonthegaragefloorsanda177.5psfloadforthewalkwaysintothestairwell.Precastfloor system types were selected using the PCI Design Handbook by comparing the safe superimposedserviceloadversusspanlengthtotheactualfactoredload.Sincetypicalwidths forbaysA,B,andCwereeither36or30feet,theprecastdoubleteeswerechosentobe12 and 10 feet respectively, in order to allow the placement of three members per bay. Bay D contains two, fourfoot wide solid precast concrete planks. Each precast plank in bay D must have1foottrimmedoffitswidthinordertofitproperlywithinthisbay.Lightweightconcrete

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was selected to cut down on the overall dead load of the floor system for design of the structuralframe.Figure55depictshowaprecastfloorsectionwillsitatopthesteelgirders.
T ABLE 15: S TEELFRAMEFLOORSYSTEMDESIGN

SteelFrameParkingGarageFloorSystemSelections Bay Type A B C D Precast Member Selection 12LDT30 12LDT30 10LDT26 LFS4 Strand Pattern 128D1 168D1 88S 58S
T ABLE 16: P RECASTCONCRETEFLOORSYSTEMDESIGN

Span Length(ft) 40 58 40 12.5

SafeSuper ImposedLoad (psf) 167 92 83 190

Numberof Members 3 3 3 2

PrecastConcreteParkingGarageFloorSystemSelections Bay Type A B C D Precast Member Selection 12LDT30 12LDT30 10LDT26 LFS4 Strand Pattern 128D1 168D1 88S 58S Span Length(ft) 40 60 40 12.5 SafeSuper ImposedLoad (psf) 167 82 83 190 Numberof Members 3 3 3 2

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F IGURE 55: P RECASTDOUBLETEEONTOPOF S TEEL G IRDER

G I R D ER S EL E CT I O N S Table 17 contains the steel girders that were chosen for the steel framed parking garage. In designingthesemembers,thefactoredpositivemomentactingoneachgirderwascheckedin comparisonwiththepublishedvaluesgiveninTable32oftheAISCSteelDesignManual.Once anadequatebeamsizewasselectedforthemoment,theoveralldeflectionoftheWshapewas checked. The moment of inertia for each girder was used to determine a deflection when loadedunderserviceconditions.Allgirderswerealsocheckedforshearstrengthandbuckling. Table39ofAppendixCprovidesasummaryofthegirdersandthedesignloadsactingonthem.

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T ABLE 17: S TEELGARAGEGIRDERSELECTIONS

SteelGirderSelections
Girder Type G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 Member Size W27x94 W30x108 W30x99 W27X84 W24x68 W10x15 W10x15 W10x15 Length (ft) 36 36 36 30 40 18 12.5 6 Total#of Members 8 12 12 12 8 8 16 16

Using the girder designations from Figure 54, Table 18 displays the girders selected for the precastparkinggarageusingthefactoredloadscalculatedinTable40ofAppendixC.GirdersG1 andG2bothsupportgravityloadsandactaswallenclosures,aswell.StandardLbeamshapes wereselectedoutofthePCIDesignHandbookbycomparingthefactoreddesignuniformload to the tabulated safe superimposed loads. The estimated weight of additional concrete necessarytomakethewallaproperheightof6feetwasincludedinthefactoreddesignloadin ordertopickproperLbeamsizes.GirdersG3andG6dontsupportanygravityloadsandjust act as walls and bracing members. The designation 12RB72 means that they are rectangular beams12incheswideby72inchesdeep.ValuesforthistypeofbeamarentgiveninthePCI designHandbook,howeverbycomparingbeamsofasmallersizeandtheirspanlength;these girders are more than capable of supporting this frame. Girders G4 and G5 both lay on the interiorofthebuildingandonlysupportdeadloads.Invertedteebeamshapeswereselected usingthePCIDesignHandbook.GirderG5onlyspans6feet.Tokeepauniformfloorheight,the sameshapeinvertedteebeamselectedforG4isused.Figure56belowshowstheinteraction betweenthegirderandfloorsystem.

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T ABLE 18: P RECASTGARAGEGIRDERSELECTIONS

PrecastGirderSelections
GirderType MemberSize Length(ft) G1 20LB36 36 G2 20LB44 36 G3 12RB72 40 G4 28IT36 30 G5 28IT36 6 G6 12RB72 12.5 Total#ofMembers 8 12 8 9 8 8

F IGURE 56: P RECASTGIRDERSUPPORTINGDOUBLETEE

C O L U MN S E L EC T I O N S ThesteelcolumnsselectedfortheparkinggaragecanbeseeninTable19.Thecolumnsonthe east side ofthe garageall havethe sameheight of 25 feet. Column lengthson the west face increaseastheslopeofthegarageincreases.Inthetablebelow,columnlengthvaluesforthe west face can be noted as running from south to north. Figures 45 and 53 are helpful in understanding this concept. The loads acting on each column were determined by using the

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tributary area around each column. Dead, live, and snow loads were all factored together to findanaxialloadinkipsactingdirectlydownwardoneachcolumn.ThenusingTable42inthe AISCSteelDesignManual,columnswereselectedbycheckingtheiravailablestrengthinaxial compressionversustheirunbracedlength.HPtypesteelcolumnswereusedsincetheyhavea largerflangewidthtoaccountforconnections.
T ABLE 19: S TEELGARAGECOLUMNSELECTIONS SteelColumnselectionsEastSide ColumnType C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 MemberSize HP10x42 HP10x42 HP10x42 HP10x42 HP10x42 HP10x42 HP12x53 HP12x53 Height(ft) 25 25 25 25 31 25 25 25 Total#of Members 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 Total#of Members 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 2

SteelColumnselectionsWestSide ColumnType C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 MemberSize HP10x42 HP10x42 HP10x42 HP10x42 HP10x42 HP10x42 HP12x53 HP12x53 Height(ft) 19/23 19/23 20/22 19/23 31 19/23 19/23 20/22

UsingFigure54asareference,Table20liststheprecastcolumnsforthegarage.ThePCIDesign Handbookwasusedtohelpdeterminetheproperdimensionforeachprecastcolumn.Forthe designofthecolumnsrunningalongtheexteriorofthebuilding,thelargestaxialloadof440.6 kipswasusedtodevelopsymmetricalmembers.Highercolumndimensionswerealsousedto incorporate the installation of girders into these members. Figure 57 shows the column to

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girderinteraction.Forthecolumnsontheinteriorofthebuilding,asimilaranalysiswasused. However, since no girders are installed directly intothe column, corbels are usedtotransmit theloadfromtheinvertedteebeams.Acompressivestrengthof5,000psiwasusedforallthe concretecolumns.
T ABLE 20: P RECASTCOLUMNSELECTIONS SteelColumnselectionsEastSide ColumnType C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Dimensions(in) 20x20 20x20 20x20 12x12 12x12 12x12 #ofstrands 8 8 8 4 4 4 Height(ft) 25 25 25 25 31 25 Total#of Members 2 2 2 4 4 2 Total#of Members 2 2 2 4 4 2

SteelColumnselectionsEastSide ColumnType C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 MemberSize 20x20 20x20 20x20 12x12 12x12 12x12 #ofstrands 8 8 8 4 4 4 Height(ft) 19/23 19/23 20/22 19/23 31 19/23

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F IGURE 57: P RECASTCOLUMNSUPPORTINGPRECASTBEAM

L AT ER A L LO A D R E SI ST AN C E Thefinalstagesforbothdesignsweretoadequatelysupporttheframesagainstlateralloads. Forthesteelparkinggarage,lateralbracingisusedalongtheinteriorcolumnsandtheaccess routes.Figure8ofthebackground,showsacommonwayinwhichlateralforcesareresisted forstructures.Xbracingwithinthegarage,providesanadequateamountoflateralresistance fordesign.Diagonalbracingcanalsobeusedwithinthisschemesinceitisonlyplacedinareas wheretrafficflowwontbeissue.Figure58showswherethelateralbracingshouldbeplaced betweenthecolumnstoresistlateralforces.

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F IGURE 58: L OCATIONOFLATERALREINFORCEMENTINTHESTEELFRAMEDGARAGE

Since the precast parking garage will incorporate the use of shear walls as columns along interior span and access routes of the building only the design criteria for these members is mentionedhere.Therearenineshearwallsalongtheinteriorofthegarageeachsupportingthe weightoftwo12footdoubleteesoneachlevel.Atotalfactoredaxialloadatthebaseof213.2 kips was calculated for these walls. These columns/shear walls are much smaller than those listedinthesectionabove;however,adequatereinforcementisnecessarywithineachwallto protecttheframeagainstlateralshear.Sincetherearenineshearwalls,thetotalwindforce actingontheexteriorfaceperpendiculartothesewallsisdividedbyninetofindtheamountof shearresistedforeachwall.Eachshearwallhastwocorbels8incheswideby8inchesdeep spaced at 6feet to support the two the tension members of the doubletee. The final dimensionsofthewallarea6.5footwidthandan8indepth,eachhavingaheightof25feet. Thecompressiveforceoftheconcreteusedis5,000psi.

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C HAPTER 5: C OST E STIMATEOF R ESIDENCE H ALL S TRUCTURE

Inordertohelpcompareeachfloorsystem,acostestimatewasperformedon thestructural elementsofthebuilding.Thisencompassedtheentiresubstructure(excludingexcavationand base courses) as well as all structural steel members and the elements of the floor and roof systems. All costs were based on national average prices provided by RSMeans Building Construction CostData2008.Therefore,itwasnecessarytouselocationindices,alsoprovidedbyRSMeans, toadjustthenationalaveragestotypicalpricesinWorcester,MA.Theseindicescanbeseenin Table21below.
T ABLE 21: W ORCESTERLOCATIONINDICES (RSM EANS , 2008) Massachusetts Worcester 015016 Materials Installation 100.6 83.7 104.2 99.0 129.5 102.0 146.8 90.4 143.4 101.0 136.6 96.4 144.1 93.4 123.3 100.4 131.3 99.5 135.2 105.3 133.7 105.1 131.3 96.2 131.3 96.3 163.7 91.6 132.4 99.6 137.2 100.0 102.4 100.1 107.2 98.1 98.5 98.7 120.8

Division

015433 0241,3134 0310 0320 0330 03 04 05 06 07 08 0920 0950,0980 0960 0970,0990 09 Covers 21,22,23 26,27,3370 MF2004

ContractorEquipment Site&Infrastructure,Demolition ConcreteForming&Accessories ConcreteReinforcing CastinPlaceConcrete Concrete Masonry Metals Wood,Plastics,&Composites Thermal&MoistureProtection Openings Plaster&GypsumBoard Ceilings&AcousticTreatment Flooring WallFinishes&Painting/Coating Finishes Divs.1014,25,28,41,43,44 FireSuppression,Plumbing&HVAC Electrical,Communications&Util. WeightedAverage

Total 100.6 98.0 125.3 123.6 110.0 117.5 124.9 102.1 117.0 113.5 112.3 121.3 117.8 114.6 116.1 119.2 100.5 103.1 98.3 108.1

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Theselocationindicesarebasedonthenationalcost,whichisindexedat100.Thismeansthat formetals,thematerialcostinWorcesteris93.4%ofthenationalaverage,andthelaborcostis 123.3% of the national average labor cost. The totals are weighted depending on the relationshipofmaterialandlaborcostsforeachdivision,andtheweightedaverageindicesare weightedbasedonthetypicalmakeupofaconstructionproject. Thefollowingsectionsfamiliarizethereaderwithmethodsusedtodetermineunitcostsofthe buildingmaterialsandprovidethefinalcostsforeachsystem.

S TEELOPEN WEBJOISTSWITHMETA LDECKANDCONCRETE TOPPING

Thecostofthesteeljoistsystemwasestimatedatapproximately$2.11Million.Thebreakdown ofthecostsissummarizedinTable22.Itisimportanttonotethattheunitcostspresentedin thecostbreakdownsarenotthoseusedtocalculatethecosts,butratherthecostoftheentire elementinthemostappropriateunit.Thecostsofsomeelementswereestimatedusingseveral building materials. For instance, the cost of elevated slabs includes concrete with finish, and reinforcement.
T ABLE 22: C OSTBREAKDOWNFORJOISTSYSTEM

BuildingElement CostofJoistSystem
Substructure
SlabonGrade SpreadFootings ConcretePedestals StripFootings FrostWall Joists Beams(Roof) Girders ShearStuds:3/4"x33/8" Columns SteelFormDecking SteelEdgeForms ElevatedSlabs

TotalCost UnitCost UnitofMeasure $2,114,300 $21.14 SFofBuilding

$198,400 $1.98 SFofBuilding
$70,000 $43,800 $20,600 $25,100 $38,900 $214,800 $32,100 $498,800 $18,000 $183,300 $515,700 $25,200 $428,000 $3.50 $608 $1056 $228 $250 $2790 $3452 $3098 $1.82 $2656 $5.16 $5.04 $4.28 SFofGround CYs CYs CYs CYs Tons Tons Tons Each Tons SFofElevatedSlab LFPerimeterforSlabs SFofElevatedSlabs

Superstructure

$1,915,900 $19.15 SFofBuilding

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The greatest unique cost driver inthis system was the steel joiststhemselves. Unfortunately, notalloftheopenwebjoistsizesthatwerespecifiedwerepricedinRSMeans.Itwastherefore necessary to understand what was driving the material and installation costs and use this knowledgetointerpolatecostsfortheremainingjoistsizes. In order to determine the

OpenWebJoistMaterialCosts
8.00 7.00 CostperLF($) 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 y=0.7029x+0.0133

unknown material costs of openweb joists, the known prices were plotted against their weight per linear foot, andtherelationshipwasfound tobelinear(seeFigure59).An equation representing the

relationship was determined and used to interpolate the unknown costs. The

WeightperLF(lbs)

F IGURE 59: M ATERIALCOSTOFOPEN WEBJOISTS

installation cost was found to bedependentonthedepthofthejoist.Forexample,alljoistsofdeptheightortenincheshad thesameinstallationcost,asdojoistsof12and14inchesindepth. Another large expense, although not unique to this system, was the steel form decking. The availablecostdataincluded24gauge1deck,andthiswasusedtodeterminethecostsofthe specified20gaugedeck.Thematerialcostwassimplymultipliedbythethicknessratioof20 gauge to 24 gauge (equal to 1.5). The installation cost was not clearly based on any one x variable, therefore it was necessary to make an educated guess based on the information known.Finally,thecostwasescalatedbyassuminga5%wasteconsideration.

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R OLLEDSTEELBEAMSWI THMETALDECKANDCONCRE TETOPPING

The final cost of this systems sub and superstructure was estimated at about $2.07 Million. This is only about thirty thousand dollars less than the joist system. The largest unique cost driverisagaintheinfillmembers,inthiscaserolledsteelbeams.Liketheopenwebjoists,the material cost was solely dependent upon the weight per linear foot, and the linear equation was used to yield unknown values. The depth controlled the installation cost, but sometimes thereweredifferentcostsfortheheaviersectionsofthesamedepthbeam.Inthesecases,if thebeamtobeinterpolatedwasbetweenthetransitionvalues,thehigher,moreconservative valuewasused.
T ABLE 23: C OSTBREAKDOWNFORBEAMSYSTEMWITHMETALDECK

BuildingElement CostofSoMDwithBeams
Substructure
SlabonGrade

TotalCost UnitCost UnitofMeasure $2,068,800 $20.69 SFofBuilding

$198,400 $1.98 SFofBuilding
$70,000 $43,800 $20,600 $25,100 $38,900 $237,800 $504,500 $26,200 $183,300 $539,200 $25,200 $354,200 $3.50 $608 $1056 $228 $250 $3359 $2950 $1.82 $2657 $5.39 $5.04 $3.54 SFofGround CYs CYs CYs CYs Tons Tons Each Tons SFofElevatedSlab LFofSlabPerimeter SFofElevatedSlab

SpreadFootings ConcretePedestals StripFootings FrostWall Superstructure

Beams Girders ShearStuds:3/4"x33/8" Columns SteelFormDecking SteelEdgeForms ElevatedSlabs

$1,870,400 $18.70 SFofBuilding

Themetaldeckingwasalsoalargecostdriverinthissystem,totalingmorethanhalfofamillion dollars.Thedeckingforthissystemwas20ga.aswell,butwithasectionof2indepth.The costsofthisdeckweredeterminedinthesamewayasthe1deckfromthepreviousexample, andfoundtohaveanadditionalcostabout$0.23persquarefoot.Still,thisadditionalcostand thecostoftheextrashearstudswerecompensatedbythelowercostoftheinfillmembers.

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R OLLEDSTEELBEAMSWI THCAST IN PLACECON CRETESLAB

Thecostofthissystemwasthehighestofthefour,atabout$2.17Million.Thebreakdowncan beseeninTable24below.
T ABLE 24: C OSTBREAKDOWNFORBEAMSYSTEMWITHNOMETALDECK

BuildingElement CostofCIP(nodeck)System
Substructure
SlabonGrade

TotalCost

UnitCost UnitofMeasure

$2,171,300 $21.71 SFofBuilding

$198,400 $1.98 SFofBuilding
$70,000 $43,800 $20,600 $25,100 $38,900 $237,800 $504,500 $26,200 $183,300 $667,000 $354,100 $3.50 $608 $1056 $228 $250 $3359 $2950 $1.82 $2657 $6.67 $3.54 SFofGround CYs CYs CYs CYs Tons Tons Each Tons SFofElevatedSlab SFofElevatedSlab

SpreadFootings ConcretePedestals StripFootings FrostWall Superstructure

Beams Girders ShearStuds:3/4"x33/8" Columns TemporaryFormwork ElevatedSlabs

$1,972,900 $19.73 SFofBuilding

The largest unique cost driver in this system was the temporary formwork for the elevated concreteslabs.Thecostofformworkcanbeaverydifficultthingtoestimatebecausethefinal costisdependentonsomanyvariables.Oneofthemostsignificantvariablesisthenumberof timestheformsareused.Whenthecostofformworkcanbespreadoutamongseveralcastings ofconcrete,itcanhavealargeeffect.Inaddition,sometimestheconcretesubcontractormay haveusableformsfromapreviousjobthatcanbeusedatadiscountedrate.Itmayseemthen that the most economical approach would be to usethe same formwork for allfive elevated slabs. The problem is that when using plywood forms, the surfaces of the forms typically become too damaged after four uses. The cost was calculated for splitting the usage of the formsintothreeusesforonesetandtwousesfortheother,andalsoforfourandone.Four usesofonesetandoneoftheotherwastheschemeusedbecausethecostwascalculatedto

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be the lowest, and because the roof is best cast using its own formwork due to any subtle differencesinthedimensionalrequirements. Theimplicationsofrequiringthesameusageofformworkforuptoeightusescanbeseenin Figure62.Thecostforfiveusesistakentobethecostoffourusesplusoneuse,spreadover fiveuses.Similarly,thecostofsixusesiscalculatedasfourandtwouses,dividedbythetotalof six uses, and so on. Once the cost of eight uses is reached, the value returns to that of four uses.Continuingthisgraphforadditionaluses,thepricewouldjumpupaftereveryfouruses, butwouldcontinuetoflattenouttowardthatlowerbound.

MaterialCostofSlabFormwork
5.00 4.50 4.00 3.50 $ 3.00 per 2.50 SF 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Estimated Known

NumberofUses

F IGURE 60: C OSTOFELEVATEDSLABFORMWORKBYNUMBEROFUSES

R OLLEDSTEELBEAMSWI THHOLLOWCOREPRECA STCONCRETESLABS

The cost of the precast system is driven almost exclusively by the unique cost of the slabs themselves.Whilethecostofthegirders,columns,andfoundationswasslightlygreaterthan thatoftheothersystems,thegoverningcostfactorwastheprecastelementsalongwiththe specified two inch topping of concrete. Since the cost of the hollowcore precast slabs was specified byRSMeansonly for 8 and above, itwas necessary toextrapolatethe costof a 6 hollow core slab. The 2 topping, for cost considerations, was considered an elevated slab withoutformworkorreinforcement.Thematerialcostforthisslabwaslinearinrelationshipto

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thethicknessoftheslab.Theinstallationcostswerenearlystatic,however,becauseofthecost associatedwithfinishingthesurfaceoftheconcrete,whichdoesnotchangewiththethickness oftheslab.Thefinalcostofthesubandsuperstructuresoftheprecastsystemcanbeseenin Table25.Itisinterestingtonotethatdespitethemanydifferenceswiththeprecastsystemand thecastinplacesystems,theitemsnecessarytothebuildupoftheslabsandinfillbeamsare comparable,eachhoveringaroundthe$1.2Millionmark.

T ABLE 25: C OSTBREAKDOWNFORPRECASTSLABSYSTEM

BuildingElement CostofPrecastSlabSystem
Substructure Superstructure
SlabonGrade SpreadFootings ConcretePedestals StripFootings FrostWall

TotalCost UnitCost UnitofMeasure $2,092,300 $20.92 SFofBuilding

$199,900 $2.00 SFofBuilding
$70,000 $45,000 $20,600 $25,400 $38,900 $3.50 $608 $1056 $228 $250 SFofGround CYs CYs CYs CYs

$1,892,400 $18.92 SFofBuilding

$518,400 $2929 Tons $212,800 $2660 Tons $1,161,200 $11.61 SFofElevatedSlab

Girders Columns PrecastSlabs(withtopping)

T YPICALDORMITORYSQU AREFOOTCOSTS
Todoublecheckthecostscalculatedabove,theywerecomparedtotypicalsquarefootcostsof a dormitory building.RSMeanspublishes abook of typical square foot costs broken downby system.ThemostappropriatebuildinginRSMeansSquareFootCostsisasixstorydormitoryof 85,000 SF. The approximate square foot costs for sub and superstructure are presented in Table26.

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T ABLE 26: C OMPARATIVE SF COSTS

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EstimatedCosts (SoMDw/beams) CostperSFof Building $1.98 $19.4518 %oftotal project16 0.5% 5.3%

ModelBuildingCosts (RSMeans) CostperSFof Building17 $2.55 $20.19 %oftotal project 2.4% 20.5%

BuildingSystem

Substructure(not includingexcavation) Superstructure

WhilesmalldiscrepanciesexistbetweenthecostestimateandtheRSMeansmodelbuildingSF costs,theyarecertainlywithinareasonablerangeofeachother.Thecostdiscrepancywiththe substructureisprobablyaproductofthefactthatthemodelbuildingissixstories.Theseextra gravityloadscouldincreasetherequiredfoundationsizeperSFofbuilding.Thelargedifference intheprojectpercentagesiseasilyexplainedbythefactthatthenewresidencehallhasatotal cost of $350 per SF, while the model building has a cost of only $132 per SF. This large differencecanbeattributedtoseveralfactors.Thelargestfactoristhefactthatthisbuildingis an apartmentstyle building, meaning it includes a kitchen and bathroom for each suite. Also causinganincreaseintheSFcostsarethehighgrade/institutionalfinishesandhardware,brick masonryenclosure,specialtiesandequipment,andtherestrictivenatureofthesitetomention afew.

16 17 18

Calculatedusingtotalprojectcostof$35Million. AdjustedtoWorcesterusingweightedaverageindices Seventyfivethousanddollarallowancefordiagonallateralbracing(10%oftotalstructuralsteelcosts).

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C HAPTER 6: E NVIRONMENTAL S TUDY

LEED C REDITS
What follows are the nine credits that were researched in the Methodology and the reasons they were either chosen to be a goalof WPIs or not.The actual credit is shown, taken from LEED for New Construction Checklist, followed by the pros and cons of achieving or not achievingeach.

M ATERIALSREUSE
M A TE R IA L S R E U SE (2 C R E D IT S ) Intent: Reuse building materials and products in order to reduce demand for virgin materialsandtoreducewaste,therebyreducingimpactsassociatedwiththeextraction andprocessingofvirginresources. Requirements:Usesalvaged,refurbishedorreusedmaterialssuchthatthesumofthese materialsconstitutesatleast5%(forCredit3.1)and10%(forcredit3.2)basedoncost, ofthetotalvalueofmaterialsontheproject. Thesitebeforeconstructionhousedtwostructuresmadeoutofmainlyconcreteandaparking lot.Thematerialsthatwouldbesalvagedoutoftheirdestructionwouldnotbesuitableforthe construction of the residence hall, made out of steel and masonry, or the parking garage, createdout of cast inplace concreteplanks. Asan addedfactorthe buildings that weretorn downwereveryoldandanymaterialsoutofthemwouldnotbeguaranteedtobedurableand usableforthenewbuildings.Therewouldbebrickfacingandoldcementthatcouldpotentially be reused from the old buildings, but as mentioned in the methodology this was not deeply lookedinto.Thus,thesetwocreditsdidnotseemtobepossible.

I NCREASED V ENTILATION
I NC RE A SE D V E N TI LA TI O N Intent: Provide additional outdoor air ventilation to improve indoor air quality for improvedcomfort,wellbeingandproductivity.

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Requirements: For mechanically ventilated spaces increase breathing zone outdoor air ventilation rates to all occupied spaces by at least 30% above the minimum rates requiredbyASHRAEStandard62.12004asdeterminedbyEQPrerequisite1. Theintentofthiscreditistoprovidetheoccupantsofabuildingwiththebestindoorairquality possible. A higher air quality has been proven to support a healthier and more comfortable wellbeingfortheoccupants.Theprocessofhowtoachieveaventilationsystemthatimproves thestandardairqualityby30%usestheASHRAEguidelines.IntheASHRAEStandard62.12004: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality there are tables that break down different buildingsandprovideasetoutdoorairflow,adefaultoccupantdensity,etc.AsectionofTable 61from ASHRAE Standard 62.12007 can be seen in Figure 61. From the values given inthis table and the known facts about the HVAC system that will be installed in a building allow calculations to be performed that will determine what type of system and energy would be neededtosufficientlyprovidethebuildingwitha30%increaseinairquality.Thesecalculations werenotperformedbythisMQPasnotenoughsufficientinformationwashad.

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F IGURE 61: T ABLE 61 ASHRAE STANDARDS

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ShowninFigure61arethreesectionsofTable61,onefordormitories,lobbies,andafitness room.Alloftheseuseswillbepresentinthenewresidencehallthusitwouldbecomplicatedto decidewhichonetouseandfollow.Theknowledgeofwhichonetousecouldpotentiallybe foundbyspeakingtoaLEEDprofessional.Fromtherespecificdetailswouldneedtobeknown abouttheHVACsystemthatwillbeinstalledintheresidencehallandwithallthisinformationit wouldbepossibletoseeifthiscreditwereachievable.Anothercomplicatingfactorwouldbe thattheresidencehallisplanningonusingbothamechanicalventilationsystemandapassive ventilation system, windows and doors that are operable. This in turn makes the amount of extraventilationthatwouldneedtobedonegreaterthanifyouwereusingjustonebecause the system is dealing with two different air types and has to find a way to meld the two together in a successful and high quality air type. Since this group is missing much of the specificdetailsneededforthiscredititwillnotbeconsideredforfurtheruse.

T HERMAL C OMFORT
T H E R M A L C O M F O R T Intent:Provideahighlevelofthermalcomfortsystemcontrolbyindividualoccupantsor by specific groups in multioccupant spaces (ie. Classrooms or conference areas) to promotetheproductivity,comfortandwellbeingofbuildingoccupants. Requirements: Provide individual comfort controls for 50% (minimum) of the building occupantstoenableadjustmentstosuitindividualtaskneedsandpreferences.Operable windowscanbeusedinlieuofcomfortcontrolsforoccupantsofareasthatare20feet inside of and 10 feet to either side of the operable part of the window. The areas of operable window must meet the requirements of ASHRAE 62.12004 paragraph 5.1 NaturalVentilation.ANDProvidecomfortsystemcontrolsforallsharedmultioccupant spaces to enable adjustments to suit group needs and preferences. Conditions for thermal comfort are described in ASHRAE Standard 552004 to include the primary factorsofairtemperature,radianttemperature,airspeedandhumidity.Comfortsystem controlforthepurposesofthiscreditisdefinedastheprovisionofcontroloveratleast oneoftheseprimaryfactorsintheoccupantslocalenvironment. Thisseemedlikeitwouldbearathereasycredittofulfill,anditwouldbepossibletoputa roomspecificthermostatineachsuite.Afterfurtherthoughtitdoesnotseemliketherewould

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bemuchenergyorheatsavedbecausethestudentswhokeeptheirtemperaturehighwould mostlikelycanceloutthestudentswhokepttheirtemperatureatalowervalue.Lookingatitin amechanicalwayitmightalsorequireaverycomplicatedsystemthatwouldbeabletocontrol 40or50differenttemperatures.Thiscomplicatedsystemwouldthenrequiremore maintenancethanaregularsystemandifitbrokecouldbehardtopinpointwherethemishap occurred. AcasestudyperformedbyLEEDfoundintheirNewConstruction&MajorRenovationReference Guideinstalledunderfloorairsystemsthatallowedairintothebuildingthroughthefloors.This succeededverywellinimprovingtheairquality.Fortheresidencehallthisdoesnotseemlikea possible option considering that the systems already being installed in the building required penetrations through the steel beams in order to keep the overall height of the building minimizedwhilestillsupplyingtheoccupantswithgoodsizerooms.Theholesinthebeamsin turnthenworktolessenthemaximumamountofstrengththatbeamcansupportandmore mustbeaddedasreinforcementtoensurethebuildingissafe.

R APIDLY R ENEWABLE M ATERIALS

R A P ID LY R E NE W A B LE M A TE RIA L S Intent: Reduce the use and depletion of finite raw materials and longcycle renewable materialsbyreplacingthemwithrapidlyrenewablematerials. Requirements: Use rapidly renewable building materials and products (made from plants that are typically harvested within a tenyear cycle or shorter) for 2.5% of the totalvalueofallbuildingmaterialsandproductsusedintheproject,basedoncost. This seems like it could be a possible option because though we are looking for tough and durablematerials,thisisaresidencehallthatwillhavealotofuse,andthereareacoupleof materialssuchascorkandlinoleumthatmaystanduptothattypeofuse.Corkisusedtomake floors that are very similar to hardwood floors, and they could be a possible option for the floorsoftheresidencehall.Corkfloorsaredurableandresistanttowear,andthemaintenance requiredwouldbelimitedtorepaintingthevarnishcoatovertheflooreverycoupleofyears. This is of course discounting any unexpected occurrences that might damage the floor. Linoleum could be used in the bathrooms and kitchen area flooring. Obviously this flooring

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needstobemadeoutofaneasilycleanedsurfaceandsomethingthatiswaterproofsincethe bathroom and kitchen areas are more susceptible to spills and water damage. More informationaboutthecostandmaintenanceissuespertainingtotheseoptionsisavailablein theenvironmentalresultssection. Therapidlyrenewablecreditwouldneedtobechosenbeforethewholeconstructionprocess beginstobesuccessfullyachieved.Thiswouldbebecausethematerialsthatfulfilledthecredit wouldneedtobechosenandthenorderedsothattheywouldbereadytobeinstalledatthe correcttimeintheconstructionprocess.ThisMQPsuggeststhreedifferenttypesofrenewable materials: cork flooring, linoleum, and glass countertops. The costs of each of these three optionsandtheirprobablelocationsintheresidencehallareshowninTable27.
T ABLE 27: C OSTSOFRENEWABLERESOURCES
RapidlyRenewableMaterials
Material Aquired From: Use Square Footage Cost/sf TotalCost Approximate amountof totalreshall area (103,383sf)

Cork

~9year hearvesttime fromCorkOak Trees Numerous materials harvested frequently

SuiteFlooring

69,000

$5$10

$345,000 $690,000

2/3oftotalarea

Linoleum

Kitchen/Bathroom Flooring

17,250

$3$8

$51,750$138,000

1/6oftotalarea

Glass

Recycled content

Countertops

8,615

Comparable togranite orstone $70$100 TOTAL ActualRes HallCost %

$603,000 $861,500

1/12oftotalarea

$999,750 $1,689,500 ~35million 2.8%4.8%

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ViewingTable27thecreditwouldbesuccessfullyachievedatbothendsofthecostspectrum. These costs would be comparable to mostothers that are commonlyused in publicbuildings materials,butwouldnotharmtheearthinanydireways.

I NNOVATIVE W ASTEWATER T ECHNOLOGIES

I NN OV A TIV E W A STE W A T E R T E C H N O LO G IE S Intent: Reduce generation of wastewater and potable water demand, while increasing thelocalaquiferrecharge Requirements: Reduce potable water use for building sewage conveyance by 50% through the use of water conserving fixtures (water closets, urinals) or nonpotable water (captured rainwater, recycled greywater, and onsite or municipally treated wastewater). This credit is fairly selfexplanatory. The ultimate goal of the innovative wastewater technologies is that the building will lessen its contribution of wastewater to the public wastewatertreatmentplanaswellasreducetheamountoffreshwaterthatisusedtosupply thingssuchastoiletsandurinals.Theseappliancesuselargeamountsofwaterdaily,butdonot needtobesuppliedwithfreshwaterthatisinpopulardemand.Iftheresidencehallwereto introducearainwaterharvestingsystemintotheresidencehalltheycouldsufficientlyprovide rainwater to all the residence hall toilets and have a large amount left over for irrigation purposes.Thisinturnwouldachievethiscredit. The innovative wastewater technologies credit would be the hardest credit to achieve out of thefive chosen because it would require installationof a rainwaterharvesting system, which includes a storage facility and maintenance. For the rainwater harvesting, in our area of the worldtheaverageannualrainfallis43.84inches/year.19Multiplytheaverageannualrainfallby theareaofthebuildingroofandtheresidencehallcanobtain910,425cubicfeetofwaterper year.Thisisapproximately7milliongallonsofwaterperyear.Theeasiestdecisionisthatthe residence hall uses the stored rainwater for just toilets and irrigation purposes; this is the
19

AnnualRainfallfortheUnitedStates.http://www.betweenwaters.com/etc/usrain.html

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easiest choice because it doesnt require a cleaning process. The toilets of the residence hall wouldrequireapproximately700,000gallonsofwatertosufficientlysupplythemforoneyear. Thisvalueisfarsurpassedbytheamounttherainwaterwouldgiveandleave~300,000gallons for irrigation purposes of the residence hall. The material of the roofing would want to be a typethatdoesnotabsorbalargeamountofexcesswaterandinsteadallowsthewatertorun offitwithlittleloss. Thecostofarainwaterharvestingsystemwouldbesubstantialupfront,butthesavingsfound throughnotpayingfortoiletwaterorirrigation,whichcouldrequireanyamountWPIwanted, purposes would far surpass the larger initial cost. A more complex gutter system would be neededwherethecomplexitieswouldbeinthefactthatscreenswouldneedtobeinstalledat the ends of the gutters so that large debris could be trapped before the water enters the storagetanks.SincetheresidencehallhastwoHVACcontainersthatsitontheroofitcouldbe thedecisionofWPItodecideiftheywantedaguttersystemthatwasalsoonthoseaswellas the other sections of roof, and funneled the water from up there down to the water at the normalheightroofandthenon.Thisguttersystemwouldalsorequireweeklymaintenanceto makesurethattherearenoblockagesorlargepiecesofdebristhatareblockingthewaterand creatingoverflow. Thenextcostwouldbeforthestoragecontainersforthecapturedrainwater.Thebestsizetank fortheresidencehallwouldbearound15,000gallonswhichwouldincludeasystemof3or4 tanks.ThissizewouldbegoodbecauseWPIwouldneedtobeabletostorealargeamountof wateratonetime,butitdoesrainfrequentlyenoughthatwaterdoesnotneedtobestoredfor longperiodsoftime.Thecostofthissystemwouldbeapproximately$10,000plusandwould depend upon whether they needed to be specially made for the residence hall or if they are availableondemand.Thematerialofthestoragetankswouldbewhatdeterminedthecostand availability.Fortheresidencehall,wherethereislimitedspace,thetankswouldmostlikelybe putundergroundsothatwouldalsoaffecttheselectionofmaterialforthetank.

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Thelastpartoftherainwaterharvestingwouldbeplumbingthatwouldbringtherainwaterto the supply of water forthe toilets ofthe residence hall. This wouldbethe most complicated part of achieving this credit because it would require two separate plumbing systems in the building because the rainwater cannot run through the same pipes as drinking water for the residencehall.Therewouldbepumpsandotherappliancesneededthatwouldgetthewater fromthebelowgroundtankstothebottomfloorofthefacilityintotheplumbing.Thepumps wouldbeoneofthemoreexpensivepartsofthesystem,butareobviouslyanessential.How muchwaterwouldberequiredtosupplythetoiletsoftheresidencehallfollows. Theresidencehallhousesapproximately60toilets.Thisincludesallsuitebathroomsandthe publicrestroomsavailableonthefirstfloor.Assumetheaveragepersonusesthebathroom5 timesaday.Usingtheinformationfromthebackground,conventionaltoiletsuse1.6gallonsof waterperflush.At5flushesadaythatis8gallonsofwaterperdayperperson.Intheresidence hallthereare4peopletoatoiletsofor60toiletswehaveatotalof1920gallonsofwaterused aday.WPIpaysfortheirwaterpercubicfoot,so1,920gallonsequals257cubicfeetofwater perday.ThatmeansthatinatypicalyearWPIpaysfor93,500cubicfeetoftoiletwaterper year.Atapproximately$1.50percubicfootthatis$140,250peryear.IfWPIweretoinstall dualflushtoiletsthewaterusagewouldbeabout4.8gallonsperdayperperson.Thatis assumingthat4ofthe5flushesarethehalfflush(0.8gallons)andthefifthisafull(1.6gallons). Thatwouldbeapproximately56,000cubicfeetoftoiletwaterayearthatwouldcostWPI $84,000.Thecomparisonbetweenhowmuchwaterisusedbyregulartoiletsversusdualflush toiletscanbeseeninFigure62.

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RegularWaterVsDualFlushWaterUse
RegToilets DualFlushToilets

100000 90000 80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 Time(Weeks)
F IGURE 62: C OMPARISONOFWATERUSEGRAPH

Thatisadifferenceof$56,250peryearthatWPIcouldpotentiallysaveifdualflushtoiletswere used.Overa5yearperiodthatisa$281,000savingsinwatercostandover10yearsa$562,000 savingsjustintoiletwateruse. The cost of dualflush toilets canrun from 250to 650 dollars to buy, and they have no extra installationormaintenancefee beyondthat ofconventionaltoilets. Thus ifWPI chose tobuy the most expensive dualflush toilets, 60 toilets at $650 apiece costs $39,000. This more expensive upfront cost would be paid for in less than one year by the savings that would be seeninpayingforwaterusage.Itshouldalsobeconsideredthatconventionaltoiletscancost approximately $100$400 which is comparable to the cost of the dualflush toilets. So in essence WPI would not be spending a much greater amount of money at first, but would be savingverylargeamountsthroughthedecreaseinwaterusage.

WaterUsage(cubicft)

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S ITE S USTAINABILITY
S I TE D E V E L OP M E N T , M A X IM IZ E O PE N S P A C E Intent: Provide a high ratio of open space to development footprint to promote biodiversity Requirements: Where a zoning ordinance exists, but there is no requirement for open space,providevegetatedopenspaceequalto20%oftheprojectssitearea. Note: For projects located in urban areas that earn SS Credit 2 (met), vegetated roof areascancontributetocreditcompliance. Theamountofopenspaceislimitedinthesurroundingresidencehallareaisalreadytakenup forotherbuildingsandplannedparkingspotsandagarage.Thoughthereislimitedspacethere isagreenroofbeingcreatedonasectionoftheresidencehallroofandtherearesomeoptions where seating areas could be placed that would provide an open space for workers to take lunchorstudentstohangout. Thesizeoftheopenspacethatwouldbeneededwascalculatedbymultiplyingthefootprintof the building by 0.2. The project site area is 43,277 square feet. This means that the required openspaceneededtosatisfythiscreditwouldhavetobe8,655squarefeet.Inasitethissmall itseemsunreasonabletothinkthatcreatinganopenspaceofthissize ispossible.Theonefactorthatmaymakethisworkisthatthegreen roof, which is being constructed on a section of the halls roof, can count towards the open space and would help to alleviate the size. Theareaofthegreenroofcenteredinthemiddleoftheresidencehall roofisabout 6000squarefeetwhichleavesthehallwithalittleless
F IGURE 63: B IRDSEYE
OFRESIDENCEHALL

than 3000 SF of area left to successfully fulfill the required amount. There is an amount of space between the parking garage and the

P ROPOSEDOPENSPACE residence hall that is approximately 4000 SF of space, and it could

potentiallybeturnedintoapleasantoutdoorareawithsomeseating areasandgreenspace.Thespacecanbeseenin Figure63.Althoughthereisalreadybeinga greenroofinstalledonasectionoftheresidencehallrooftheoccupantsofthebuildingwont

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beabletousetheroofasaquietoutdoorspacetorelax.Itwouldbebetterforallandensure that this credit would be achieved if the greenroof were availableto occupants. The type of green roof being installed would nothave to change, but giventhat itwould be experiencing usetherewouldbemaintenancerequired.Thismaintenancewouldconsistofensuringthatthe levelsofsoilandgrassstayconsistentandthatanyrepairswouldbeattendedtoquicklyand correctly.

A LTERNATIVE T RAN SPORTATION

A LTE R NA T IV E T RA N SP O R TA T I ON , B I C YC LE S T O R A GE & C H A N G IN G R OO M S Intent:Reducepollutionandlanddevelopmentimpactsfromautomobileuse Requirements: For commercial or institutional buildings, provide secure bicycle racks and/orstorage(within200yardsofabuildingentrance)for5%ormoreofallbuilding users (measured at peak periods), And provide shower and changing facilities in the building, or within 200 yards of a building entrance, for 0.5% of Full Time Equivalent occupants. Thisseemedlikeareasonablegoalbecauseitseemstypicaltoprovidebikeracksoutsideofa student dorm. Considering our specific college though, WPIs campus is very small when comparedtoothers.Thusitisnotessentialforstudentswholiveoncampustohaveamodeof transportation that is not walking because no one campus building is very far away. The changing rooms are taken care of with private restrooms in each of the suites and public restroomsavailabletoallotherusersofthebuilding. Acommercialbikerackrangesfromabout$100to$500dollars.Bothmovableracksandfixed arearoundthesamepriceswherethequalityofthebikerackwillbethedecidingfactorinhow muchthe bike rack willcost. Overallthe price of buyingand installing bike racks forthenew residencehallwouldnotbeevencomparabletothecostofconstructingthehall.Eventhough somemaynotlikethelooksofbikeracksorthinkthattheremaynotberoomforoneinfront oftheresidencehallitwouldbeperfectlyfinetoinstallonebytheentrancetothegarageoroff totheside.Abikerackdoesnotrequiremorethan50SFofspace.

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O PTIMIZE E NERGY P ERFORMANCE

O PTI M I Z E E NE R GY P E R F O RM A NC E Intent: Achieve increasing levels of energy performance above the baseline in the prerequisite standard to reduce environmental and economic impacts associated with excessiveenergyuse Requirements:WholeBuildingEnergySimulation(110pts) Demonstrate a percentage improvement in the proposed building performance rating comparedtothebaselinebuildingperformanceratingperASHRAE/IESNAStandard90.1 2004 (without amendments) by a whole building project simulation using the Building Performance Rating Method in Appendix G of the Standard. The minimum energy cost savingspercentageforeachpointthresholdisasfollows: 10.5% 14% 17.5% 21% 24.5% 28% 31.5% 35% 38.5% 42% 1pt 2pt 3pt 4pt 5pt 6pt 7pt 8pt 9pt 10pt

Thisseemedlikeitwouldbeagoodcredittogoforatthebeginning.Itisonecreditthatallows youtoget110points.Thiscreditlooksintoallenergyaspectsofthebuildingfromlightingto mechanicalsystems,towaterusage.LEEDsuppliesthedesignerwithatemplatethatmustbe filledout. The template shown is for the residence hall and was obtained from Lynne Deninger from Cannon Design. It should be noted that this is not considered a final document and any information obtained from it is not to be considered the actual amount of energy that the building will use in the future. This template shows all of the energy considerations that any buildingcouldhave,andthereisaplacewherethebaselineamountsofenergyforthespecific typeofenergyabuildingcanusemaybeputin.Thesebaselineamountscanbetakenfroma similarbuildingwhoseinformationiseasilyobtainedoritcanbetakenfromtheLEEDreference

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guidewheretypicalamountsofenergyusedforcertaintypesofbuildingsareprovided.Once theseareashavebeenfilledin,thereisanareawhereyouputintheexpectedvaluesforyour proposeddesign.

F IGURE 64: O PTIMIZE E NERGY P ERFORMANCE T EMPLATE 1

Itcanbeseenfromthissectionofthetemplatehowtheproposeddesignspecifiesthetypeof energyandtheexpectedconsumptionwhichisanestimatedcostbasedoffofsimilarbuildings, andthebaselinedesignthenspecifiesthetypicalamountofthatenergythatisconsumedand thenthepercentofenergysavediscalculatedinthelastcolumnontheright.Finallythetotal percentofenergysavedaftercomparingtheproposedbuildingtothebaselinebuildingis found,andthenumberofpointsachievediscredited.

F IGURE 65: O PTIMIZE E NERGY P ERFORMANCE T EMPLATE 2

As can be seen in Figure 65 the total energy savings was 32.2% which would be equal to 6 points.Thecorrelationcanbeseenonthepreviouspage.NowsinceweknowthatWPIisonly achieving4pointsinthiscreditwecanassumethatthistemplateislookingattheoptimalpoint ofviewoftheresidencehall.

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This credit became one of the final five credits to be chosen because from the information received by the Cannon Designer it seems that WPI was planning on potentially achieving 6 points in this category, proven in the template in Figure 65. Considering the present WPI is obtaining4pointsforthiscreditmeaningthattheyhavesuccessfullyplannedforthisbuilding to save21% totalenergythat thebuildinguses. To gain just one extrapoint WPIonlyhas to jump that percent up 3.5% and increase the amount of saved energy to 24.5% of the total energy use of the building. Though this MQP cannot talk about certain HVAC or mechanical systemsthatWPIcouldconsidertoachievethisbecausewedontknowwhatWPIisplanning onusing,itdoesnotseemlikeafarstretchtoachievethatextra3.5%andgainoneextrapoint. TheextracostsassociatedwithobtainingthiscreditwouldbethatWPIwouldmostlikelyhave tolookintopotentialsolarsystemsorothermoredrasticenergysavingsystems.Theseenergy saving systems would be very costly, but if WPI were todecideto go further inthis direction thentheymightbeabletocutoutafewothercreditsbecausegoingthisextremeforthiscredit wouldpotentiallyallowWPItoachievemorethan1extrapointinthiscredit. ShowninTable28isasuccinctversionoftheresultssectionthatshowsthefivecreditsthatthis MQP believes should be pursued and the approximate cost they would incur. These credits havemadeuseofthegreenbuildingandmaterialoptionsthatwerereviewedandhaveformed a complete package of how WPI can achieve a higher level of LEED certification and be as environmentallyfriendlybuildingaspossible.

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T ABLE 28: C OMPLETECOSTREVIEWOF LEED CREDITS

Points Acquired Whatto Installation/ do Cost Maintenance Buy& Install Extraeffortto commercial install,no bikerack ~$100$500 maintenance outsideof afterinstallation residence hall Weekly maintenanceis requiredforthe guttersystems andstorage tanks

Credit Alternative Transportation: Bicycles& Changing Rooms

Vendors Dero: Innovative BikeRacks, Highland Product Groups,LLC RainStay System Designand Installation, Rainwater Recovery Systems, NewEngland RainBarrel Company

Innovative Wastewater Technologies

Rainwater Harvesting &Dual Flush Toilets

~$30,000

Site Development: MaximizeOpen Space

~costof GreenRoof maintenance Maintenancefor &Open ofoccupant thegreenroof, space available andthen between greenroof traditional parking andopen landscaping/ garageand space maintenancefor residence behind theopenspace hall residence hall Consider other energy saving systemsfor the residence hall Cork& Linoleum Flooring, Glass Countertops ~costof whatever energy saving systemis decidedto install

Roofscapes Inc.Tremco

Optimize Energy Performance

1pt10pt

Maintenanceof thesystem

Horizon Energy Systems, SolarElectric Power Company DuroDesign, Expanko, Topshield, GreenFloors, Vetrazzo

Rapidly Renewable Materials

$999,750 $1,689,500

Nomaintenance outofthe ordinary, repaintingof finishesevery 2+years

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C HAPTER 7: C ONCLUSIONS & R ECOMMENDATIONS

R ESIDENCE H ALL S TRUCTURE
Basedontheresultsofourstructuraldesignsandcostestimates,themostsuitablesystemfor theresidencehallstructureisaconcreteslabandsteelformdeckatoprolledsteelbeams.This is in agreement with Cannon Designs choice for the actual structure, which uses a similar system. This section will cover some of the salient features of the chosen system, and will discuss briefly the reasons why the other systems did not satisfy the feasibility criteria as satisfactorily. Oneofthemostimportantaspectsofastructuraldesign,fromWPIsperspective,iscost.Unlike otherbuildingmaterialssuchasfinishes,enclosures,andopening,payingmoreforastructural system does not necessarily coincide with having a higher quality building. In comparing the cost estimates of the systems (Table 29), it was found that the chosen system was the least expensiveofthefour.Despitethis,thevaluesdonotvarygreatly.Thedifferencebetweenthe least and most expensive option is about onehundred thousand dollars, or about 5% of the totalstructuralcost.This5%iscomparabletotheaccuracyofthecostestimates.Consequently, itcannotbesaidwithcertaintythatthechosensystemistheleastexpensive,butitisverylikely thatitisoneofthemoreeconomicallysounddecisions.
T ABLE 29: C OSTCOMPARISONOFRESIDENCEHALLSTRUCTURALSYSTEMS

BuildingElement JoistSystem SlabanddeckwithBeams CIP(nodeck)System PrecastSlabSystem

TotalCost $2,114,000 $2,069,000 $2,171,000 $2,092,000

CostperSF $21.14 $20.69 $21.71 $20.92

Anotherimportantconsiderationinchoosingthemostappropriatemethodisthedepthofthe floorsystems.Theoveralldepthofthebuildingmustbekeptunder55toavoidreachinghigh risestatus.Thereareanumberofimplicationswithexceedingthisheight,andtheresultwould beahigherprojectcost.FromasitewalkatthenewresidencehallwithProjectManagerNeil

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Benner of Gilbane, it was found that in some areas of the building, the ceiling heights of the actualprojectare76insomecriticallocations.Thisistypicallytheminimumallowableceiling height for serviceability purposes. Both the slab thickness and the depth of the beams and girderswerecheckedtomakesurethatatleasttheminimumceilingheightcouldbeachieved inallareasofthebuilding.Figure66showshalfofthebuildingwithallbeamandgirdersizes forthechosensystem.

F IGURE 66: B EAMANDGIRDERSIZESFORSLABANDDECKSYSTEM ( MOSTCRITICALAREAINRED )

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ThemostcriticalareaofthebuildingcanbeseenhighlightedinredinFigure66.Theslabinthis areatotals6indepth,thebeamsabout12,andthegirderabout21.Aneastwestinterior elevationshowingthemostcriticalbeamscanbeseeninFigure67.Theminimumceilingheight isafootshortofthedepthofthebeams,allowingadequatespaceformechanicalelectricaland plumbing.Alternatively,theceilingheightmayberaised,andbeampenetrationsmayallowfor therunningoftheMEPelements.

F IGURE 67: E AST WESTINTERIORELEVATIONOFTHEMOSTCRITICALBEAMDEPTH

Figure 68 is an interior elevation of the most critical girder depth. Penetrations of the girder wouldberequiredinordertorunMEPelementsthroughtheceilingspaceinthisarea.Ifthe ceiling height was set at 76, there would be 3 of space in which to place the ceiling. Alternatively,theceilingheightcouldbeincreased,andthegirdercouldbeencasedingypsum wall board so that it protrudes slightly from the ceiling. In either case, the dimensional requirementsregardingceilingheightaremetbythechosensystemofconcreteslabandsteel deckonrolledsteelbeams.

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F IGURE 68: N ORTH SOUTHINTERIORELEVATIONOFTHEMOSTCRITICALGIRDERDEPTH

Inthecaseofthecastinplacedeckwithoutsteelformdeck,costwasthefactorgoverningthe decisionnottochoosethesystem.WiththeincorporationoftheWorcesterlocationindexfor formworklaborof129.5,thecostoftheformworkisabout20%higherthanthealternativeof metaldecking.Forthisreason,castinplaceconstructionhasbeenalmostcompletelyphased outofconstructioninNewEngland.Withonlyoneextrainchofceilingheight(5vs.6slab), thedimensionalbenefitssimplydonotoutweightheextracosts. Withtheprecastslabsystem,thecostissocomparabletothatofthechosensystemthatitis almostinconsequential.Thedecidingfactorinnotselectingthissystemwastheslabthickness. The total slabthicknessof8 with a maximum girder size of 21 leavesonly one inchfor the ceilinginthemostcriticalareas.Whilethisispossible,theendeffectiseithera2reductionin either allaround ceiling height or space above the ceiling. Another factor weighing on the

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inappropriatenessofthischoiceistheavailabilityofprecastintheWorcesterarea.Relatively low supply and high demand means that the waiting time involved in ordering precast slabs couldbesignificant,andcouldhaveanegativeeffect,especiallyduetothefasttracknatureof theproject.Onthepositiveside,theassemblyofprecastslabsisquickandsimpleandcanbe donedespiteinclementweatherconditions,unlikecastinplaceconcrete.Butlikethecastin placewithoutsteeldecksystem,thebenefitsdonotoutweighthedrawbacks. Concerning the steel joist system, thereasons notto choose it was notas clearly cut. Witha slab thickness only shallower, the same critical girder depths, and a probable duration of constructionverysimilartothechosenbeamsystem,thefinalchoicecamedowntocost.The upside to using openweb steel joists is that there is no need to fieldcut penetrations in the infillmembers.Penetrationswouldstillhavetobecutinthegirders,however.Itispossiblethat if the design choice of the beam system was to cut penetrations in the beams to raise the ceilingheight,thisaddedcostmaybringthechosensystemuptooroverthecostofthejoist system. With the information gathered in this report, though, the final decision was to recommendthecastinplaceslabandmetaldeckatopbeamsratherthanjoists.

P ARKING G ARAGE S TRUCTURE

Basedontheresultsfromtheparkinggaragedesignsection,thebestmethodfordesigningthe parkinggarageistouseprecastconcrete.Thisisalsothesamedesigninwhichcannondesign chose to go with. The following paragraphs describe why a precast parking garage instead of steelisbestsuitedforthisdesign. There are several aspects to a steel framed garage that will encourage added costs to the design. An exterior masonry wall can be designed around the garage to make it visually appealingto its surroundings,butan added cost wouldbe incurred. A steel guard rail canbe placedbetweencolumnstoenclosetheparkingbays,butthismaynotbevisuallyappealingto pedestrians. The complexity of having two rows of columns running along the interior of the building notonly decrease the span length ofthe mainparking bays, butthey requireharder

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conditionsinwhichmembersmustfit.Usingasteelframedgarageencouragestheuseofmore materialsandresourceswhenasimpleyeteffectivedesignismostdesirableinthissituation. Theprecastgarageismuchbettersuitedinthisdesignforseveralreasons.Thebenefitofonly havingonerowofcolumnsrunningdowntheinteriorofthegaragemakestheconstructionand framingprocessmucheasier.Allprecastconcretepiecesarecapableofbeingdirectlyshipped tothesitefromthemanufacturerandthenerectedwithinamatterofdays.Eachcolumncan beplace atop the foundation, joined together bythe girders and thenthefloors systems can simply be lifted and dropped into place. No form of exterior wall is need and the only costs inquiredinthisprocessaremanufacturinganderection.Theprecastparkinggaragewillallow moreroomfortheflowoftrafficoneachlevel,cutdownonadditionalconstructioncostsand visuallyacceptableforitsenvironment.

E NVIRONMENTAL C ONSIDERATIONS
The new residence hall has a very definite possibility to achieve a Gold level in the LEED certificationprocess.FromthechecklistthatthegroupreceivedfromAlfredDimoero,Assistant VP of Facilities at WPI, there were sufficient credits checked off and planned for at the beginning of the project to achieve a gold level to start, but this MQP made the assumption thatthereweremorethanenoughcreditstocheckoff.Thismeantthatduringtheconstruction processifacreditwouldcauseadelayinthescheduleorcostmorethanexpecteditcouldbe dropped at little to no cost and the building would still achieve the level that they had been publiclyspeakingabout.ThusthisMQPdecidedthattheresidencehallneededonemorecredit to achieve gold level, and that we would research five credits in depth to ensurethat a Gold levelwasachieved. OutofallthegreenresearchthatwasdonethroughoutthisMQPmostofthecreditsseemed extremelypossibletodoandlittleextracostwouldneedtobeinvestedbyWPI.Therearetwo creditsthatwouldrequirealargeamountofextraeffortandmoneytosuccessfullycomplete.

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The rainwater harvesting system is the first one. Since without this credit the residence hall would still be able to achieve Gold level certification, WPI would have to be wholeheartedly committed to trying todecrease the amount of resources they use in the residencehall. The rainwaterharvestingsystempairedwiththedualflushtoiletswouldworktoeliminatetheuse offreshwaterforusesthatdonotneeditatall. TheprosofincludingthissystemintheresidencehallwouldbethatWPIwouldbedrastically reducingtheiruseoffreshwaterandcouldhopetosetastandardforallfuturebuildingsbuilt hereatWPIorintheCityofWorcester.EvenifWPIdidnotwanttogoasfarasinstallingthe rainwatersystem,thedualflushtoiletswouldmakeahugedifferencebythemselves. Theconsofincludingthissystemintheresidencehallarethatitwouldhavetobeadecision madeatthebeginningoftheprocess.Itmustbeconsideredwhiledesigningthebuildingand whenthematerialsoftheroofarechosen.Extraplumbingsystemswillbeneededtobringthe stored rainwater to the toilets, and those pipes must be separate from any that carry freshwaterastherainwaterwontbepurifiedordisinfected.Theextraupfrontcostwillalso have to be considered as it will be quite substantial, not only because of having to buy the materialsforthesystembutaswellasmaybehavingtoinstallthestoragetanksbelowground whichwillcostextralaborfees.Lastlyitwouldbeasystemthatwouldrequiremaintenanceon aregularbasis. The second credit is the optimize energy performance credit. This credit could be a large amountofextramoneyornottoomuchextraeffortatall.Becauseofthelimitedinformation availabletothisMQPtheylookedintothemosttimetakingandmoreexpensiveoption.This leastoptimal way that this credit wouldhaveto be achievedis ifWPIhadto install a system suchasasolaroptionthatwouldhelptoreducetheirenergyusage,butwouldrequirealarge amount of upfront costs and installation as well as maintenance throughout its life. Even thoughthiswouldbeadrasticdecisiontomake,itwouldbeverybeneficialtotheenvironment as well as potentially allow WPI to reach an even higher level of LEED certification than was everexpected.

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OverallWPIisentirelyabletoachieveaGoldLEEDcertificationwithoutalargeamountofextra costandthatcostwouldbeveryeasilydiscardedafterafewyearsoftheresidenceshallslife. Overall the green systems and materials researched would be very beneficial to WPI in achievingnotonlycertaincredits,butincreatingatotalenvironmentallyfriendlybuildingthat has done the utmost to be as energy efficient and fresh water friendly as possible.

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R EFERENCES
Allen,E.,&Iano,J.(2004).FundamentalsofBuildingConstruction.Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley& Sons,Inc. Alsamsam,I.M.,&Kamara,M.E.(2004).SimplifiedDesign:ReinforcedConcreteBuildingsof ModerateSizeandHeight.Skokie,IL:PortlandCementAssociation. AmericanInstituteofSteelConstruction.(2005).SteelContructionManual(13thEditioned.). CannonDesign.(n.d.).Portfolio.RetrievedSeptember4,2007,fromCannonDesign: http://cannondesign.com CertifiedForestProducts,L.(2007).LiveGreen.BuildGreen.RetrievedJanuary2008,from http://www.certifiedforestproducts.com/ Ching,F.D.,&Adams,C.(2001).BuildingConstructionIllustrated.NewYork,NY:JohnWiley& Sons,Inc. Council,U.G.(2007).NewConstructionReferenceGuideVersion2.2.WashingtonDC. England,E.B.(n.d.).VegetatedRoofingTechnology.AnEvaluation.. Gilbane,Inc.(n.d.).History;Vision.RetrievedSeptember4,2007,fromGilbane,Inc.: http://www.gilbaneco.com Hurst,M.K.(1998).PrestressedConcreteDesign.NewYork,NY:E&FNSpon. InternationalCodeCouncil.(2006).InternationalBuildingCode.FallsChurch,VA:International CodeCouncil. Parker,H.,&Ambrose,J.(1984).SimplifiedDesignofReinforcedConcrete.NewYorkCity:James WileyandSons.

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LDA0806 PrecastConcreteInstitute.(1999).PCIDesignHandbook.Chicago,IL. RSMeans.(2008).BuildingConstructionCostData.Kingston,MA:RSMeansConstruction PublishersandConsultants. RSMeans.(2008).SquareFootCostData.Kingston,MA:RSMeansConstructionPublishersand Consultants. Seraderian,R.(.(2007,November). Sourcebook,S.B.(n.d.).FlyashConcrete.RetrievedDecember2007,from http://www.greenbuilder.com/sourcebook/Flyash.html#Define SteelDeckInstitute.(2003).DesigningwithSteelFormDeck.FanRiverGrove,IL:SteelDeck Institute. SteelJoistInstitute.(2005).StandardSpecificationsforSteelOpenWebJoists,KSeries.Steel JoistInstitute. Survey.,U.D.(2007).VolatileOrganicCompounds(VOC's).RetrievedNovember2007,from http://toxics.usgs.gov/definitions/vocs.html U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.(2005,September19).EnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy. RetrievedfromGeothermalHeatPumps: http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/ mytopic=12640 U.S.GreenBuildingCouncil.(2007).U.S.GreenBuildingCouncilWebPage.Retrievedfrom http://www.usbgc.org/ Urbanski,L.(2007,April9).WPItoBuildNewStudentResidenceHall.RetrievedSeptember5, 2007,fromWPIWebsite: http://www.wpi.edu/News/Releases/20067/residencehall.html

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LDA0806 WireReinforcementIstitute.(2007).WWR500:ManualofStandardPracticeStructural WeldedWireReinforcement.

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A PPENDIX A: MQP P ROPOSAL

ProposaloftheMajorQualifyingProject:

RESIDENCEHALLCONSTRUCTION
(ProjectCode:LDA0806) Submittedto: Prof.LeonardAlbano,Advisor OnOctober4,2007 By: MichaelBelsky MatthewDesjardin & HallieSchiess

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I NTRODUCTION
Over the last few years, the Worcester Polytechnic Institute has been involved in many construction projects as a part of their master plan. This plan calls for developing a vibrant lower campus linking WPIs main campus with the downtown Worcester area and Gateway Park, an 11acre mixeduse life sciencesbased campus. A new residence hall, arts walk, and parkinggaragearecurrentlybeingconstructedonalotlocatedbetweenDeanSt.andBoynton St,nexttoFoundersHall,andwillbecompletedinthefallof2008. Thenewapartmentstyleresidencehallwillaccommodate232upperclassmenwithavarietyof stateoftheart facilities. Every student will live in a fourperson apartment including a full kitchen, living room, compartmentalized bathrooms, and either a single or double bedroom. The building will also includea recreation andfitness facility,technologysuits on every floor, musicrooms,andfullwirelessInternetaccess.WPIalumniandfriendswillbethemajorsource offundingforthisprojectbyahostofnamegivingopportunitiesforthevariousfacilitieswithin thebuilding,themainlobbybeingthemostexpensivewithacostoftwomilliondollars.The newresidencehallwillalsobethesecondbuildingontheWPIcampustoreceivecertification fromtheU.S.GreenBuildingCouncilsLeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesign(LEED). The buildings exterior finishes were designed to coincide with its neighboring buildings. The outsidewillconsistofmainlyglassandmasonryconcrete.Themasonrywillblendinwiththe surroundingbrickbuildingsandthewideexpanseofglasswillcomplimentFoundersBuilding whosenewrestauranthaswholewallsofwindows. TheGilbaneBuildingCompanywashiredasthegeneralcontractorofthisprojectandhasjust recentlycompletedaparkinggarageatWPIsGatewayPark.GilbaneIncorporatedisoneofthe largest privately helped familyowned companies in the construction industry with revenues toppingthreebilliondollars.20Theyhave22officesnationwideandbasethemselvesonvalues

20

http://www.gilbaneco.com/

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suchasintegrity,teamwork,loyalty,anddedicationtoexcellence. CannonDesignofBoston, aninternationalarchitectural,engineering,andplanningfirm,washiredastheprojectdesign team.Cannonwasfoundedover60yearsago.Theyhaveover700employeeswhoworkoutof 15offices.Projectsarebeingcompletedin42states,8provinces,andinEuropeandAsia.22

S COPEOF W ORK
This project will consist of three subsections of study all concerning the new WPI residence hall.Thefirstsectionisconsideringpossiblestructuralalternativesforboththeresidencehall andparkinggarage.Wewillnotbechangingthefootprintofthebuildingsortheexistinglayout of rooms. Depending on our discoveries however, we may chooseto alter theframes layout without changing the architecture. Alternative floor systems will be researched and designed fortheresidencehall.Wewillbechoosingdifferentcolumnandgirdersizesconsideringgravity loads, dead and live, as well as lateral loads, wind and seismic. A foundation will then be designedthatsuccessfullysupportseachofourchosenalternatives.Asecondstructuralactivity willbetoresearchtwodifferentscenariosfortheparkinggarage:precastconcreteandsteel framewithconcretedecking. Thenextsectionofourreportwillbeafeasibilityassessmentofourstructuralwork.Thisstudy will focus on cost, constructability, and scheduling. It will be performed on each of the alternativedesignsfortheresidencehall andparkinggarage.Theconstructioncostestimates willincludeallstructuralcosts,fromthefloorthroughtheframe,anddowntothefoundations. Thefinalsectionoftheprojectisanenvironmentalstudythatwillinvolvetwoparts.Thefirst partconcernstheUSGreenBuildingCouncilsLEEDcertificationsystem.Wewillresearchhow much more it might cost to achieve a higher level of LEED certification than is currently expected. The expected level is silver, which is the third level in succession to Gold and Platinum. This will include researching the requirements for achieving a gold level as well as
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http://www.gilbaneco.com/ http://cannondesign.com/

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whatWPIisalreadydoingandhowmuchitcosts.Wewillevaluatewhatthathigherlevelwill meanforWPIandtheresidencehallinthefuture,andifachievingthathigherlevelwarrants theadditionalcost. Thesecondpartoftheenvironmentalstudywillinvolveresearchingalternativegreenbuilding optionsthatwereopentoWPIotherthanagreenroof,suchasrainwaterharvestingoragrey watersystem.Thiseffortwillincludenotingthecostsofeachalternativeandalookintohow eachoptionwouldaffecttheoperatingcostoftheresidencehall. This MQP at the end will have looked into numerous other options that were open to WPI whendecidinghowtobuildtheresidencehallandwillprovidecomparisonsofthetwoandour conclusionsastothebestdecision.

C APSTONE D ESIGN
To achieve the capstone design needed to fulfill our degree requirements our project will consist of redesigning the new WPI residence hall in terms of structural and environmental alternatives.TheprojectwilladdressthefollowingCapstonedesignconsiderations:economic, environmental,sustainability,social,healthandsafety,andconstructability.

E CONOMIC
We will be researching different structural material and layout options. A complete cost estimate of the structural elements will be performed for every alternative for both the residencehallandparkinggarage,andwillweighontheappropriatenessofeach.Thefeasibility ofanygreenoptionswillbejudgedconsideringconstruction,operating,maintenance,andlife cyclecosts.

E NVIRONMENTAL
An indepth analysis of LEED construction will be performed and different options will be investigatedtoseeifahigherlevelofLEEDcouldbeachieved(silveristhecurrenttargetlevel). Alternative green structures will be researched other than the existing green roof and

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compared.Theenvironmentaleffectoftheseoptionswillbeexploredandtakenintoaccountin ourconclusions.

S USTAINABILITY
WhentheissuesofLEEDconstructionandthegreenroofareaddressed,sustainabilitywillbe parallel with those. Several aspects of LEED focus on components of the building, such as alternative water sources, that have the ability to partially or fully sustain themselves. In addition, the alternative green structures will be considered in terms of their sustainability consideringwater,cost,amountofmaterialused,etc.

C ONSTRUCTABILITY
The alternate floor systems and structures we will be exploring will all be standard building techniques, but there are other considerations to take into account. The availability of the materialsrequiredforeachalternativewillbereviewed.Inaddition,thelengthofconstruction time willbenoted. Wewill also explore anyunique construction requirements a system may entail.Thesefactorswillbeconsideredinourconclusionsconcerningbestchoice.

S OCIAL
In the background of our report we will research how the new residence hall and parking garagewillaffecttheWPIcampusintermsofitsstudentsandhowitwillaffectthesurrounding community.Wewillalsolookintohowhavingmoreupperclassmenliveoncampuswillaffect theWPIcommunity.

H EALTHAND S AFET Y
Toensurethesafetyofallbuildingresidents,wewillbeabidingbyallrequiredbuildingcodes anddoingastructuralanalysisanddesignofthebuildingtoensureitssafety.Itwillalwaysbea goal during the project to provide the healthiest environment for the students to live in, throughensuringasoundstructureandlesseningtheenvironmentalimpact.

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M ETHODOLOGY
This project will take three terms to complete. It will culminate with a paper reporting our methods, findings, and analyses, and will include a segment describing how our work incorporatestherequirementsforcapstonedesign.Whenappropriate,drawingswillbemade using AutoCAD to document our layout designs, while all sets of numerical data will be organizedinspreadsheetsforconvenientreference.

S TRUCTURAL D ESIGN
R ESIDENCE H ALL
Using theplans forthenewresidence hall, weplan to designthe columns and girders ofthe buildingwithoutchangingthefootprint.Theframewechoosetousemaynotmatchexactlythe one designed by the architects and engineers, but it will not interfere with the buildings functional design. This process will involve identifying the bays in the building and specifying thetypicalandatypicalareas Oncewehaveselectedourtypicalandatypicalareas,thegroupwillbegintoexplorealternate floor systems. The following systems will be designed using loads specified by the IBC: rolled steel beams with metal deck and concrete topping, open web joist with metal deck and concrete topping, rolled steel beams with castinplace concrete slab, and rolled steel beams with precast concrete slabs. When designing for the openweb joists, it will be necessary to examineeachbayandapplyspacingrulessetbytheSteelJoistInstituteforjoistsandbridging, whetherhorizontalordiagonal.Whensubstitutingprecastplanksorcastinplaceslabforthe metaldeckconstruction,itmaybenecessarytoadjustthebeamspacingtoaccommodatefor maximumspansandavailablelengths.Onceeachsystemhasbeendesignedtoourneeds,the weightofeachsystemwillbecomputed. Thenextstepistodesigntheframeofthebuilding.Wewillstartourdesignbyfocusingonthe gravitational loads in the building. These include the live loads obtained from the IBC, dead loadsfromthefloorsystems,deadloadallowancesfromASCE,anyuniquedeadloadssuchas the greenroof, and snow loads. Member sizeswill be chosen for the gravitational loads. The

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columns of the building will then be analyzed and designed for lateral loading. This includes windandseismicloading.Computerprogramsmaybeutilizedtoaidinourstructuralanalyses. ThemostappropriatesizeofthestructuralmemberswillthenbechosenusingtheAISCLRFD Specification and a steel design manual as reference. The result of this section will be four uniqueframedesigns,oneforeachofthefloorsystems. Duringthedesignprocessforthenewresidencehall,focuswillbeginonthetypicalregionsof thebuilding.Thesearethesimplyshaped,oftenrepeatedbayswithinthestructure.Fromthere thedesignofatypicalareas,forexampletheuniquespacingofthecolumnsonthefirstfloor that allows for wide doors, will commence that requiring a more in depth and unique layout design. Afoundationfortheresidencehallwillthenbecreatedthatwillsuccessfullysupportthedesign loads of our building. The weight of the building will be calculated using the weight of each floorsystemanddifferentfoundationswillbedesignedforeachseparatesystemthatincludes the weight of the columns and that specific floor system. The strength of the soil will be procuredfromanactualreporttoaidinproperdesignofthefoundationandlateralloads.

P ARKING G ARAGE
We propose to also develop a structural design for the parking garage as well. Two different constructionpossibilitieswillbeconsidered,precastconcreteandasteelframewithconcrete decking.Thefootprintofthebuildingandalloftherequirementssuchasclearances,capacities, and loads will be considered when designing the frame of the parking garage. Similar to the residencehall,computerprogramsmaybeutilizedtoanalyzestresses,andconcreteandsteel design specification and reference manuals will be employed to choose appropriately sized members.Typicalfoundationelementsforeachstructuraloptionwillbedesigned.

C OST , C ONSTRUCTABILITY , AND S CHEDULING

The feasibilityof all structural alternatives willbe evaluated interms ofcost, constructability, and scheduling effects. For the residence hall, a complete cost estimate of the structural

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elementswillbeperformedforeachofthealternatefloorsystemsusingdatafromR.S.Means constructioncostdatapublications.Thiswouldincludetheelementsofthefloorsystems,the girders and columns supporting them, and the foundation. The estimate will take into considerationallrequiredmaterials,labor,andequipment,andwillbeadjustedbydivisionfor theWorcesterarea. The methods of construction for each alternate will be reviewed to check for unique considerations. For example, with precast concrete slabs, it may not be possible to continue building higher stories of the frame until all slabs are in place. The time required for constructionmayvarybetweensystemsaswell.Theseconsiderationswillhaveaneffectonthe scheduling, which could translate into a monetary effect, and must be considered when determiningourconclusionsregardingthemostrationalchoice. A similar study into the parking garage alternates will allow us to conclude which is more feasible.

E NVIRONMENTALSTUDY
USGBC S LEED CERTIFICATION
The new residence hall at WPI will be Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certifiedbytheU.S.GreenBuildingCouncil(USGBC).Outofthepossiblecertified(minimum), silver, gold, and platinum, the building is expected to be ranked as silver. In a study of the sustainabilityandenvironmentalfriendlinessofthebuilding,wewillexaminepossiblewaysto increasetheranking.Thiswouldbeachievedbyalteringthedesignandconstructionmethods to incorporate green practices specified by the USGBC, therefore increasing the number of pointsthebuildingreceives.ThestandardcallsthatforaSilverRatingthebuildingmustacquire 3338pointsandaGoldRatingrequires3951.Thusatmaximum,thenewresidencehallonly needs to achieve 6 points extra to surpass the silver. These extra points may be obtained through numerous ways, examples include further improving an already green system or by addinginanewapplicationthatwasntintheinitialplan.

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We propose to examine the list of how to gain points and decide on feasible practices that couldbeincorporatedintothedesignofthenewbuilding.Amultidimensionalanalysisofthese pointmakers will include variables such as constructability, initial cost, lifecycle costs, and benefits.Themanybenefitscanincludeaboostoftheschoolspublicimage,sustainabilityof thebuilding,andbetterhealthandsafetyoftheresidents.Thegoalistodecide,basedonthese manyfactors,whetherornoteachpracticecouldbeconsideredsufficientlybeneficialtojustify thecost.

A LTERNATIVEGREENSTR UCTURES
There are numerous green and environmentally friendly construction options that are becomingmoreandmoreacceptableintheconstructionindustry.Wewillberesearchingthese different options, including grey water systems, rainwater harvesting, dualflush toilets, and geothermalheating.Acostanalysiswillbedoneforeachtoseehowitcomparestothegreen roofchosenbyWPIforthenewresidencehall.Thisanalysiswilltakeintoaccountfuturecosts such as operating, maintenance, and lifecycle costs. These factors will be compared and evaluatedagainstoneanother.

G ROUPANDINDIVIDUALGOALS
As a group, we plan to have a good foundation on which to build our individual efforts. This basis includes the layout of columns, beams, and girders, the design of the several floor systems, and the associated gravity load design for each. It will also include a good understandingofwhatmakesabuildingenvironmentallyfriendly,andabasicunderstandingof the LEED rating system. We hope to have this group effort complete in the beginning of November.Thiswillallowusampletimetofocusoureffortsonourindividualresearchforthe balanceofBtermandmuchofCterm. Beginning after Thanksgiving break at the latest, our focus will shift to our specific areas of interest. Michael will focus first on the lateral loads associated with the residence hall, and designstructuralframesforthoseloads.Hewillthenfocusontheparkinggarage,designingthe entire structure for the two construction methods. Matthews focus will be twofold as well,

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designingthenecessaryfoundationsfortheresidencehall,andthenperformingthefeasibility studies on the options for both the residence hall and the parking garage. These studies will involve a construction cost estimate of the structure as well as any constructability and schedulingconsiderationsforeachofthefourresidencehallandtwoparkinggaragealternates. Halliewillbefocusedprimarilyontheenvironmentalandsustainabilityaspect,performingcost benefit analyses of different systems and materials in an overall attempt to improve the buildingonalldimensionssuchascost,publicimage,environmentalimpact,andhealthofthe students.ThisencompassestheLEEDandgreenbuildingsystemssectionsofthereport.

S CHEDULE
Thisprojectwillbecompletedduringthefirstthreetermsofthe20072008schoolyear.Atthe end of Aterm we propose to have completed the proposal as well as the layout for our residence hall. All loads acting on and within the building will also be identified to begin our analysis of the gravity systems. Background research to support the group effort and the individual areas of investigation will be done throughout Bterm. We propose to have each alternativefloorsystemdesignedalongwiththeirgravityloadsbyThanksgivingbreak,allowing ustofocusonourindividualtasks.BytheendofBtermwewillhavemadesignificantprogress on our individual items. For Michael this will include finishing the lateral load design for the residencehall,aswellas,beginningtheframingsystemsfortheparkinggarage.Matthewwill havecompletedthecostestimatesforallfloorandgravitysystemsoftheresidencehall,and will have started on the foundations. Hallie will have completed the LEED half of her environmentalstudy.TheindividualeffortswillbecompletedbythemiddleofCterm,givingus timetowrapupourreportandhanditinwithtimeforcommentsandcorrectionstobemade.

D ELIVERABLES
AtthecompletionofthisprojectinCterm,thegroupwillpresentareportthatincludesallof our research, AutoCAD drawings, and a project layout. Our research will include a detailed analysis of designing steel and concrete structures, along with any implications necessary to attainahigherLEEDcertification.Thestructuraldesignoftheresidencehallandparkinggarage

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willbedisplayedthroughaseriesofAutoCADdrawingsandMicrosoftExcelSpreadsheets.Cost estimations will be made for every phase of our project to ensure that our final product will meettheeconomicrequirementsofWPI.

P ROJECT O RGANIZATION
Onthefollowingpageisatablediagrammingthewayourprojectwillbestructured.

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R EFERENCES
1.) Arellano,J.Gardiner,J.Greene,T.Young,R.(2007).WorcesterPolytechnicInstitute: PreConstructionManagementandDesignServicesfortheNewWPIResidenceHall. WPIOnlineMQPResource,iv. 2.) Barnes,K.Batstone,G.Peyser,S.(2007).FeasibilityofGreenDesignforWPILife SciencesBioengineeringCenter.WPIOnlineMQPResource,6168. 3.) CannonTeam.(September,2007)CannonDesign,Retrieved4September,2007from theWorldWideWeb:http://cannondesign.com/ 4.) GilbaneTeam.(September,2007)GilbaneWebsite,Retrieved6September,2007 fromtheWorldWideWeb:http://www.gilbaneco.com/ 5.) Hansen,M.Scully,J.Terrio,C.(2007).UpperclassmenDormitoryDesign.WPIOnline MQPResource,5658. 6.) McGillvray,K.Ramig,C.Strumolo,K.Thompson,K.(2007).Structural&Firesafety AnalysisofGatewayPark.WPIOnlineMQPResource,111117. 7.) Urbanski,L.(2007,April).WPItoBuildNewResidenceHall.WPINews[Newspaper, selectedstoriesonline].RetrievedSeptember5,2007fromtheWorldWideWeb: http://www.wpi.edu/News/Releases/20067/residencehall.html

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A PPENDIX B: S AMPLE C ALCULATIONS

C ONCRETESLABCALCULA TIONS
V ERIFYINGTHICKNESSO FS LAB
Thisbulletedlistissimplycalculationsthatweredonetomakesurethattheslabthicknessof 4.5wasenoughtoresisttheforces.Intheend,itwasfoundthatthethicknessrequiredforfire resistanceratinggoverned. ThicknessshouldbeatleastL/30=2.2,4.5isadequate. Ultimatedesignload: = 1.2 1.6 = 1.2 (35 + 65)psf + 1.6 80psf = 248psf Maximummoment: =
2 1 1 (248plf)>3 1?12 ft@ = 574ftlbs 2 = 10 10

Maximum moment resistance. This value represents the maximum possible moment resistancegiventhethicknessoftheslabandstrengthofsteel.Thedepthofsteelused was3.375,enoughtoprovideaconcretecoverof1.125innegativemomentregions. Rfoundtobe0.204kin,aprecalculatedvalueforbalancedsections.

= =

(0.85)(0.204kipin)(12")(3.375")2

1000 lbs?kip 12 in?ft

E = 2091ftlbs

Theresistanceismorethansubstantial. Maximumshearstress: = (1.15) 248plf = 1.15 64in 1?2 = 761lbs 2 12in/ft =

761lbs = = 18.8psi (12")(3.375")

Shearresistanceofconcretealone.fcis3000psiandphiforshearis0.75

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1.1H = (0.75)(1.1)3000 = 60.psi. Thedeckprovidesadequateshearresistance.

C OMPUTINGREQUIREDRE INFORCEMENT
Nowthatthethicknessoftheslabhasbeenfoundtobeadequate,thesteelreinforcementof the slab must now be calculated. The minimum amount of reinforcement allowed in each directionisgivenasaratioofareaofsteeltoareaoftheentirecrosssectionofthestripofslab. Forgrade60steelt=0.0018. = = 0.0018 60in2 = 0.108in2 The required reinforcement for the tension controlled sections of the slab is computed as follows: = Where: istheACIreductionfactor,0.9fortensioncontrolledsections Misthemaximummoment,(1/10)UmaxLmax2 fsisthesteelstrength,0.5fy,or24ksi,whicheverisless jisaratioofinternalmomentarmtod(precalculated,retrievedfromSimplified Design(Alsamsam&Kamara,2004) distheeffectivedepthofthesteel

Using the maximum moment of 574 ftkips, the required area of steel was calculated to be about0.107in2.Thismeansthatforallareastypicalofthebuilding,temperatureandshrinkage steelgovernsinbothdirections.TheonlyareatobecheckedisthecantileverareasinUnit3. The weight of the glazing walls was estimated as 15 psf (Parker & Ambrose, 1984). a concentrated load of180 pounds was found to be actingonthe ends of the cantilever, fora onefootslice.Oncefactored,thatvaluebecame216lbs,nottobeconfusedwiththe216psf

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valueforU,whichisalsousedinthefollowingequation.Theextensionofthecantileveris20. Thefollowingequationwasusedtocalculatethemaximummoment: 2 (216psf)(20")2 + = + (216lbs)(20") = 4620inlbs = 385ftlbs in2 2 (2)(144 2 ) ft

Whenthisvaluewassubstitutedintotheareaofsteelequation,theresultis0.072in2,sothe valuefortemperatureandshrinkagestillgoverned.

B EAM D ESIGN
ThedesignforcompositesteelbeamsisgovernedbytheASCEandIBC;eachprovidedstandard load information anddesign equations. Withthe help ofMicrosoftexcel, spread sheets were made to make the design process more time efficient. The composite steel beam design processalongwithallassumptionsisshownbelowfollowedbyasamplecalculationofabeam designedinUnit2Bay1. Dead and live loads acting on the beam were identified and determined to have consistent uniform load throughout the structure. The dead and live loads are then multiplied by the tributarywidthofthebeam,Bz,inordertofindthetotalloadactingperlinearfoot.Usingload factorcombinations1and2,adeadandliveloadwereconsideredtobeactingonthebeam. Each load combination puts an importance on the effect of different factored loads; and therefore,whenthetotalliveanddeadloadsarecomputedintotheequation;thelargerofthe twovaluesdeterminesthecriticalload.Assumingthebeamsaresimplysupported,amaximum momentisdetermined.Table319intheAISCSteelConstructionManuelisusedtoidentifyan adequate beam that withstands the factored moment, MU. The distance from the top of the concreteslabtotheflange(Ycon)=6,andanassumedvalueofa=2areusedtocalculateY2, thedistancefromthesteelflangetothecenterofgravityintheconcreteflange.TheY2value and an Y1 value = 0 are used in table 319 to choose W shapes specific to our design. The beamsnominalstrengthofshearconnectors,Qn,isthenusedtofindanewdepthofa.Y2is computedagainwiththenewdepthtoselecttheactualvalueforflexuralstrength,Mn,using

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Table319intheAISCManuel.Aslongastheflexuralstrengthexceedsthefactoredmoment, thebeamissaidtobeOK,andthenextphaseofdesigncanproceed. Thenumberofsteelstudsrunningalongthespanofthebeamactingincompositeactionwith theconcreteisnowdetermined.Asteelstud3longwithadiameterofcarryinganominal strength of Qn = 23.6 ksi is selected. Usingtable 319, the Y2 column was checked to see if a reductioninthenumberofstudscanbemade.SincethePNAvaluefallsintheconcreteflange, a new value of nominal strength for shear connections is used. The number of studs requiredisthendeterminedbymultiplyingthenominalstrengthofthebeambytwoandthen dividingbythenominalstrengthofthestud. Severalchecksaremadetoensurebeamadequacy.ThestrengthoftheWsectionsbeforethe concretehardensisinspectedtoensuresafetyduringconstruction.Wetconcreteactsasalive loadduringconstructionandconsequentlyaddsaconstructionliveloadof20psf.Anewdead load consisting of all the existing dead load factors except the concrete and a new live load including the weight of the wet concrete are calculated to find a factored load and moment. The new computed moment capacity must be less than the maximum available flexural strength, bMp, in order for the beam to be considered safe. Service load deflection is calculatedtocheckforfailureduringconstructionwithatotalmaximumdeflectionassumedto be 1 for spans under 20 and 1.5 for spans longer. A c1 value is selected as a deflection expressioninaccordancetoFigure32intheLRFDmanualandthemomentofinertiaforthe beamcanfoundintheManuel.Serviceliveloaddeflectionstrengthofthecompositebeamis alsocheckedoncetheconcretehashardened.Anewmomentforthebeamiscomputedusing only the live load and the composite moment of inertia in table 320 of the manual. The deflection limit in this case is determined bydividing the span length in inchesby360. Ifthe beamfailstomeetdeflectioncriteriaorisveryclosetoourmaximumdeflection,anewbeamis selectedoutoftheLRFDmanual. The shear strength of the beam is the last check for design. Since the beam is a doubly symmetricmemberwiththeshearplaneintheweb,equationG21fromtheLRFDmanualcan

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beusedtofindthenominalshearstrength,Vn,ofthebeam.Valuesofv=0.9andCv=1.0were specified by the manual to determine a design shear strength, vVn. The original load factor calculatedinthebeginningofthedesignisusedtocomputetheactualshearstressactinginthe beam.Thisvalueischeckedagainstthedesignshearstrengthforsafety.

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LoadCombinations&FactoredMoment
= 1.4 = 1.4 O760.76 P = 1069.53/ P + 1.6 O445.02 P = 1628.77/

= 1.2 + 1.6 + 0.5( ) = 1.2 O760.76 =

2 (1628.77)18.52 = = 69.68 8 8

FlexuralStrengthDesignValuesUsingTable319(AISCManuel)
= = (5.622 )(50) = 281 =

0.85

281 0.85(3000 )(7.417)

= 1.24

2 =

1.24 = 6" = 5.38 2 2

*UsinginterpolationfromTable319

> = 220 > 69.68 (OK)

NumberofShearStuds
# = (2 ) 2 122 = = 10.34 = 12 23.6

StrengthofWSection
= = 763.95 482.11 = 281.85/ = (20 ) + = (20 7.417) + 482.11 = 630.45/

= 1.2( ) + 1.6( )=1346.93lb/ft 2 = 57.62 8

> = 81 > 57.62 (OK)

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ServiceDeadLoadDeflection
= + (20) = 760.76 + 7.417(20) = 912.3/ =
2 8

= 39.03

M DL L 2 1

= 0.862 < 1.0(OK)

ServiceLiveLoadDeflection
=
2 8

= 19.04/

M LL L 2 1

= 0.862 < 1.0(OK)

ShearStrength
= (0.9)(0.6) = (0.9)(0.6)(50)(2.422 )(1.0) = 65.45
1628.77 18.5 ( ) 1000 = 15.07 = = 2 2

> = 65.45 > 15.07(OK)

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A PPENDIX C: A DDITIONAL R ESULTS

T ABLE 30: S TRANDDESIGNATIONSFOR 4HC6+2 PRECASTSLABSACROSSVARIOUSSPANS

S PA N D E S IG NA TI ON AtoB BtoC CtoD DtoE EtoF FtoG GtoH HtoI 5to6 6to7 7to8 8to9 9to10 10to11 11to12 12to13
1

S P A N L E N GT H 2 ( F T ) 15 18 13 19 22 13 18 15 13 18 12 18 18 12 18 13

S U PE RI MP O SE D L O A D ( P S F ) 95 95 95 115 95 115 95 115 95 115 95 95 95 115 95 115 95 115 95 115 95 115 95 115 95 115 95 115

S T RA ND D E S IG NA TI ON 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 76S 96S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S 66S
3

E ST IM A TE D C A M BE R ( IN ) 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2

1 2 3

ReferstoalphanumericgridsystemfromFigure24. Nottheexactlength;roundedupfordesignpurposes.

Thefirstnumberreferstothenumberofstrands.Thesecondnumberdenotesthediameterinsixteenthsofan inch.TheSmeansstraight.

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T ABLE 31: O PEN WEBJOISTSYSTEMGIRDERSELECTION ( FLOORS )

Girder 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Wshape 16x36 14x38 14x38 16x36 18x46 18x40 18x40 18x50 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x17 10x19 10x12 10x22 10x22 21x44 21x55 18x60 Length(ft) 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 28' 28' 28' 28' 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18'6' 18'6' 10'9" 21'11" 21'11" 29'8" 29'8" 29'8" #ofGirders 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 #ofstuds 20 18 18 20 28 24 24 26 10 8 10 10 8 10 10 8 10 10 12 8 10 10 32 34 32 Girder 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 410 411 WShape 10x12 10x12 10x15 10X15 10X15 10x15 10x12 10x12 10x12 10x22 10x22 16x36 10x12 16x36 14X38 10x12 14X38 10x15 12x19 14x22 14x34 10x12 10x12 10x12 16x40 10x12 14x38 10x12 Length(ft) 14'8" 14'8" 18' 18' 18' 18' 12'11" 12'11" 12'11" 17'10" 17'10" 23'3" 9' 23'5" 23'3" 9' 23'5" 18'6" 18'6" 21'11" 23'4" 13' 10'7" 10'7" 23'4" 13' 23'4" 13' #ofGirders 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 #ofStuds 8 8 10 10 10 10 8 8 8 10 10 20 8 20 18 8 18 10 12 14 18 8 8 8 20 8 18 8

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T ABLE 32: O PEN WEBJOISTSYSTEMGIRDERSELECTION ( ROOF )

Girder 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Wshape Length(ft) #ofGirders #ofstuds 16x40 16x36 16x36 16x36 18x50 18x46 18x46 18x55 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x19 10x12 10x19 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x15 10x22 10x12 10x19 10x26 21x50 24x55 21x55 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 28' 28' 28' 28' 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18'6' 18'6' 10'9" 21'11" 21'11" 29'8" 29'8" 29'8" 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 20 20 20 20 26 28 28 30 10 8 10 12 8 12 10 8 10 10 10 8 12 12 34 40 34 Girder 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 410 411 WShape Length(ft) #ofGirders #ofStuds 10x12 10x12 10x15 10X17 10X17 10x15 10x12 10x12 10x12 10x19 10x19 14x34 10x12 14x34 16x40 10x12 16x40 12x16 10x17 12x22 16x36 10x12 10x12 10x12 16x45 10x12 16x40 10x12 14'8" 14'8" 18' 18' 18' 18' 12'11" 12'11" 12'11" 17'10" 17'10" 23'3" 9' 23'5" 23'3" 9' 23'5" 18'6" 18'6" 21'11" 23'4" 13' 10'7" 10'7" 23'4" 13' 23'4" 13' 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 8 10 10 10 10 8 8 8 12 12 18 8 18 20 8 20 12 10 14 20 8 8 8 24 8 20 8

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T ABLE 33: S TEELBEAMSYSTEMS ( WITHANDWITHOUTMETALDECK ) GIRDERSELECTION ( FLOORS )

Girder 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Wshape Length(ft) #ofGirders #ofStuds 16x36 14x38 14x38 16x36 18x46 18x40 18x40 18x50 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x17 10x19 10x12 10x22 10x22 21x44 21x55 18x60 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 28' 28' 28' 28' 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18'6' 18'6' 10'9" 21'11" 21'11" 29'8" 29'8" 29'8" 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 20 18 18 20 28 24 24 26 10 8 10 10 8 10 10 8 10 10 12 8 10 10 32 34 32 Girder 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 410 411 WShape 10x12 10x12 10x15 10X15 10X15 10x15 10x12 10x12 10x12 10x22 10x22 16x36 10x12 16x36 14X38 10x12 14X38 10x15 12x19 14x22 14x34 10x12 10x12 10x12 16x40 10x12 14x38 10x12 Length(ft) #ofGirders #ofStuds 14'8" 14'8" 18' 18' 18' 18' 12'11" 12'11" 12'11" 17'10" 17'10" 23'3" 9' 23'5" 23'3" 9' 23'5" 18'6" 18'6" 21'11" 23'4" 13' 10'7" 10'7" 23'4" 13' 23'4" 13' 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 8 10 10 10 10 8 8 8 10 10 20 8 20 18 8 18 10 12 14 18 8 8 8 20 8 18 8

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T ABLE 34: S TEELBEAMSYSTEMS ( WITHANDWITHOUTMETALDECK ) GIRDERSELECTION ( ROOF )

Girder 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Wshape 16x40 16x36 16x36 16x36 18x50 18x46 18x46 18x55 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x19 10x12 10x19 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x15 10x22 10x12 10x19 10x26 21x50 24x55 21x55 Length(ft) 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 28' 28' 28' 28' 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18'6' 18'6' 10'9" 21'11" 21'11" 29'8" 29'8" 29'8" #ofGirders 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 #ofstuds 20 20 20 20 26 28 28 30 10 8 10 12 8 12 10 8 10 10 10 8 12 12 34 40 34 Girder 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 410 411 WShape 10x12 10x12 10x15 10X17 10X17 10x15 10x12 10x12 10x12 10x19 10x19 14x34 10x12 14x34 16x40 10x12 16x40 12x16 10x17 12x22 16x36 10x12 10x12 10x12 16x45 10x12 16x40 10x12 Length(ft) 14'8" 14'8" 18' 18' 18' 18' 12'11" 12'11" 12'11" 17'10" 17'10" 23'3" 9' 23'5" 23'3" 9' 23'5" 18'6" 18'6" 21'11" 23'4" 13' 10'7" 10'7" 23'4" 13' 23'4" 13' #ofGirders 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 #ofStuds 8 8 10 10 10 10 8 8 8 12 12 18 8 18 20 8 20 12 10 14 20 8 8 8 24 8 20 8

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T ABLE 35: P RECASTSYSTEMGIRDERSELECTION ( FLOORS )

Girder 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Wshape 16x40 14x38 14x38 16x40 18x50 18x46 18x46 18x50 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x19 10x12 10x19 10x17 10x12 10x17 10x17 10x19 10x12 10x22 10x26 21x50 21x55 18x60 Length(ft) 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 28' 28' 28' 28' 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 18' 18'6' 18'6' 10'9" 21'11" 21'11" 29'8" 29'8" 29'8" #ofGirders 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Girder 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 410 411 WShape 10x12 10x12 10x15 10X15 10X15 10x15 10x12 10x12 10x12 10x22 10x22 16x40 10x12 16x40 14X38 10x12 14X38 10x15 12x19 14x30 14x38 10x12 10x12 10x12 16x40 10x12 16x36 10x12 Length(ft) 14'8" 14'8" 18' 18' 18' 18' 12'11" 12'11" 12'11" 17'10" 17'10" 23'3" 9' 23'5" 23'3" 9' 23'5" 18'6" 18'6" 21'11" 23'4" 13' 10'7" 10'7" 23'4" 13' 23'4" 13' #ofGirders 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

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T ABLE 36: P RECASTSYSTEMGIRDERSELECTION ( ROOF )

Girder 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Wshape 16x45 16x40 16x40 16x45 18x55 18x50 18x50 18x55 10x19 10x12 10x19 10x19 10x12 10x19 10x19 10x12 10x19 10x17 10x22 10x12 10x22 12x22 21x55 21x62 21x62 Length(ft) 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 24'7" 28' 28' 28' 28' 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18' 11'5" 17'9" 18'6' 18'6' 10'9" 21'11" 21'11" 29'8" 29'8" 29'8" #ofGirders 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Girder 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 410 411 WShape 10x12 10x12 10x15 10X15 10X15 10x15 10x12 10x12 10x12 10x22 10x22 16x40 10x12 16x40 14X38 10x12 14X38 10x17 12x16 14x34 16x40 10x12 10x12 10x12 18x46 10x12 16x45 10x12 Length(ft) 14'8" 14'8" 18' 18' 18' 18' 12'11" 12'11" 12'11" 17'10" 17'10" 23'5" 9' 23'3" 23'5" 9' 23'3" 18'6" 18'6" 21'11" 23'4" 13' 10'7" 10'7" 23'4" 13' 23'4" 13' #ofGirders 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

158

AppendixC:AdditionalResults

LDA0806

T ABLE 37: C OLUMNSELECTION ( ALLCAST IN PLACESYSTEMS )

Column
Ax2 Ax3.1 Ax4 Bx1.1 BxS1 BxS2 Bx5.1 Cx1.1 CxS1 CxS2 Cx5.1 D.1x6 D.1x7 D.1x8 D.1x9 Dx1 Dx3 Dx5 Ex1 Ex3 Ex5 Ex6 Ex7 Ex8 Ex9 Fx1 Fx3 Fx5 F.1x6 F.1x7 F.1x8 F.1x9 Gx1.1 GxS1 GxS2 Gx5.1 Hx1.1 HxS1 HxS2 Hx5.1 Ix2 Ix3.1 Ix4 W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W

Floors1&2
8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 10x 10x 10x 8x 10x 10x 10x 8x 10x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 31 31 48 31 45 54 45 48 45 45 49 35 49 35 31 31 31 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W

Floors3&4
8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 10x 10x 8x 10x 10x 10x 8x 10x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 33 33 31 33 33 33 31 33 31 31 31 31 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W

Floor5
8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 10x 10x 8x 10x 10x 10x 8x 10x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 33 33 31 33 33 33 31 33 31 31 31 31 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8

159

AppendixC:AdditionalResults
T ABLE 38: P RECASTSYSTEMCOLUMNSELECTION

LDA0806

Column
Ax2 Ax3.1 Ax4 Bx1.1 BxS1 BxS2 Bx5.1 Cx1.1 CxS1 CxS2 Cx5.1 D.1x6 D.1x7 D.1x8 D.1x9 Dx1 Dx3 Dx5 Ex1 Ex3 Ex5 Ex6 Ex7 Ex8 Ex9 Fx1 Fx3 Fx5 F.1x6 F.1x7 F.1x8 F.1x9 Gx1.1 GxS1 GxS2 Gx5.1 Hx1.1 HxS1 HxS2 Hx5.1 Ix2 Ix3.1 Ix4 W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W

Floors1&2
8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 10x 8x 10x 10x 10x 8x 8x 8x 10x 8x 10x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 31 35 49 31 45 54 45 48 48 48 49 35 49 35 31 31 31 35 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W

Floors3&4
8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 10x 8x 10x 10x 10x 8x 8x 8x 10x 8x 10x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 31 31 33 31 33 33 33 31 31 31 33 31 33 31 31 31 31 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W HSS HSS W W HSS HSS W W W W

Floor5
8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 10x 8x 10x 10x 10x 8x 8x 8x 10x 8x 10x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 31 31 33 31 33 33 33 31 31 31 33 31 33 31 31 31 31 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 8x 8x 31 31 31 31 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8

160

AppendixC:AdditionalResults

LDA0806

T ABLE 39: S TEELGARAGEGIRDERLOADS

GirderDesignLoads
Add Uniform Weight Loadon of Girder Exterior (plf) Wall(plf) 3120 4524 4524 6070 936 936 533 4274 3420 4824 4524 6070 1236 1236 833 4274

Girder Type G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8

Length (ft) 36 36 36 30 40 18 12.5 6

Superimposed Load(psf) 156 156 156 152 156 156 178 178

tw (ft) 20 29 30 40 6 6 3 26.5

Mu(ft kips) 554.0 781.5 732.9 682.9 247.2 50.1 16.3 19.2

T ABLE 40: P RECASTGARAGEGIRDERDESIGNLOADS

PrecastGirderDesignLoads
GirderType Length(ft) G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 36 36 40 30 6 12.5 SuperimposedLoad UniformLoad (psf) tw(ft) onGirder(plf) 156 156 156 151.75 177.5 177.5 20 30 6 40 26.5 3 3120 4680 936 6070 1154 533

161

LDA0806

A PPENDIX D: LEED P ROJECT C HECKLIST

Sustainable Sites
Prereq 1 Credit 1 Credit 2 Credit 3
Site Selection Development Density & Community Connectivity B rownfield Redevelopment

14 Possible Points
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Construction A ctivity Pollution Prevention Required Required

Credit 4.1 A lternative T ransportation, Public Transportation Access Credit 4.2 A lternative T ransportation, Bicycle Storage & Changing Rooms Credit 4.4 A lternative T ransportation, Parking Capacity Credit 5.1 Site Development, Protect or Restore Habitat Credit 5.2 Site Development, Maximize Open Space Credit 6.1 Stormwater Design, Quantity Control Credit 6.2 Stormwater Design, Quality Control Credit 7.1 H eat Island E ffect, Non-Roof Credit 7.2 H eat Island E ffect, Roof Credit 8
L ight Pollution Reduction

Credit 4.3 A lternative T ransportation, Low Emitting & Fuel Efficient Vehicles 1

W ater E fficiency
Credit 1.1 W ater E fficient L andscaping, Reduce by 50%

5 Possible Points
1 1 1 1 1

Credit 1.2 W ater E fficient L andscaping, No Potable Use or No Irrigation Credit 2

Innovative W astewater T echnologies

Credit 3.1 W ater Use Reduction, 20% Reduction Credit 3.2 W ater Use Reduction, 30% Reduction

E nergy & A tmosphere

Prereq 1 Prereq 2 Prereq 3 Credit 1
Systems M inimum E nergy Performance F undamental Refrigerant M anagement O ptimize E nergy Performance

17 Possible Points
Required Required Required 110

F undamental Commissioning of the Building E nergy

162

AppendixD:LEEDProjectChecklist

LDA0806

(2 points mandatory for LEED for New Construction projects registered after June 26, 2007)

Credit 2 Credit 3 Credit 4 Credit 5 Credit 6

O n-Site Renewable E nergy E nhanced Commissioning E nhanced Refrigerant M anagement Measurement & V erification G reen Power

13 1 1 1 1

M aterials & Resources

Prereq 1
Storage & Collection of Recyclables

13 Possible Points
Required 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Credit 1.1 Building Reuse, Maintain 75% of Existing Walls, Floors & Roof Credit 1.2 Building Reuse, Maintain 95% of Existing Walls, Floors & Roof Credit 1.3 Building Reuse, Maintain 50% of Interior Non-Structural Elements Credit 2.1 Construction W aste M anagement, Divert 50% from Disposal Credit 2.2 Construction W aste M anagement, Divert 75% from Disposal Credit 3.1 M aterials Reuse, 5% Credit 3.2 M aterials Reuse, 10% Credit 4.1 Recycled Content, 10% (post-consumer + 1/2 pre-consumer) Credit 4.2 Recycled Content, 20% (post-consumer + 1/2 pre-consumer) Credit 5.1 Regional M aterials, 10% Extracted, Processed & Manufactured
Regionally

Credit 5.2 Regional M aterials, 20% Extracted, Processed & Manufactured

Regionally

Credit 6 Credit 7

Rapidly Renewable M aterials C ertified Wood

Indoor E nvironmental Q uality

Prereq 1 Prereq 2 Credit 1 Credit 2
M inimum I A Q Performance E nvironmental Tobacco Smoke (E TS) Control O utdoor A ir Delivery Monitoring Increased V entilation

15 Possible Points
Required Required 1 1 1

Credit 3.1 Construction I A Q M anagement Plan, During Construction

163

AppendixD:LEEDProjectChecklist

LDA0806 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Credit 3.2 Construction I A Q M anagement Plan, Before Occupancy Credit 4.1 Low-E mitting M aterials, Adhesives & Sealants Credit 4.2 Low-E mitting M aterials, Paints & Coatings Credit 4.3 Low-E mitting M aterials, Carpet Systems Credit 4.4 Low-E mitting M aterials, Composite Wood & Agrifiber Products Credit 5
Indoor C hemical & Pollutant Source Control

Credit 6.1 Controllability of Systems, Lighting Credit 6.2 Controllability of Systems, Thermal Comfort Credit 7.1 T hermal Comfort, Design Credit 7.2 T hermal Comfort, Verification Credit 8.1 Daylight & V iews, Daylight 75% of Spaces Credit 8.2 Daylight & V iews, Views for 90% of Spaces

Innovation & Design Process

Credit 1.1 Innovation in Design Credit 1.2 Innovation in Design Credit 1.3 Innovation in Design Credit 1.4 Innovation in Design Credit 2
L E E D Accredited Professional

5 Possible Points
1 1 1 1 1

Project Totals 69 Possible Points

Certified 2632 points Silver 3338 points Gold 3951 points Platinum 5269 points

164