Contents

Articles
Overview
Dwarf planet Definition of planet IAU definition of planet 1 1 11 27 39 39 51 51 62 62 86 91 91 98 101 104 107 107 126 126 136 141 145 145 147 149 149

Ceres
Ceres

Ceres direct missions

Dawn

Pluto
Pluto Moons of Pluto

Pluto moons
Charon Nix S/2011 P 1 Hydra

Pluto flyby missions

New Horizons

Haumea
Haumea Controversy over the discovery of Haumea Moons of Haumea

Haumea moons
Namaka Hi'iaka

Makemake
Makemake

Eris
Eris

155 155 166 166

Eris moons
Dysnomia

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 169 174

Article Licenses
License 177

Overview
Dwarf planet
A dwarf planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), is a celestial body in direct orbit of the Sun[1] that is massive enough that its shape is controlled by gravitational rather than mechanical forces (and thus an ellipsoid in shape), but has not cleared its neighboring region of other objects.[2][3] More explicitly, it is a planetary-mass objecthaving sufficient mass to overcome its compressive strength and achieve hydrostatic equilibriumbut not a satellite. The term dwarf planet was adopted in 2006 as part of a three-way categorization of bodies orbiting the Sun,[1] brought about by an increase in discoveries of trans-Neptunian objects that rivaled Pluto in size, and finally precipitated by the discovery of an even more massive object, Eris.[4] This classification states that bodies large enough to have cleared the neighbourhood of their orbit are defined as planets, while those that are not massive enough to be rounded by their own gravity are defined as small Solar System bodies. Dwarf planets come in between. The exclusion of dwarf planets from the roster of planets by the IAU has been both praised and criticized; it was said to be the "right decision" by Mike Brown,[5][6][7] who discovered Eris and the other new dwarf planets accepted by the IAU, but has been rejected by Alan Stern,[8][9] who had coined the term dwarf planet in 1990.[10]

Ceres as seen with the Hubble Space Telescope. It is the only dwarf planet in the asteroid belt.

The IAU currently recognizes five dwarf planets in the Solar System: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris.[11] However, only two of these bodies, Ceres and Pluto, have been observed in enough detail to demonstrate that they fit the definition. Eris has been accepted as a Pluto in approximate true colour based on Hubble dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto. The IAU Space Telescope albedo data subsequently decided that unnamed trans-Neptunian objects with an absolute magnitude brighter than +1 (and hence a mathematically delimited minimum diameter of 838km)[12] are to be named under the assumption that they are dwarf planets. The only two such objects known at the time, Makemake and Haumea, went through this naming procedure and were declared to be dwarf planets. It is suspected that at least another fifty known objects in the Solar System are dwarf planets. Estimates are that up to 200 dwarf planets may be found when the entire region known as the Kuiper belt is explored, and that the number might be as high as 2,000 when objects

Dwarf planet scattered outside the Kuiper belt are considered.[13] Mike Brown published in August 2011 his own list of 390 candidate objects, organized in categories from "nearly certainly" to "possibly" meeting the IAU's criteria, along with his classification methodology.[14] Brown identifies nine known objects the five mentioned plus 2007 OR10, Sedna, Quaoar, and Orcus as "virtually certain",[15] with another two dozen highly likely,[15] and there are probably a hundred or so such objects in total.[15] The classification of bodies in other planetary systems with the characteristics of dwarf planets has not yet been addressed.[16]

Haumea with its moons, Hiiaka and Namaka (artist's conception)

History of the concept

Before the discoveries of the early 21st century, astronomers had no strong need for a formal definition of a planet. With the discovery of Pluto in 1930, astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine planets, along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies such as asteroids and comets. For almost 50years Pluto was thought to be larger than Mercury,[17][18] but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto's moon Charon, it became possible to measure Pluto's mass accurately and determine that it is much smaller than the initial estimates.[19] It was roughly one-twentieth the mass of Mercury, which made Pluto by far the smallest planet. Although it was still more than ten times as massive as the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, it was one-fifth that of Earth's Moon.[20] Furthermore, having some unusual characteristics such as large orbital eccentricity and a high orbital inclination, it became evident it was a completely different kind of body from any of the other planets.[21]

Makemake (artist's conception)

In the 1990s, astronomers began to find objects in the same region of space as Pluto (now known as the Kuiper belt), and some even farther away.[22] Many of these shared some of the key orbital characteristics of Pluto, and Pluto started being seen as the largest member of a new class of objects, plutinos. This led some astronomers to stop referring to Pluto as a planet. Several terms including minor planet, subplanet, and planetoid started to be used for the bodies now known as dwarf planets.[23][24] By 2005, three other bodies comparable to Pluto in Eris as seen with the Hubble Space Telescope terms of size and orbit (Quaoar, Sedna, and Eris) had been reported in [25] the scientific literature. It became clear that either they would also have to be classified as planets, or Pluto would have to be reclassified.[26] Astronomers were also confident that more objects as large as Pluto would be discovered, and the number of planets would start growing quickly if Pluto were to remain a planet.[27] In 2006, Eris (then known as 2003 UB313) was believed to be slightly larger than Pluto, and some reports unofficially referred to it as the tenth planet.[28] As a consequence, the issue became a matter of intense debate during the IAU General Assembly in August 2006.[29] The IAU's initial draft proposal included Charon, Eris, and

Dwarf planet Ceres in the list of planets. After many astronomers objected to this proposal, an alternative was drawn up by Uruguayan astronomer Julio ngel Fernndez, in which he created a median classification for objects large enough to be round but that had not cleared their orbits of planetesimals. Dropping Charon from the list, the new proposal also removed Pluto, Ceres, and Eris, since they have not cleared their orbits.[30] The IAU's final resolution preserved this three-category system for the celestial bodies orbiting the Sun. Fernndez suggested calling these median objects planetoids,[31][32] but the IAU's division III plenary session voted unanimously to call them dwarf planets.[1] The resolution, #5A, reads: The IAU... resolves that planets and other bodies, except satellites, in our Solar System be defined into three distinct categories in the following way: (1) A planet1 is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit. (2) A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape,2 (c) has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite. (3) All other objects,3 except satellites, orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as "Small Solar System Bodies."
Footnotes:
1 2 3

The eight planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. An IAU process will be established to assign borderline objects either dwarf planet or other status. These currently include most of the Solar System asteroids, most Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), comets, and other small

bodies.

The term dwarf planet has itself been somewhat controversial, as a grammatical reading suggests these bodies are planets. The IAU's Resolution 5A was accompanied by a second resolution, 5B, which defined dwarf planets as a subtype of planet, distinguished from the other eight which were to be called "classical planets". Under this arrangement, the twelve planets of the rejected proposal were to be preserved in a distinction between eight "classical planets" and four "dwarf planets". However, resolution 5B was defeated in the same session that 5A was passed, so that only the dwarf planet half of the proposal was made official.[33] Because of the grammatical inconsistency of a dwarf planet not being a planet, while a dwarf star is a star, alternative proposals such as nanoplanet and subplanet were suggested. However, it was judged that the term dwarf planet had already entered general use and that it was too late to change it.[34] The term is parallel to minor planet, which is not a type of planet. In most languages equivalent terms have been created by translating dwarf planet more-or-less literally: French plante naine, German Zwergplanet, Russian karlikovaya planeta, Arabic kaukab qazm, Chinese ixngxng, etc., but Japanese is an exception: In Japanese these bodies are called junwakusei , where wakusei is 'planet' and jun- is a prefix corresponding to English quasi-, pene- (almost), and sub-. Thus in Japanese they are called 'subplanets' or 'almost-planets'. Although concerns were raised about the classification of planets orbiting other stars,[16] the issue was not resolved; it was proposed instead to decide this only when such objects start being observed.[30] The 2006 IAU's Resolution 6a[35] recognizes Pluto as "the prototype of a new category of trans-Neptunian objects". The name and precise nature of this category were not specified but left for the IAU to establish at a later date; in the debate leading up to the resolution, the members of the category were variously referred to as plutons and plutonian objects but neither name was carried forward.[1] On June 11, 2008, the IAU Executive Committee announced a name, plutoid, and a definition: all trans-Neptunian dwarf planets are plutoids,[36] though "in part because of an email miscommunication, the WG-PSN was not involved in choosing the word plutoid. .... In fact, a vote taken by the WG-PSN (Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature) subsequent to the Executive Committee meeting

Dwarf planet has rejected the use of that specic term."[37] On July 18, 2008, the WG-PSN classified the object then known as (136472) 2005 FY9 as a dwarf planet, and named it Makemake; this was followed in September by Haumea.[38]

Characteristics
Planetary discriminants[39]
Body Mercury Venus Earth Mars Ceres Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Haumea Makemake Eris Mass (ME*) 0.055 0.815 1 0.107 0.00015 317.7 95.2 14.5 17.1 0.0022 0.00067 0.00067 0.0028 ** 1.95103 *** 9.1104

1.66105 1.35106 1.53105 9.42102 8.32104 1.7106 1.8105 0.33

1.30109 6.25105 4.68107 3.85105 2.73105 2.95103 2.68104 2.22104 2.13103 1.9105 2.9104 2.4104 0.077 0.02 0.02 [40]

0.10

*ME in Earth masses. ** = k M2 a3/2, where k = 0.0043 for units of Yg and AU. > 1 for planets. ** = M/m, where M is the mass of the body, and m is the aggregate mass of all the other bodies that share its orbital zone. > 100 for planets. [41]

Orbital dominance
Alan Stern and Harold F. Levison introduced a parameter (lambda), expressing the likelihood of an encounter resulting in a given deflection of orbit.[41] The value of this parameter in Stern's model is proportional to the square of the mass and inversely proportional to the period. Following the authors, this value can be used to estimate the capacity of a body to clear the neighbourhood of its orbit, where > 1 will eventually clear it. A gap of five orders of magnitude in was found between the smallest terrestrial planets and the largest asteroids and Kuiper belt objects.[39] Using this parameter, Steven Soter and other astronomers argued for a distinction between planets and dwarf planets based on the inability of the latter to "clear the neighbourhood around their orbits": planets are able to remove smaller bodies near their orbits by collision, capture, or gravitational disturbance (or establish orbital resonances that prevent collisions), while dwarf planets lack the mass to do so.[41] Soter went on to propose a parameter he called the planetary discriminant, designated with the symbol (mu), that represents an experimental measure of the actual

Dwarf planet degree of cleanliness of the orbital zone (where is calculated by dividing the mass of the candidate body by the total mass of the other objects that share its orbital zone), where > 100 is deemed to be cleared.[39] There are several other schemes that try to differentiate between planets and dwarf planets,[8] but the 2006 definition uses this concept.[1]

Size and mass

Sufficient internal pressure, caused by the body's gravitation, will turn a body plastic, and sufficient plasticity will allow high elevations to sink and hollows to fill in, a process known as gravitational relaxation. Bodies smaller than a few kilometers are dominated by non-gravitational forces and tend to be angular in shape. Larger objects, where gravitation is significant but not dominant, are "potato" shaped; the more massive the body is, the higher its internal pressure and the more rounded its shape, until it achieves maximum rounding at hydrostatic equilibrium. This is the defining limit of a dwarf planet.[42] When an object is in hydrostatic equilibrium, a global layer of liquid covering its surface would form a liquid surface of the same shape as the body, apart from small-scale surface features such as craters and fissures. If the body does not rotate, it will be a sphere, but the faster it does rotate, the more oblate or even scalene it becomes. However, if such a rotating body were to be heated until it melted, its overall shape would not change when liquid. The extreme example of a non-spherical body in hydrostatic equilibrium is Haumea, which is twice as long along its major axis as it is at the poles. The upper and lower size and mass limits of dwarf planets have not been specified by the IAU. There is no defined upper limit, and an object larger or more massive than Mercury that has not "cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit" would be classified as a dwarf planet.[43] The lower limit is determined by the requirements of achieving a hydrostatic equilibrium shape, but the size or mass at which an object attains this shape depends on its composition and thermal history. The original draft of the 2006 IAU resolution redefined hydrostatic equilibrium shape as applying "to objects with mass above 51020kg and diameter greater than 800km",[16] but this was not retained in the final draft.[1]

Empirical observations suggest that the lower limit will vary according to the composition and thermal history of the object. For a body made of rigid silicates, such as the stony asteroids, the transition to hydrostatic equilibrium should occur at a diameter of approximately 600km and a mass of some 3.41020kg. For a body made of less rigid water ice, the limit should be about 320km and 1019kg.[44] In the asteroid belt, Ceres is the only body that clearly surpasses the silicaceous limit (though it is actually a rockyicy body), and its shape is an equilibrium spheroid. 2 Pallas and 4 Vesta, however, are rocky and are just below the limit. Pallas, at 525560km and 1.852.41020kg, is "nearly round" but still somewhat irregular. Vesta, at 530km and 2.61020kg, deviates from an ellipsoid shape primarily due to a large impact basin at its pole, but even so its equatorial diameters are not equal as they would be under equilibrium, and as they are for Ceres. Among icy bodies, the smallest known to be in hydrostatic equilibrium is Mimas, at 396km and 3.751019kg. The largest irregular body in the outer Solar System is Proteus, nearly-but-not-quite round at 405435km and an assumed mass of 4.41019kg. Bodies like Mimas may have had a warmer thermal history than Proteus, or their shape may have resolved after a collision.[45] Neither body is pure ice as used to calculate the lowest limit, however, and Mike Brown suggests that the practical lower limit for an icy dwarf planet is likely to be somewhere under 400km.[13] There are about 100 TNOs currently estimated to be above this size.

The masses of the four largest plutoids, plus Ceres and Charon, relative to the Earth's Moon. The mass of Makemake is a rough estimate. (See plutoid for a graph of several additional dwarf planet candidates without Ceres.)

Dwarf planet

Official and "nearly certain" dwarf planets

As of 2011, there are five objects officially classified as dwarf planets,[46] with four others thought to be "nearly certain".[15] For two of these, Ceres and Pluto, this is known through direct observation. The other seven are thought to be dwarf planets from mathematical modeling: they are large enough or massive enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium even if they are primarily rocky and at the lower end of their estimated values. Eris is more massive than Pluto; Haumea and Makemake were accepted as dwarf planets based on their absolute magnitudes.[11][35] In relative distance from the Sun, the five are: 1. Ceres discovered on January 1, 1801, 45years before Neptune. Considered a planet for half a century before reclassification as an asteroid. Accepted as a dwarf planet by the IAU on September 13, 2006. 2. Pluto discovered on February 18, 1930. Classified as a planet for 76years. Reclassified as a dwarf planet by the IAU on August 24, 2006. 3. Haumea discovered on December 28, 2004. Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on September 17, 2008. 4. Makemake discovered on March 31, 2005. Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on July 11, 2008. 5. Eris discovered on January 5, 2005. Called the "tenth planet" in media reports. Accepted by the IAU as a dwarf planet on September 13, 2006. Brown's list identifies four other objects as "nearly certainly" being dwarf planets: 1. 2. 3. 4. Orcus discovered on February 17, 2004. Quaoar discovered on June 5, 2002. 2007 OR10 discovered on July 17, 2007. Sedna discovered on November 14, 2003.

No space probes have visited any of these. This will change if NASA's Dawn and New Horizons missions reach Ceres and Pluto, respectively. The plans are for Dawn to orbit Ceres, and New Horizons to fly by Pluto, both in 2015. Dawn entered orbit around the potential dwarf planet Vesta on July 16, 2011.[47]
Orbital attributes of dwarf planets Name Region of Solar System Orbital radius (AU) Orbital period (years) 4.60 248.09 283.28 309.9 557 4.419 3.436 [48]

Mean Inclination Orbital Planetary orbital to ecliptic eccentricity discriminant speed (km/s) 17.882 4.666 10.59 17.14 28.22 28.96 44.19 0.079 0.249 0.195 0.159 0.442 0.33 0.077 0.020 0.02 0.10

Ceres Pluto Haumea

Asteroid belt Kuiper belt (plutino) Kuiper belt (12:7)

2.77 39.48 43.13 45.79 67.67

Makemake Kuiper belt (cubewano) Eris Scattered disc

Physical attributes of dwarf planets Name Equatorial Equatorial Mass Axial Rotation Moons Surface Atmosphere Mass Density Surface Escape diameter relative (1021 kg) (g/cm3) gravity velocity inclination period temp. diameter relative to (km)[15] to 2 (km/s) (days) (K) (m/s ) the Moon the Moon 28% 66% 37% 974.63.2 230620 1300? 1.3% 17.8% 5.5% 0.94 13.05 2.08 2.0 0.27 0.58 0.51 1.2 3 119.59 0.38 6.39 0.16 0 4 2 167 44 323 none transient ?

Ceres Pluto Haumea

4.010.04 2.63.3 (?) 3? ? ?

Makemake

41%

142060

4% ?

0.32

30

transient?

Dwarf planet

7
67% 232612 22.7% 16.7 2.5 0.8 1.3 1 (0.751.4) 1 42 transient?

Eris

Orbital attributes of "nearly certain" dwarf planets Name Region of Solar System Orbital radius (AU) Orbital period (years) 245.18 285.97 550.98 ~11,400

[48]

Mean Inclination Orbital Planetary orbital to ecliptic eccentricity discriminant speed (km/s) 20.57 8.00 30.70 11.93 0.227 0.039 0.500 0.853 0.003 0.0070.010 ? ?

Orcus Quaoar 2007 OR10 Sedna

Kuiper belt (plutino) Kuiper belt (cubewano) Scattered disc (10:3?) Detached

39.17 43.405 67.21 518.57

Physical attributes of "nearly certain" dwarf planets Name Equatorial Equatorial Mass Axial Rotation Moons Surface Atmosphere Mass Density Surface Escape diameter diameter relative (1021 kg) (g/cm3) gravity velocity inclination period temp. relative to (km) to 2 (km/s) (days) (K) (m/s ) the Moon the Moon 22% 26% 35% 30% 760810 89070 1200250 995 80 ~1.4% 0.9% 1.82.6% 0.63 1.6 0.3 ? ~1 ? ? 0.55 0.74 ? 0.42 1 1 0 0 12

Orcus Quaoar 2007 OR10 Sedna

Additional candidates
After Ceres, the next-most-massive body in the asteroid belt, Vesta, might also be classified as a dwarf planet, as its shape appears to deviate from hydrostatic equilibrium mainly because of a large impact that occurred after it solidified.[49] The definition of dwarf planet does not specifically address this issue. The Dawn probe orbiting Vesta since July 2011 may help clarify matters.[50]

Many trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) are thought to have icy cores and therefore would require a diameter of perhaps 400km (250mi)only about 3% of that of Earthto relax into gravitational equilibrium, making them dwarf planets of the plutoid class.[13] Although only rough estimates of the diameters of these objects are available, as of 2011 it was believed that a hundred of the known bodies beyond Neptune were probable dwarf planets.[15] A team is investigating thirty of these, and believe that the number will eventually prove to be about 200 in the Kuiper belt and many more beyond.[13]

Illustration of the relative sizes, albedos, and colours of the largest trans-Neptunian objects

Dwarf planet

Planetary-mass moons
Nineteen moons are known to be massive enough to have relaxed into a rounded shape under their own gravity. These bodies have no significant physical differences from the dwarf planets, but are not members of that class under the IAU definition because they do not directly orbit the Sun. They are Earth's moon, the four Galilean moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto), seven moons of Saturn (Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus), five moons of Uranus (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon), one moon of Neptune (Triton), and one moon of Pluto (Charon). The term planemo ("planetary-mass object") covers both dwarf planets and such moons, as well as planets.[51] Alan Stern considers them a special category of planets, "satellite planets".[52] Despite its requirement that dwarf planets orbit the Sun directly, draft resolution (5)[16] presented to the IAU, which considered dwarf planets to be a category of planet, stated Charon could be considered a planet because it revolves with Pluto around a common center of mass located between the two bodies (rather than within one of the bodies).[53] Note, however, that the JupiterSun centre of mass lies outside the Sun, and so such a definition would imply that Jupiter is not a satellite of the Sun and therefore not a planet. This definition was not preserved in the IAU's final resolution.

Contention
In the immediate aftermath of the IAU definition of dwarf planet, a number of scientists expressed their disagreement with the IAU resolution.[8] Campaigns included car bumper stickers and T-shirts.[54] Mike Brown (the discoverer of Eris) agrees with the reduction of the number of planets to eight.[55] NASA has announced that it will use the new guidelines established by the IAU.[56] However, Alan Stern, the director of NASA's mission to Pluto, rejects the current IAU definition of planet, both in terms of defining dwarf planets as something other than a type of planet, and in using orbital characteristics (rather than intrinsic characteristics) of objects to define them as dwarf planets.[57] Thus, as of January 2008, he and his team still referred to Pluto as the ninth planet,[58] and accept other dwarf planets such as Ceres and Eris as additional planets.

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ISBN978-3-540-37683-5. . Retrieved 2008-02-10. [21] Weintraub, David A. (2006). Is Pluto a Planet? A Historical Journey through the Solar System. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press. pp.1272. ISBN978-0-691-12348-6. [22] Phillips, Tony; Phillips, Amelia (2006-09-04). "Much Ado about Pluto" (http:/ / www. plutopetition. com/ unplanet. php). PlutoPetition.com. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [23] "Planetoids Beyond Pluto" (http:/ / www. astrobio. net/ news/ modules. php?op=modload& name=News& file=article& sid=1366). Astrobiology Magazine. 2004-12-30. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [24] "Hubble Observes Planetoid Sedna, Mystery Deepens" (http:/ / hubblesite. org/ newscenter/ archive/ releases/ 2004/ 14/ ). NASA's Hubble Space Telescope home site. 2004-04-14. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [25] Brown, Michael E.. "The Discovery of Eris, the Largest Known Dwarf Planet" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ planetlila/ ). California Institute of Technology, Department of Geological Sciences. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [26] Brown, Michael E. (2004). "What is the definition of a planet?" (http:/ / web. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ sedna/ index. html#planets). California Institute of Technology, Department of Geological Sciences. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [27] Brown, Mike (2006-08-16). "War of the Worlds" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 08/ 16/ opinion/ 16brown. html). New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-02-20. [28] "Astronomers Measure Mass of Largest Dwarf Planet" (http:/ / hubblesite. org/ newscenter/ archive/ releases/ 2007/ 24/ full/ ). NASA's Hubble Space Telescope home site. 2007-06-14. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [29] Brown, Michael E.. "What makes a planet?" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ whatsaplanet/ ). California Institute of Technology, Department of Geological Sciences. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [30] Britt, Robert Roy (2006-08-19). "Details Emerge on Plan to Demote Pluto" (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 060819_new_proposal. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2006-08-18. [31] Bailey, Mark E.. "Comments & discussions on Resolution 5: The definition of a planet Planets Galore" (http:/ / astro. cas. cz/ nuncius/ appendix. html). Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo, Series Tertia official newspaper of the IAU General Assembly 2006. Astronomical Institute Prague. . Retrieved 2008-02-09. [32] "Dos uruguayos, Julio Fernndez y Gonzalo Tancredi en la historia de la astronoma:reducen la cantidad de planetas de 9 a 8 ...&Anotaciones de Tancredi" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071220063342/ http:/ / www. ici. edu. uy/ perfilASTRO. htm) (in Spanish). Science and Research Institute, Mercedes, Uruguay. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ici. edu. uy/ perfilASTRO. htm) on December 20, 2007. . Retrieved 2008-02-11. [33] Mike Brown, 2010. How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming. [34] IAU (2009). Reports on Astronomy 20062009 (http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ article_S1743921308025398). Transactions of the IAU, vol. XXVII-A [35] "IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0603). . [36] "Plutoid chosen as name for Solar System objects like Pluto" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0804/ ) (Press release). . [37] IAU (2009). Division III (Planetary Systems Sciences): Triennial Report 20062009 (http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ article_S1743921308025398). Transactions IAU, Volume XXVIIA [38] "Minor Planets, Dwarf Planets" (http:/ / cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ Headlines. html). IAU. . Retrieved 2010-10-24. [39] Soter, Steven (2006-08-16). "What is a Planet?". The Astronomical Journal 132 (6): 251319. arXiv:astro-ph/0608359. Bibcode2006AJ....132.2513S. doi:10.1086/508861. [40] Calculated using the estimate for the mass of the Kuiper belt found in Iorio, 2007 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2007MNRAS. tmp. . . 24I) of 0.033 Earth masses

Dwarf planet
[41] Stern, S. Alan; Levison; and Levison, Harold F. (2002). "Regarding the criteria for planethood and proposed planetary classification schemes" (http:/ / www. boulder. swri. edu/ ~hal/ PDF/ planet_def. pdf) (PDF). Highlights of Astronomy 12: 205213, as presented at the XXIVth General Assembly of the IAU2000 [Manchester, UK, 718 August 2000]. Bibcode2002HiA....12..205S. . [42] Lineweaver & Marc Norman, 2010, "The Potato Radius: a Lower Minimum Size for Dwarf Planets" [43] Indeed, Mike Brown has set out to find such an object. ( "Julia Sweeney and Michael E. Brown" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080626220548/ http:/ / www. pluggd. tv/ audio/ channels/ kcet_podcast__hammer_conversations/ episodes/ 2h10l). Hammer Conversations: KCET podcast. 2007. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. pluggd. tv/ audio/ channels/ kcet_podcast__hammer_conversations/ episodes/ 2h10l) on 2008-06-26. . Retrieved 2008-06-28.) [44] G.H.A. Cole, 2000, "Minimum Radius And Mass For A Planetary Body" (http:/ / www. hull. ac. uk/ php/ dmsghc/ planets/ html/ v_minimum_radius_and_mass_for_a_planetary_body. htm) [45] McKinnon, William B. et al. (2008). "Structure and Evolution of Kuiper Belt Objects and Dwarf Planets" (http:/ / www. lpi. usra. edu/ books/ ssbn2008/ 7035. pdf). In Barucci, M. A. et al.. The Solar System Beyond Neptune. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. p.220. Bibcode2008ssbn.book..213M. ISBN978081652757 . . [46] "IAU names fifth dwarf planet Haumea" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ detail/ iau0807/ ). Paris: International Astronomical Union. 2008-09-17. . Retrieved 16 September 2011. [47] http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ status. asp accessed 2011-07-25 [48] Bowell, Ted. "The Asteroid Orbital Elements Database" (ftp:/ / ftp. lowell. edu/ pub/ elgb/ astorb. html). Lowell Observatory. . Retrieved 2008-02-12. [49] Thomas, Peter C.; Binzelb, Richard P.; Gaffeyc, Michael J.; Zellnerd, Benjamin H.; Storrse, Alex D.; Wells, Eddie (1997). "Vesta: Spin Pole, Size, and Shape from HST Images". Icarus 128 (1): 8894. Bibcode1997Icar..128...88T. doi:10.1006/icar.1997.5736. [50] Russel, C.T.; Capaccioni, F.; Coradini, A.; et al. (2006). "Dawn Discovery mission to Vesta and Ceres: Present status". Advances in Space Research 38 (9): 204348. Bibcode2006AdSpR..38.2043R. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2004.12.041. [51] Basri, G.; Brown, M.E. (2006). "Planetesimals to Brown Dwarfs: What is a Planet?" (http:/ / siba. unipv. it/ fisica/ articoli/ A/ Annual Review Earth Planetary Sciences_vol. 34_2006_pp. 193-216. pdf) (PDF). Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 34: 193216. arXiv:astro-ph/0608417. Bibcode2006AREPS..34..193B. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125058. . [52] "Should Large Moons Be Called 'Satellite Planets'?" (http:/ / news. discovery. com/ space/ should-large-moons-be-called-satellite-planets. html). News.discovery.com. 2010-05-14. . Retrieved 2011-11-04. [53] The footnote in the original text reads: For two or more objects comprising a multiple object system.... A secondary object satisfying these conditions i.e. that of mass, shape is also designated a planet if the system barycentre resides outside the primary. Secondary objects not satisfying these criteria are "satellites". Under this definition, Pluto's companion Charon is a planet, making PlutoCharon a double planet. [54] Chang, Alicia (2006-08-25). "Online merchants see green in Pluto news" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ tech/ science/ space/ 2006-08-25-pluto-memorabilia_x. htm). Associated Press (USA Today). . Retrieved 2008-01-25. [55] Brown, Michael E.. "The Eight Planets" (http:/ / web. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ eightplanets/ ). California Institute of Technology, Department of Geological Sciences. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [56] "Hotly-Debated Solar System Object Gets a Name" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ vision/ universe/ solarsystem/ erisf-20060914. html). NASA press release. 2006-09-14. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [57] Stern, Alan (2006-09-06). "Unabashedly Onward to the Ninth Planet" (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ overview/ piPerspectives/ piPerspective_09_06_2006. php). New Horizons Web Site. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [58] Stern, Alan (2008-01-17). "Happy Birthday New Horizons! Two Years on the Road to the Ninth Planet" (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ overview/ piPerspectives/ piPerspective_01_17_2008. php). New Horizons Web Site. . Retrieved 2008-01-26.

10

External links
NPR: Dwarf Planets May Finally Get Respect (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story. php?storyId=5631291) (David Kestenbaum) BBC News: Q&A New planets proposal (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4798205.stm), August 16, 2006 Ottawa Citizen: The case against Pluto (http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story. html?id=a9591aed-f19f-4ac3-a324-1f8bb46d9379&p=2) (P. Surdas Mohit) August 24, 2006 James L. Hilton, When Did the asteroids Become Minor Planets? (http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/ minorplanets.php) NASA: IYA 2009 Dwarf Planets (http://astronomy2009.nasa.gov/topics_sep.htm) How Many Dwarfs Are There? (http://www.boingboing.net/2010/12/15/how-many-dwarfs-are.html) (Mike Brown Dec 15, 2010)

Definition of planet

11

Definition of planet
The definition of planet, since the word was coined by the ancient Greeks, has included within its scope a wide range of celestial bodies. Greek astronomers employed the term asteres planetai ( ), "wandering stars", for objects which apparently move over the sky. Over the millennia, the term has included a variety of different objects, from the Sun and the Moon to satellites and asteroids. By the end of the 19th century the word planet, though it had yet to be defined, had become a working term Photograph of the crescent planet Neptune (top) and its moon Triton (center), taken by applied only to a small set of objects in Voyager 2 during its 1989 flyby the Solar System. After 1992, however, astronomers began to discover many additional objects beyond the orbit of Neptune, as well as hundreds of objects orbiting other stars. These discoveries not only increased the number of potential planets, but also expanded their variety and peculiarity. Some were nearly large enough to be stars, while others were smaller than Earth's moon. These discoveries challenged long-perceived notions of what a planet could be. The issue of a clear definition for planet came to a head in 2005 with the discovery of the trans-Neptunian object Eris, a body larger than the smallest then-accepted planet, Pluto. In its 2006 response, the International Astronomical Union (IAU), recognised by astronomers as the world body responsible for resolving issues of nomenclature, released its decision on the matter. This definition, which applies only to the Solar System, states that a planet is a body that orbits the Sun, is massive enough for its own gravity to make it round, and has "cleared its neighbourhood" of smaller objects around its orbit. Under this new definition, Pluto and the other trans-Neptunian objects do not qualify as planets. The IAU's decision has not resolved all controversies, and while many scientists have accepted the definition, some in the astronomical community have rejected it outright.

Definition of planet

12

History
Planets in antiquity
While knowledge of the planets predates history and is common to most civilisations, the word planet dates back to ancient Greece. Most Greeks believed the Earth to be stationary and at the centre of the universe in accordance with the geocentric model and that the objects in the sky, and indeed the sky itself, revolved around it. (An exception was Aristarchus of Samos who put forward an early version of Heliocentrism.) Greek astronomers employed the term asteres planetai ( ), "wandering stars",[1][2] to describe those starlike lights in the heavens that moved over the course of the year, in contrast to the asteres aplaneis ( ), the "fixed stars", which stayed motionless relative to one another. The five bodies currently called "planets" that were known to the Greeks were those visible to the naked eye: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Graeco-Roman cosmology commonly considered seven planets, with the Sun and the Moon counted among them (as is the case in modern astrology); however, there is some ambiguity on that point, as many ancient astronomers distinguished the five starlike planets from the Sun and Moon. As the 19th century German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt noted in his work Cosmos, Of the seven cosmical bodies which, by their continually varying relative positions and distances apart, have ever since the remotest antiquity been distinguished from the "unwandering orbs" of the heaven of the "fixed stars", which to all sensible appearance preserve their relative positions and distances unchanged, five onlyMercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturnwear the appearance of stars"cinque stellas errantes"while the Sun and Moon, from the size of their disks, their importance to man, and the place assigned to them in mythological systems, were classed apart.[3] In his Timaeus, written in roughly 360 BC, Plato mentions, "the Sun and Moon and five other stars, which are called the planets".[4] His student Aristotle makes a similar distinction in his On the Heavens: "The movements of the sun and moon are fewer than those of some of the planets".[5] In his Phaenomena, which set to verse an astronomical treatise written by the philosopher Eudoxus in roughly 350 BC,[6] the poet Aratus describes "those five other orbs, that intermingle with [the constellations] and wheel wandering on every side of the twelve figures of the Zodiac."[7] In his Almagest written in the 2nd century, Ptolemy refers to "the Sun, Moon and five planets."[8] Hyginus explicitly mentions "the five stars which many have called wandering, and which the Greeks call Planeta."[9] Marcus Manilius, a Latin writer who lived during the time of Caesar Augustus and whose poem Astronomica is considered one of the principal texts for modern astrology, says, "Now the dodecatemory is divided into five parts, for so many are the stars called wanderers which with passing brightness shine in heaven."[10]
The planets as understood before the acceptance of the heliocentric model The philosopher Plato

The single view of the seven planets is found in Cicero's Dream of Scipio, written sometime around 53 BC, where the spirit of Scipio Africanus proclaims, "Seven of these spheres contain the planets, one planet in each sphere, which all move contrary to the movement of heaven."[11] In his Natural History, written in 77 AD, Pliny the Elder refers to "the seven stars, which owing to their motion we call planets, though no stars wander less than they do."[12] Nonnus, the 5th century Greek poet, says in his Dionysiaca, "I have oracles of history on seven tablets, and the

Definition of planet tablets bear the names of the seven planets."[9]

13

Planets in the Middle Ages

Medieval and Renaissance writers generally accepted the idea of seven planets. The standard medieval introduction to astronomy, Sacrobosco's De Sphaera, includes the Sun and Moon among the planets,[13] the more advanced Theorica planetarum presents the "theory of the seven planets,"[14] while the instructions to the Alfonsine Tables show how "to find by means of tables the mean motuses of the sun, moon, and the rest of the planets."[15] In his Confessio Amantis, 14th century poet John Gower, referring to the planets' connection with the craft of alchemy, writes, "Of the planetes ben begonne/The gold is tilted to the Sonne/The Mone of Selver hath his part...", indicating that the Sun and the Moon were planets.[16] Even Nicolaus Copernicus, who rejected the geocentric model, was ambivalent concerning whether the Sun and Moon were planets. In his De Revolutionibus, Copernicus clearly separates "the sun, moon, planets and stars";[17] however, in his Dedication of the work to Pope Paul III, Copernicus refers to, "the motion of the sun and the moon... and of the five other planets."[18]

John Gower

Earth
Eventually, when Copernicus's heliocentric model was accepted over the geocentric, Earth was placed among the planets and the Sun and Moon were reclassified, necessitating a conceptual revolution in the understanding of planets. As the historian of science Thomas Kuhn noted in his book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions:[19] The Copernicans who denied its traditional title 'planet' to the sun ... were changing the meaning of 'planet' so that it would continue to make useful distinctions in a world where all celestial bodies ... were seen differently from the way they had been seen before... Looking at the moon, the convert to Copernicanism ... says, 'I once took the moon to be (or saw the moon as) a planet, but I was mistaken.'

Copernicus

Copernicus obliquely refers to Earth as a planet in De Revolutionibus when he says, "Having thus assumed the motions which I ascribe to the Earth later on in the volume, by long and intense study I finally found that if the motions of the other planets are correlated with the orbiting of the earth..."[17] Galileo also asserts that Earth is a planet in the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems: "[T]he Earth, no less than the moon or any other planet, is to be numbered among the natural bodies that move circularly."[20]

Definition of planet

14

Modern planets
In 1781, the astronomer William Herschel was searching the sky for elusive stellar parallaxes, when he observed what he termed a comet in the constellation of Taurus. Unlike stars, which remained mere points of light even under high magnification, this object's size increased in proportion to the power used. That this strange object might have been a planet simply did not occur to Herschel; the five planets beyond Earth had been part of humanity's conception of the universe since antiquity. As the asteroids had yet to be discovered, comets were the only moving objects one expected to find in a telescope.[21] However, unlike a comet, this object's orbit was nearly circular and within the ecliptic plane. Before Herschel announced his discovery of his "comet", his colleague, British Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne, wrote to him, saying, "I don't know what to William Herschel, discoverer of call it. It is as likely to be a regular planet moving in an orbit nearly circular to Uranus the sun as a Comet moving in a very eccentric ellipsis. I have not yet seen any coma or tail to it."[22] The "comet" was also very far away, too far away for a mere comet to resolve itself. Eventually it was recognised as the seventh planet and named Uranus after the father of Saturn. Gravitationally induced irregularities in Uranus's observed orbit led eventually to the discovery of Neptune in 1846, and presumed irregularities in Neptune's orbit subsequently led to a search which did not find the perturbing object (it was later found to be a purely mathematical construct due to inaccuracies in Uranus' mass) but did find Pluto in 1930. Initially believed to be roughly the mass of the Earth, observation gradually shrank Pluto's estimated mass until it was revealed to be a mere five hundredth as large; far too small to have influenced Neptune's orbit at all.[21] In 1989, Voyager 2 determined the irregularities to be due to an overestimation of Neptune's mass.[23]

Satellites
When Copernicus placed the Earth among the planets, he also placed the Moon in orbit around the Earth, making the Moon the first natural satellite to be identified. When Galileo discovered his four satellites of Jupiter in 1610, they lent weight to Copernicus's argument, since if other planets could have satellites, then the Earth could too. However, there remained some confusion as to whether these objects were "planets"; Galileo referred to them as "four planets flying around the star of Jupiter at unequal intervals and periods with wonderful swiftness."[24] Similarly, Christiaan Huygens, upon discovering Saturn's largest moon Titan in 1655, employed many terms to describe it, including "planeta", (planet) "stella" (star) "Luna" (moon), and the more modern "satellite".[25] Giovanni Cassini, in announcing his discovery of Saturn's moons Iapetus and Galileo Galilei Rhea in 1671 and 1672, described them as Nouvelles Planetes autour de Saturne ("New planets around Saturn").[26] However, when the "Journal de Scavans" reported Cassini's discovery of two new Saturnian moons in 1686, it referred to them strictly as "satellites".[27] When William Herschel announced his discovery of two objects in orbit around Uranus in 1787, he referred to them as "satellites" and "secondary planets".[28] All subsequent reports of natural satellite discoveries used the term "satellite" exclusively,[29] though the 1868 book "Smith's Illustrated Astronomy" referred to satellites as "secondary planets".[30]

Definition of planet

15

Minor planets
One of the unexpected results of William Herschel's discovery of Uranus was that it appeared to validate Bode's law, a mathematical function which generates the size of the semimajor axis of planetary orbits. Astronomers had considered the "law" a meaningless coincidence, but Uranus fell at very nearly the exact distance it predicted. Since Bode's law also predicted a body between Mars and Jupiter that at that point had not been observed, astronomers turned their attention to that region in the hope that it might be vindicated again. Finally, in 1801, astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi found a miniature new world, Ceres, lying at just the correct point in space. The object was hailed as a new planet.[31] Then in 1802, Heinrich Olbers discovered Pallas, a second "planet" at roughly the same distance from the Sun as Ceres. That two planets could occupy the Giuseppe Piazzi, discoverer of Ceres same orbit was an affront to centuries of thinking; even Shakespeare had ridiculed the idea ("Two stars keep not their motion in one sphere").[32] Even so, in 1804, another world, Juno, was discovered in a similar orbit.[31] In 1807, Olbers discovered a fourth object, Vesta, at a similar orbital distance. Herschel suggested that these four worlds be given their own separate classification, asteroids (meaning "starlike" since they were too small for their disks to resolve and thus resembled stars), though most astronomers preferred to refer to them as planets.[31] This conception was entrenched by the fact that, due to the difficulty of distinguishing asteroids from yet-uncharted stars, those four remained the only asteroids known until 1845.[33][34] Science textbooks in 1828, after Herschel's death, still numbered the asteroids among the planets.[31] With the arrival of more refined star charts, the search for asteroids resumed, and a fifth and sixth were discovered by Karl Ludwig Hencke in 1845 and 1847.[34] By 1851 the number of asteroids had increased to 15, and a new method of classifying them, by affixing a number before their names in order of discovery, was adopted, inadvertently placing them in their own distinct category. Ceres became "(1) Ceres", Pallas became "(2) Pallas", and so on. By the 1860s, the number of known asteroids had increased to over a hundred, and observatories in Europe and the United States began referring to them collectively as "minor planets", or "small planets", though it took the first four asteroids longer to be grouped as such.[31] To this day, "minor planet" remains the official designation for all small bodies in orbit around the Sun, and each new discovery is numbered accordingly in the IAU's Minor Planet Catalogue.[35]

Pluto
The long road from planethood to reconsideration undergone by Ceres is mirrored in the story of Pluto, which was named a planet soon after its discovery by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930. Uranus and Neptune had been declared planets based on their circular orbits, large masses and proximity to the ecliptic plane. None of these applied to Pluto, a tiny and icy world in a region of gas giants with an orbit that carried it high above the ecliptic and even inside that of Neptune. In 1978, astronomers discovered Pluto's largest moon, Charon, which allowed them to determine its mass. Pluto was found to be much tinier than anyone had expected: only one sixth the mass of Earth's Moon. However, as far as anyone could yet tell, it was unique. Then, beginning in Clyde Tombaugh, discoverer 1992, astronomers began to detect large numbers of icy bodies beyond the orbit of of Pluto Neptune that were similar to Pluto in composition, size, and orbital characteristics. They concluded that they had discovered the long-hypothesised Kuiper belt (sometimes called the EdgeworthKuiper belt), a band of icy debris that is the source for "short-period" cometsthose with orbital periods of up to 200 years.[36]

Definition of planet Pluto's orbit lay within this band and thus its planetary status was thrown into question. Many scientists concluded that tiny Pluto should be reclassified as a minor planet, just as Ceres had been a century earlier. Mike Brown of the California Institute of Technology suggested that a "planet" should be redefined as "any body in the Solar System that is more massive than the total mass of all of the other bodies in a similar orbit."[37] Those objects under that mass limit would become minor planets. In 1999, Brian Marsden of Harvard University's Minor Planet Center suggested that Pluto be given the minor planet number 10000 while still retaining its official position as a planet.[38][39] The prospect of Pluto's "demotion" created a public outcry, and in response the International Astronomical Union clarified that it was not at that time proposing to remove Pluto from the planet list.[40][41] The discovery of several other trans-Neptunian objects approaching the size of Pluto, such as Quaoar and Sedna, continued to erode arguments that Pluto was exceptional from the rest of the trans-Neptunian population. On July 29, 2005, Mike Brown and his team announced the discovery of a trans-Neptunian object confirmed to be more massive than Pluto,[42] named Eris.[43] In the immediate aftermath of the object's discovery, there was much discussion as to whether it could be termed a "tenth planet". NASA even put out a press release describing it as such.[44] However, acceptance of Eris as the tenth planet implicitly demanded a definition of planet that set Pluto as an arbitrary minimum Michael E Brown, discoverer of Eris size. Many astronomers, claiming that the definition of planet was of little scientific importance, preferred to recognise Pluto's historical identity as a planet by "grandfathering" it into the planet list.[45]

16

IAU definition
The discovery of Eris forced the IAU to act on a definition. In October 2005, a group of 19 IAU members, which had already been working on a definition since the discovery of Sedna in 2003, narrowed their choices to a shortlist of three, using approval voting. The definitions were: A planet is any object in orbit around the Sun with a diameter greater than 2000km. (eleven votes in favour) A planet is any object in orbit around the Sun whose shape is stable due to its own gravity. (eight votes in favour) A planet is any object in orbit around the Sun that is dominant in its immediate neighbourhood. (six votes in favour)[46][47]
10}}, Quaoar, Orcus, and Earth. These eight trans-Neptunian objects have the brightest absolute magnitudes; several other TNOs have been found to be physically larger than Orcus, and several more may yet be found to be that.

Since no overall consensus could be reached, the committee decided to put these three definitions to a wider vote at the IAU General Assembly meeting in Prague in August 2006,[48] and on August 24, the IAU put a final draft to a vote, which combined elements from two of the three proposals. It essentially created a medial classification between planet and rock (or, in the new parlance, small Solar System body), called dwarf planet and placed Pluto in it, along with Ceres and Eris.[49][50] The vote was passed, with 424 astronomers taking part in the ballot.[51][52][53]

Definition of planet

17

The IAU therefore resolves that planets and other bodies in our Solar System, except satellites, be defined into three distinct categories in the following way: (1) A "planet"1 is a celestial body that: (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit. (2) A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that: (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape2, (c) has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite. (3) All other objects3, except satellites, orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as "Small Solar System Bodies". Footnotes:
1 2

The eight planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. An IAU process will be established to assign borderline objects into either "dwarf planet" and other categories. 3 These currently include most of the Solar System asteroids, most Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), comets, and other small bodies. The IAU further resolves: Pluto is a "dwarf planet" by the above definition and is recognised as the prototype of a new category of trans-Neptunian objects.

The IAU also resolved that "planets and dwarf planets are two distinct classes of objects", meaning that dwarf planets, despite their name, would not be considered planets.[53] On September 13, 2006, the IAU placed Eris, its moon Dysnomia, and Pluto into their Minor Planet Catalogue, giving them the official minor planet designations (134340) Pluto, (136199) Eris, and (136199) Eris I Dysnomia.[54] Other dwarf planet candidates, such as 2003 EL61, 2005 FY9, Sedna and Quaoar, were left in temporary limbo until a formal decision could be reached regarding their status. On June 11, 2008, the IAU executive committee announced the establishment of a subclass of dwarf planets comprising the aforementioned "new category of trans-Neptunian objects" to which Pluto is a prototype. This new class of objects, termed plutoids, would include Pluto, Eris and any other future trans-Neptunian dwarf planets, but excluded Ceres. The IAU also determined that, for naming purposes, only those TNOs with an absolute magnitude brighter than H = +1 would be allowed into the category. To date, only two other TNOs, 2003EL61 and 2005FY9, meet the absolute magnitude requirement, while other potential dwarf planets, such as Sedna, Orcus and Quaoar, do not.[55] On July 11, 2008, the Working Group on Planetary Nomenclature included FY9 in the plutoid class, naming it Makemake.[56] On September 17, 2008, 2003EL61 joined the category with the name Haumea.[57]

Acceptance of the definition

Among the most vocal proponents of the IAU's decided definition are Mike Brown, the discoverer of Eris, and Steven Soter, professor of astrophysics at the American Museum of Natural History. In an article in the January 2007 issue of Scientific American, Soter cited the definition's incorporation of current theories of the formation and evolution of the Solar System; that as the earliest protoplanets emerged from the swirling dust of the protoplanetary disc, some bodies "won" the initial competition for limited material and, as they grew, their increased gravity meant that they accumulated more material, and thus grew larger, eventually outstripping the other bodies in the Solar System by a very wide margin. The asteroid belt, disturbed by the gravitational tug of nearby Jupiter, and the Kuiper belt, too widely spaced for its constituent objects to collect together before the end of the initial formation period, both failed to win the accretion competition.

Plot of the current positions of all known Kuiper belt objects, set against the outer planets

Definition of planet When the numbers for the winning objects are compared to those of the losers, the contrast is quite striking; if we accept Soter's concept that each planet occupies an "orbital zone,"[b] then the least orbitally dominant planet, Mars, is larger than all other collected material in its orbital zone by a factor of 5100. Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt, only accounts for one third of the material in its orbit; Pluto's ratio is even lower, at around 7 percent.[58] Mike Brown asserts that this massive difference in orbital dominance leaves "absolutely no room for doubt about which objects do and do not belong."[59]

18

Ongoing controversies
Despite the IAU's declaration, a number of critics remain unconvinced. The definition is seen by some as arbitrary and confusing. A number of Pluto-as-planet proponents, in particular Alan Stern, head of NASA's New Horizons mission to Pluto, have circulated a petition among astronomers to alter the definition. Stern's claim is that, since less than 5 percent of astronomers voted for it, the decision was not representative of the entire astronomical community.[51][60] Even with this controversy excluded, however, there remain several ambiguities in the definition.

Clearing the neighbourhood

One of the main points at issue is the precise meaning of "cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit". Alan Stern objects that "it is impossible and contrived to put a dividing line between dwarf planets and planets,"[61] and that since neither Earth, Mars, Jupiter, nor Neptune have entirely cleared their regions of debris, none could properly be considered planets under the IAU definition.[c] Mike Brown counters these claims by saying that, far from not having cleared their orbits, the major planets completely control the orbits of the other bodies within their orbital zone. Jupiter may coexist with a large number of small bodies in its orbit (the Trojan asteroids), but these bodies only exist in Jupiter's orbit because they are in the sway of the planet's huge gravity. Similarly, Pluto may cross the orbit of Neptune, but Neptune long ago locked Pluto and its attendant Kuiper belt objects, called plutinos, into a 3:2 resonance, i.e., they orbit the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits. The orbits of these objects are entirely dictated by Neptune's gravity, and thus, Neptune is gravitationally dominant.[59]
The asteroids of the inner Solar System; note the Whatever definition of "clearing the neighbourhood" is ultimately Trojan asteroids (green), trapped into Jupiter's accepted by the IAU, it is still an ambiguous concept. Mark Sykes, orbit by its gravity director of the Planetary Science Institute in Tucson, Arizona, and organiser of the petition, explained the problem to National Public Radio. Since the definition does not categorise a planet by composition or formation, but, effectively, by its location, a Mars-sized or larger object beyond the orbit of Pluto would be considered a dwarf planet, since it would not have time to clear its orbit.[62]

Brown notes, however, that were the "clearing the neighbourhood" criterion to be abandoned, the number of planets in the Solar System could rise from eight to more than 50, with hundreds more potentially to be discovered.[63]

Definition of planet

19

Hydrostatic equilibrium
The IAU's definition mandates that planets be large enough for their own gravity to form them into a state of hydrostatic equilibrium; this means that they will reach a shape that is, if not spherical, then spheroidal. Up to a certain mass, an object can be irregular in shape, but beyond that point gravity begins to pull an object towards its own centre of mass until the object collapses into a sphere. Relaxing the demand for strict sphericity was mandated by the fact that many large objects in the Solar System, such as the planets Jupiter and Saturn, the moons Mimas, Enceladus and Miranda, and the dwarf planet Haumea,[64] have been distorted into oblate or prolate spheroids by rapid rotation or tidal forces.

Proteus, a moon of Neptune, is irregular, despite being larger than the spheroidal Mimas.

However, there is no one point at which an object can be said to have reached hydrostatic equilibrium. As Soter noted in his article,"How are we to quantify the degree of roundness that distinguishes a planet? Does gravity dominate such a body if its shape deviates from a spheroid by 10 percent or by 1 percent? Nature provides no unoccupied gap between round and nonround shapes, so any boundary would be an arbitrary choice."[58] Furthermore, the point at which an object's mass compresses it into a sphere varies depending on the chemical makeup of the object. Objects made of ices,[d] such as Enceladus and Miranda, assume that state more easily than those made of rock, such as Vesta and Pallas.[63] Heat energy, from gravitational collapse, impacts, tidal forces, or radioactive decay, also factors into whether an object will be spherical or not; Saturn's icy moon Mimas is spheroidal, but Neptune's larger moon Proteus, which is similarly composed but colder because of its greater distance from the Sun, is irregular.

Double planets and moons

The definition specifically excludes satellites from the category of dwarf planet, though it does not directly define the term "satellite".[53] In the original draft proposal, an exception was made for Pluto and its largest satellite, Charon, which possess a barycenter outside the volume of either body. The initial proposal classified PlutoCharon as a double planet, with the two objects orbiting the Sun in tandem. However, the final draft made clear that, even though they are similar A telescopic image of Pluto and Charon in relative size, only Pluto would currently be classified as a dwarf planet.[53] Under the same definition, the EarthMoon system is not formally recognised as a double planet, despite the Moon's large relative size, since the barycenter lies within the Earth. As the Moon is slowly receding from the Earth, the EarthMoon system may eventually become a double planet system on the basis of this barycentric definition.

Definition of planet

20

However, some have suggested that the Moon nonetheless deserves to be called a planet. In 1975, Isaac Asimov noted that the timing of the Moon's orbit is in tandem with the Earth's own orbit around the Sunlooking down on the ecliptic, the Moon never actually loops back on itself, and in essence it orbits the Sun in its own right.[65] Also many moons, even those that do not orbit the Sun directly, often A diagram illustrating the Moon's co-orbit with exhibit features in common with true planets. There are 19 moons in the Earth the Solar System that have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium and would be considered planets if only the physical parameters are considered. Both Jupiter's moon Ganymede and Saturn's moon Titan are larger than Mercury, and Titan even has a substantial atmosphere, thicker than the Earth's. Moons such as Io and Triton demonstrate obvious and ongoing geological activity, and Ganymede has a magnetic field. Just as stars in orbit around other stars are still referred to as stars, so some astronomers argue that objects in orbit around planets that share all their characteristics could also be called planets.[66][67][68] Indeed Mike Brown makes just such a claim in his dissection of the issue, saying:[59] It is hard to make a consistent argument that a 400km iceball should count as a planet because it might have interesting geology, while a 5000km satellite with a massive atmosphere, methane lakes, and dramatic storms [Titan] shouldn't be put into the same category, whatever you call it. However, he goes on to say that, "For most people, considering round satellites (including our Moon) "planets" violates the idea of what a planet is."[59]

Extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs

The discovery since 1992 of more than 600 extrasolar planets, planet-sized objects around other stars, has widened the debate on the nature of planethood in unexpected ways. Many of these planets are of considerable size, approaching the mass of small stars, while many newly discovered brown dwarfs are, conversely, small enough to be considered planets.[69] Traditionally, the defining characteristic for starhood has been an object's ability to fuse hydrogen in its core. However, stars such as brown dwarfs have always challenged that distinction. Too small to commence sustained hydrogen fusion, they have been granted star status on their ability to fuse deuterium. However, due to the relative rarity of that isotope, this process lasts only a tiny fraction of the star's lifetime, and hence most brown dwarfs would have ceased fusion long before their discovery.[70] Binary stars and other multiple-star formations are common, and many brown dwarfs orbit other stars. The brown dwarf Gliese 229B in orbit around its star Therefore, since they do not produce energy through fusion, they could be described as planets. Indeed, astronomer Adam Burrows of the University of Arizona claims that "from the theoretical perspective, however different their modes of formation, extrasolar giant planets and brown dwarfs are essentially the same."[71] Burrows also claims that such stellar remnants as white dwarfs should not be considered stars,[72] a stance which would mean that an orbiting white dwarf, such as Sirius B, could be considered a planet. However, the current convention among astronomers is that any object massive enough to have possessed the capability to sustain atomic fusion during its lifetime should be considered a star.[73] The confusion does not end with brown dwarfs. Maria Rosa Zapatario-Osorio et al. have discovered many objects in young star clusters of masses below that required to sustain fusion of any sort (currently calculated to be roughly 13 Jupiter masses).[74] These have been described as "free floating planets" because current theories of Solar System

Definition of planet formation suggest that planets may be ejected from their star systems altogether if their orbits become unstable.[75] However, it is also possible that these "free floating planets" could have formed in the same manner as stars.[76] The material difference between a low-mass star and a large gas giant is not clearcut; apart from size and relative temperature, there is little to separate a gas giant like Jupiter from its host star. Both have similar overall compositions: hydrogen and helium, with trace levels of heavier elements in their atmospheres. The generally accepted difference is one of formation; stars are said to have formed from the "top down"; out of the gases in a nebula as they underwent gravitational collapse, and thus would be The solitary Cha 110913-773444 (middle), a composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, while planets are candidate sub-brown dwarf, set to scale against said to have formed from the "bottom up"; from the accretion of dust the Sun (left) and the planet Jupiter (right) and gas in orbit around the young star, and thus should have cores of silicates or ices.[77] As yet it is uncertain whether gas giants possess such cores. If it is indeed possible that a gas giant could form as a star does, then it raises the question of whether such an object, even one as familiar as Jupiter or Saturn, should be considered an orbiting low-mass star rather than a planet. In 2003, the IAU officially released a statement[78] to define what constitutes an extrasolar planet and what constitutes an orbiting star. To date, it remains the only official decision reached by the IAU on this issue. The 2006 committee did not attempt to challenge it, or to incorporate it into their definition, claiming that the issue of defining a planet was already difficult to resolve without also considering extrasolar planets.[79]

21

1. Objects with true masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium (currently calculated to be 13 Jupiter masses for objects of solar metallicity) that orbit stars or stellar remnants are "planets" (no matter how they formed). The minimum mass required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in our Solar System. 2. Substellar objects with true masses above the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are "brown dwarfs", no matter how they formed nor where they are located. 3. Free-floating objects in young star clusters with masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are not "planets", but are "sub-brown dwarfs" (or whatever name is most appropriate).

Like defining a planet by having cleared its neighbourhood, this definition creates ambiguity by making location, rather than formation or composition, the determining characteristic for planethood. A free-floating object with a mass below 13 Jupiter masses is a "sub-brown dwarf," whereas such an object in orbit around a fusing star is a planet, even if, in all other respects, the two objects may be identical. This ambiguity was highlighted in December 2005, when the Spitzer Space Telescope observed Cha 110913-773444 (above), the least massive brown dwarf yet found, only eight times Jupiter's mass with what appears to be the beginnings of its own planetary system. Were this object found in orbit around another star, it would have been termed a planet.[80]

CHXR 73 b, a star which lies at the border between planet and brown dwarf

It was highlighted again in September 2006, when the Hubble Space Telescope imaged CHXR 73 b (left), an object orbiting a young companion star at a distance of roughly 200 AU. At 12 Jovian masses, CHXR 73 b is just under the threshold for deuterium fusion, and thus technically a planet; however, its vast distance from its parent star suggests it could not have formed inside the small star's protoplanetary disc, and therefore must have formed, as stars do, from gravitational collapse.[81]

Definition of planet In 2010, a paper published by Burrows, David S. Spiegel and John A. Milsom called into question the 13-Jupiter-mass criterion, showing that a brown dwarf of three times solar metallicity could fuse deuterium at as low as 11 Jupiter masses.[82]

22

Semantics
Finally, from a purely linguistic point of view, there is the dichotomy that the IAU created between 'planet' and 'dwarf planet'. The term 'dwarf planet' arguably contains two words, a noun (planet) and an adjective (dwarf). Thus, the term could suggest that a dwarf planet is a type of planet, even though the IAU explicitly defines a dwarf planet as not so being. By this formulation therefore, 'dwarf planet' and 'minor planet' are best considered compound nouns. Benjamin Zimmer of Language Log summarised the confusion: "The fact that the IAU would like us to think of dwarf planets as distinct from 'real' planets lumps the lexical item 'dwarf planet' in with such oddities as 'Welsh rabbit' (not really a rabbit) and 'Rocky Mountain oysters' (not really oysters)."[83] As Dava Sobel, the historian and popular science writer who participated in the IAU's initial decision in October 2006, noted in an interview with National Public Radio, "A dwarf planet is not a planet, and in astronomy, there are dwarf stars, which are stars, and dwarf galaxies, which are galaxies, so it's a term no one can love, dwarf planet."[84] Mike Brown noted in an interview with the Smithsonian that, "Most of the people in the dynamical camp really did not want the word "dwarf planet," but that was forced through by the pro-Pluto camp. So youre left with this ridiculous baggage of dwarf planets not being planets."[85] Conversely, astronomer Robert Cumming of the Stockholm Observatory notes that, "The name 'minor planet' been more or less synonymous with 'asteroid' for a very long time. So it seems to me pretty insane to complain about any ambiguity or risk for confusion with the introduction of 'dwarf planet'."[83]

Notes
a. Defined as the region occupied by two bodies whose orbits cross a common distance from the Sun, if their orbital periods differ less than an order of magnitude. In other words, if two bodies occupy the same distance from the Sun at one point in their orbits, and those orbits are of similar size, rather than, as a comet's would be, extending for several times the other's distance, then they are in the same orbital zone.[86] b. In 2002, in collaboration with dynamicist Harold Levison, Stern wrote, "we define an berplanet as a planetary body in orbit around a star that is dynamically important enough to have cleared its neighboring planetesimals ... And we define an unterplanet as one that has not been able to do so," and then a few paragraphs later, "our Solar System clearly contains 8 berplanets and a far larger number of unterplanets, the largest of which are Pluto and Ceres."[87] While this may appear to contradict Stern's objections, Stern noted in an interview with Smithsonian Air and Space that, unlike the IAU's definition, his definition still allows unterplanets to be planets: "I do think from a dynamical standpoint, there are planets that really matter in the architecture of the solar system, and those that dont. Theyre both planets. Just as you can have wet and dry planets, or life-bearing and non-life-bearing planets, you can have dynamically important planets and dynamically unimportant planets."[85] c. The density of an object is a rough guide to its composition: the lower the density, the higher the fraction of ices, and the lower the fraction of rock. The n denser objects, Vesta and Juno, are composed almost entirely of rock with very little ice, and have a density close to the Moon's, while the less dense, such as Proteus and Enceladus, are composed mainly of ice.[88][89]

Definition of planet

23

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(http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article. cfm?chanID=sa006& articleID=93385350-E7F2-99DF-3FD6272BB4959038& pageNumber=2& catID=2). Department of Astrophysics, American Museum of Natural History. . Retrieved 2007-02-21. [59] Michael E. Brown (2006). "The Eight Planets" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ eightplanets/ ). Caltech. . Retrieved 2007-02-21. [60] Robert Roy Britt (2006). "Pluto: Down But Maybe Not Out" (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 060831_planet_definition. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2006-08-24. [61] Paul Rincon (2006-08-25). "Pluto vote 'hijacked' in revolt" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 5283956. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2007-02-28. [62] Mark, Sykes (2006-09-08). "Astronomers Prepare to Fight Pluto Demotion" (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=5788798) (RealPlayer). . Retrieved 2006-10-04. [63] Mike Brown. "The Dwarf Planets" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ dwarfplanets/ ). . Retrieved 2007-08-04. [64] Brown, Michael E.. "2003EL61" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ 2003EL61). California Institute of Technology. . Retrieved 2006-05-25.

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Definition of planet
[65] Asimov, Isaac (1975). Just Mooning Around, In: Of time and space, and other things. Avon. [66] Marc W. Buie (March 2005). "Definition of a Planet" (http:/ / www. boulder. swri. edu/ ~buie/ pluto/ planetdefn. html). Southwest Research Institute. . Retrieved 2008-07-07. [67] "IAU Snobbery" (http:/ / nasawatch. com/ archives/ 2008/ 06/ iau-snobbery. html). NASA Watch (not a NASA Website). June 15, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-07-05. [68] Serge Brunier (2000). Solar System Voyage. Cambridge University Press. pp.160165. ISBN0-521-80724-7. [69] "IAU General Assembly: Definition of Planet debate" (http:/ / astro2006. meta. mediastream. cz/ Astro2006-060822-01. asx). 2006. . Retrieved 2006-09-24. [70] Basri, Gibor (2000). "Observations of Brown Dwarfs". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 38: 485. Bibcode2000ARA&A..38..485B. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.485. [71] Burrows, Adam, Hubbard, W.B., Lunine, J., Leibert, James (2001). "The Theory of Brown Dwarfs and Extrasolar Giant Planets". Reviews of Modern Physics 73 (3): 719765. arXiv:astro-ph/0103383. Bibcode2001RvMP...73..719B. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.73.719. [72] Croswell p. 119 [73] Croswell, Ken (1999). Planet Quest: The Epic Discovery of Alien Solar Systems. Oxford University Press p. 119 (ISBN 0-19-288083-7). ISBN0-684-83252-6. [74] Zapatero M. R. Osorio, V. J. S. Bjar, E. L. Martn, R. Rebolo, D. Barrado y Navascus, C. A. L. Bailer-Jones, R. Mundt (2000). "Discovery of Young, Isolated Planetary Mass Objects in the Sigma Orionis Star Cluster" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ short/ 290/ 5489/ 103). Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology. . Retrieved 2006-05-25. [75] Lissauer, J.J. (1987). "Timescales for Planetary Accretion and the Structure of the Protoplanetary disk". Icarus 69 (2): 249265. Bibcode1987Icar...69..249L. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(87)90104-7. [76] "Rogue planet find makes astronomers ponder theory" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2000/ TECH/ space/ 10/ 06/ space. planets. reut/ index. html). Reuters. 2000-10-06. . Retrieved 2006-05-25. [77] G. Wuchterl (2004). "Giant planet formation" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ j6357423q7324013/ ). Institut fr Astronomie der Universitt Wien. . Retrieved 2006-10-04. [78] "Working Group on Extrasolar Planets (WGESP) of the International Astronomical Union" (http:/ / www. dtm. ciw. edu/ boss/ definition. html). IAU. 2001. . Retrieved 2006-05-25. [79] "General Sessions & Public Talks" (http:/ / www. astronomy2006. com/ media-stream-archive. php). International Astronomical Union. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-11-28. [80] Clavin, Whitney (2005). "A Planet With Planets? Spitzer Finds Cosmic Oddball" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ vision/ universe/ starsgalaxies/ spitzerf-20051129. html). Spitzer Science Center. . Retrieved 2006-05-25. [81] "Planet or failed star? Hubble photographs one of the smallest stellar companions ever seen" (http:/ / www. spacetelescope. org/ news/ html/ heic0610. html). ESA Hubble page. 2006. . Retrieved 2007-02-23. [82] David S. Spiegel, Adam Burrows, John A. Milsom (2010). "The Deuterium-Burning Mass Limit for Brown Dwarfs and Giant Planets". arXiv:1008.5150[astro-ph.EP]. [83] Zimmer, Benjamin. "New planetary definition a "linguistic catastrophe"!" (http:/ / itre. cis. upenn. edu/ ~myl/ languagelog/ archives/ 003504. html). Language Log. . Retrieved 2006-10-04. [84] "A Travel Guide to the Solar System" (http:/ / www. sciencefriday. com/ pages/ 2006/ Oct/ hour2_102706. html). National Public Radio. 2006. . Retrieved 2006-11-18. [85] "Pluto's Planethood: What Now?" (http:/ / www. airspacemag. com/ issues/ 2006/ august-september/ FEATURE-PlutoDebate. php?page=1). Smithsonian Air and Space. 2006. . Retrieved 2007-08-21. [86] Soter, Steven (2006-08-16). "What is a Planet?". The Astronomical Journal 132 (6): 25132519. arXiv:astro-ph/0608359. Bibcode2006AJ....132.2513S. doi:10.1086/508861. submitted to The Astronomical Journal, 16 August 2006 [87] Stern, S. Alan; and Levison, Harold F. (2002). "Regarding the criteria for planethood and proposed planetary classification schemes" (http:/ / www. boulder. swri. edu/ ~hal/ PDF/ planet_def. pdf) (PDF). Highlights of Astronomy 12: 205213, as presented at the XXIVth General Assembly of the IAU2000 [Manchester, UK, 718 August 2000]. Bibcode2002HiA....12..205S. . [88] Righter, Kevin; Drake, Michael J. (1997). "A magma ocean on Vesta: Core formation and petrogenesis of eucrites and diogenites". Meteoritics & Planetary Science 32 (6): 929944. Bibcode1997M&PS...32..929R. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.1997.tb01582.x. [89] Johanna Torppa, Mikko Kaasalainen, Tadeusz Michaowski, Tomasz Kwiatkowski, Agnieszka Kryszczyska, Peter Denchev, and Richard Kowalski (2003). "Shapes and rotational properties of thirty asteroids from photometric data" (http:/ / www. rni. helsinki. fi/ ~mjk/ thirty. pdf) (PDF). Astronomical Observatory, Adam Mickiewicz University,. . Retrieved 2006-05-25.

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Bibliography and external links

What is a planet? (http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006& articleID=93385350-E7F2-99DF-3FD6272BB4959038&pageNumber=2&catID=2) -Steven Soter Why Planets will never be defined: Robert Roy Britt on the outcome of the IAU's decision (http://www.space. com/scienceastronomy/061121_exoplanet_definition.html) Nunberg, G. (2006-08-28). "Dwarfing Pluto" (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story. php?storyId=5723794). NPR. Retrieved 2007-04-13. An examination of the redefinition of Pluto from a linguistic perspective. Q&A New planets proposal (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4798205.stm) Wednesday, 16 August 2006, 13:36 GMT 14:36 UK David Jewitt's Kuiper Belt page- Pluto (http://www2.ess.ucla.edu/~jewitt/kb/pluto.html) Dan Green's webpage: What is a planet? (http://www.icq.eps.harvard.edu/ICQPluto.html) What is a Planet? Debate Forces New Definition (http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/ planet_confusion_001101-2.html) The Flap Over Pluto (http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0776605.html?mail-07-29) "You Call That a Planet?: How astronomers decide whether a celestial body measures up." (http://slate.msn. com/id/2123839) David Darling. The Universal Book of Astronomy, from the Andromeda Galaxy to the Zone of Avoidance. 2003. John Wiley & Sons Canada (ISBN 0-471-26569-1), p.394 Collins Dictionary of Astronomy, 2nd ed. 2000. HarperCollins Publishers (ISBN 0-00-710297-6), p.312-4. Catalogue of Planetary Objects. Version 2006.0 (http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/astro-ph/0607184) O.V. Zakhozhay, V.A. Zakhozhay, Yu.N. Krugly, 2006 The New Proposal, Resolution 5, 6 and 7 (http://kuffner-sternwarte.at/im_brennp/archiv2006/ Planeten_Definition_Resolution_5_6_7.html) 2006-08-22 IAU 2006 General Assembly: video-records of the discussion and of the final vote on the Planet definition. (http:/ /www.astronomy2006.com/media-stream-archive.php) Boyle, Alan, The Case for Pluto http://family.boyle.net/pluto/Book by MSNBC Science Editor and author of "Cosmic Log" Croswell, Dr. Ken "Pluto Question" http://kencroswell.com/PlutoQuestion.html

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IAU definition of planet

The definition of planet set in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) states that, in the Solar System, a planet is a celestial body which: 1. is in orbit around the Sun, 2. has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium (a nearly round shape), and 3. has "cleared the neighbourhood" around its orbit. A non-satellite body fulfilling only the first two of these criteria is classified as a "dwarf planet". According to the IAU, "planets and dwarf planets are two distinct classes of objects". A non-satellite body fulfilling only the first criterion is termed a "small Solar System body" (SSSB). Initial drafts planned to include dwarf planets as a subcategory of planets, but because this could potentially have led to the addition of several dozens of planets into the Solar System, this draft was eventually dropped. The definition was a controversial one and has drawn both support and criticism from different astronomers, but has remained in use. According to the definition, there are currently eight planets and five dwarf planets known in the Solar System. The definition distinguishes planets from smaller bodies and is not useful outside the Solar System, where smaller bodies cannot be found yet. Extrasolar planets, or exoplanets, are covered separately under a complementary 2003 draft guideline for the definition of planets, which distinguishes them from dwarf stars, which are larger.

Reasons for the debate

Before the discoveries of the early 21st century, astronomers had no real need for a formal definition for planets. With the discovery of Pluto in 1930, astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine planets, along with thousands of smaller bodies such as asteroids and comets. Pluto was thought to be larger than Mercury. In 1978, the discovery of Pluto's moon Charon radically changed this picture. By measuring Charon's orbital period, astronomers could accurately calculate Pluto's mass for the first time, which they found to be much smaller than expected.[1] Pluto's mass was roughly one twenty-fifth of Mercury's, making it by far the smallest planet, smaller even than the Earth's Moon, although it was still over ten times as massive as the largest asteroid, Ceres.

Plot of the positions of all known Kuiper belt objects (green), set against the outer planets (blue)

In the 1990s, astronomers began finding other objects at least as far away as Pluto, now known as Kuiper Belt objects, or KBOs.[2] Many of these shared some of Pluto's key orbital characteristics and are now called plutinos. Pluto came to be seen as the largest member of a new class of objects, and some astronomers stopped referring to Pluto as a planet.[3] Pluto's eccentric

IAU definition of planet and inclined orbit, while very unusual for a planet in the Solar System, fits in well with the other KBOs. New York City's newly renovated Hayden Planetarium did not include Pluto in its exhibit of the planets when it reopened as the Rose Center for Earth and Space in 2000.[4] Starting in 2000, with the discovery of at least three bodies (Quaoar, Sedna, and Eris) all comparable to Pluto in terms of size and orbit, it became clear that either they all had to be called planets or Pluto would have to be reclassified. Astronomers also knew that more objects as large as Pluto would be discovered, and the number of planets would start growing quickly. They were also concerned about the classification of planets in other planetary systems. In 2006, the matter came to a head with the measurement of the size of 2003 UB313. Eris (as it is now known) turned out to be slightly larger than Pluto, and so was thought to be equally deserving of the status of 'planet'.[3]

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Historical parallel
The refining understanding of Pluto echoed a debate in the 19th century that began with the discovery of Ceres on January 1, 1801.[3] Astronomers immediately declared the tiny object to be the "missing planet" between Mars and Jupiter. Within four years, however, the discovery of two more objects with comparable sizes and orbits had cast doubt on this new thinking. By 1851, the number of "planets" had grown to 23, and it was clear that hundreds more would eventually be discovered. Astronomers began cataloging them separately and began calling them "asteroids" instead of "planets".[5]

The history of the definition

Because a new planet is discovered infrequently, the IAU did not have any machinery for their definition and naming. After the discovery of Sedna, it set up a 19-member committee in 2005, with the British astronomer Iwan Williams in the chair, to consider the definition of a planet. It proposed three definitions that could be adopted: Cultural a planet is a planet if enough people say it is; Structural a planet is large enough to form a sphere; Dynamical the object is large enough to cause all other objects to eventually leave its orbit.[6] Another committee, chaired by a historian of astronomy, Owen Gingerich, a historian and astronomer emeritus at Harvard University who led the committee which generated the original definition, and consisting of five planetary scientists and the science writer Dava Sobel, was set up to make a firm proposal.[7]

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Draft proposal
The IAU published the original definition proposal on August 16, 2006.[8] Its form followed loosely the second of three options proposed by the original committee. It stated that:[8]

Illustration of the draft proposal

The original proposal would have immediately added three planets, shown here in a size comparison to Earth. Leftmost is Eris, then Charon, Ceres, and Earth

A planet is a celestial body that (a) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (b) is in orbit around a star, and is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet.

This definition would have led to three celestial bodies being recognized as planets: Ceres, which had been considered a planet at the time of its discovery, but was subsequently treated as an asteroid Charon, a moon of Pluto; the Pluto-Charon system would have been considered a double planet Eris, a body in the scattered disk of the outer Solar System A further twelve bodies, pending refinements of knowledge regarding their physical properties, were possible candidates to join the list under this definition. Some objects in this second list were more likely eventually to be adopted as 'planets' than others. Despite what had been claimed in the media,[9] the proposal did not necessarily leave the Solar System with only twelve planets. Mike Brown, the discoverer of Sedna and Eris, has said that at least 53 known bodies in the Solar System probably fit the definition, and that a complete survey would probably reveal more than 200.[10] The definition would have considered a pair of objects to be a double planet system if each component independently satisfied the planetary criteria and the common center of gravity of the system (known as the barycenter) was located outside of both bodies.[11] Pluto and Charon would have been the only known double planet in the Solar System. Other planetary satellites (like Earth and its moon) might be in hydrostatic equilibrium, but would still not have been defined as a component of a double planet, since the barycenter of the system lies within

IAU definition of planet the more massive celestial body (the Earth). The term "minor planet" would have been abandoned, replaced by the categories "small Solar System body" (SSSB) and a new classification of "pluton". The former would have described those objects underneath the "spherical" threshold. The latter would have been applied to those planets with highly inclined orbits, large eccentricities and an orbital period of more than 200 earth years (that is, those orbiting beyond Neptune). Pluto would have been the prototype for this class. The term "dwarf planet" would have been available to describe all planets smaller than the eight "classical planets" in orbit around the Sun, though would not have been an official IAU classification.[12] The IAU did not make recommendations in the draft resolution on what separated a planet from a brown dwarf.[13] A vote on the proposal was scheduled for

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The twelve "candidate planets" that were possibilities for inclusion under the originally proposed definition. Note that all but the last three are trans-Neptunian objects. The smallest three (Vesta, Pallas, Hygeia) are in the asteroid belt.

August 24, 2006.[9] Such a redefinition of the term "planet" could also have led to changes in classification for the trans-Neptunian objects Haumea, Makemake, Sedna, Orcus, Quaoar, Varuna, 2002 TX300, Ixion, 2002 AW197, and the asteroids Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea. On 18 August the Division of Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society, the world's largest international professional society of planetary scientists, endorsed the draft proposal.[14] According to the IAU, the roundness condition generally results in the need for a mass of at least 51020 kg, or diameter of at least 800km.[12] However, Mike Brown claims that these numbers are only right for rocky bodies like asteroids, and that icy bodies like Kuiper Belt objects reach hydrostatic equilibrium at much smaller sizes, probably somewhere between 200 and 400km in diameter.[15] It all depends on the rigidity of the material that makes up the body, which is in turn strongly influenced by its internal temperature.

Advantages
The proposed definition found support among many astronomers as it used the presence of a physical qualitative factor (the object being round) as its defining feature. Most other potential definitions depended on a limiting quantity (e.g., a minimum size or maximum orbital inclination) tailored for the Solar System. According to members of the IAU committee this definition did not use man-made limits but instead deferred to "nature" in deciding whether or not an object was a planet.[16] It also had the advantage of measuring an observable quality. Suggested criteria involving the nature of formation would have been more likely to see accepted planets later declassified as scientific understanding improved. Additionally, the definition kept Pluto as a planet. Pluto's planetary status was and is fondly thought of by many, and the general public could have been alienated from professional astronomers; there was considerable uproar when the media last suggested, in 1999, that Pluto might be demoted, which was a misunderstanding of a proposal to catalog all trans-Neptunian objects uniformly.[17]

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Criticism of proposal
The proposed redefinition was criticised as ambiguous: Astronomer Phil Plait and NCSE writer Nick Matzke both wrote about why they thought the redefinition was not, in general, a good one.[18][19] It defined a planet as orbiting a star, which would have meant that any planet ejected from its star system or formed outside of one (a rogue planet) could not have been called a planet, even if it fit all other definitions. A similar Protesters campaigning against the "demotion" of Pluto situation already applied to the term 'moon', such bodies ceasing to be moons on being ejected from planetary orbit; this usage had widespread acceptance. Similarly, the redefinition did not differentiate between planets and brown dwarf stars. Any attempt to clarify this differentiation was to be left until a later date. There had also been criticism of the definition of double planet: at present the Moon is defined as a satellite of the Earth, but over time the Earth-Moon barycenter will drift outwards (see tidal acceleration) and could eventually become situated outside of both bodies.[20] This development would then upgrade the Moon to planetary status at that time, according to the redefinition. The time taken for this to occur, however, would be billions of years, long after many astronomers expect the Sun to expand into a red giant and destroy both Earth and Moon.[21] In an 18 August 2006 Science Friday interview, Mike Brown expressed doubt that a scientific definition was even necessary. He stated, "The analogy that I always like to use is the word "continent". You know, the word "continent" has no scientific definition ... they're just cultural definitions, and I think the geologists are wise to leave that one alone and not try to redefine things so that the word "continent" has a big, strict definition."[22] On 18 August, Owen Gingerich said that correspondence he had received had been evenly divided for and against the proposal.[23]

Alternative proposal
According to Alan Boss of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, a subgroup of the IAU met on August 18, 2006 and held a straw poll on the draft proposal: only 18 were in favour of it, with over 50 against. The 50 in opposition preferred an alternative proposal drawn up by Uruguayan astronomer Julio ngel Fernndez.[23]

(1) A planet is a celestial body that (a) is by far the largest object in its local population[1], (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape [2], (c) does not produce energy by any nuclear fusion mechanism [3]. (2) According to point (1) the eight classical planets discovered before 1900, which move in nearly circular orbits close to the ecliptic plane are the only planets of the Solar System. All the other objects in orbit around the Sun are smaller than Mercury. We recognize that there are objects that fulfill the criteria (b) and (c) but not criterion (a). Those objects are defined as "dwarf" planets. Ceres as well as Pluto and several other large Trans-Neptunian objects belong to this category. In contrast to the planets, these objects typically have highly inclined orbits and/or large eccentricities. (3) All the other natural objects orbiting the Sun that do not fulfill any of the previous criteria shall be referred to collectively as "Small Solar [24] System Bodies".[4] Definitions and clarifications

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1. 2. 3. 4.

The local population is the collection of objects that cross or closely approach the orbit of the body in consideration. This generally applies to objects with sizes above several hundred kilometers, depending on the material strength. This criterion allows the distinction between gas giant planets and brown dwarfs or stars. This class currently includes most of the Solar System asteroids, Near-Earth objects (NEOs), Mars-, Jupiter- and Neptune-Trojan asteroids, [25] most Centaurs, most Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), and comets.

Under the alternative proposal the current Solar System would have remained unchanged, but Pluto would have been demoted to a dwarf planet.

Revised draft proposal

On 22 August the draft proposal was rewritten with two changes from the previous draft.[26][27] The first was a generalisation of the name of the new class of planets (previously the draft resolution had explicitly opted for the term 'pluton'), with a decision on the name to be used postponed. Many geologists had been critical of the choice of name for Pluto-like planets,[28] being concerned about the term pluton which has been used for years within the geological community to represent a form of magmatic intrusion; such formations are fairly common balls of rock.[29][30] Confusion was thought undesirable due to the status of planetology as a field closely allied to geology.[31] Further concerns surrounded use of the word pluton as in major languages such as French and Spanish, Pluto is itself called Pluton, potentially adding to confusion. The second change was a redrawing of the planetary definition in the case of a double planet system. There had been a concern that, in extreme cases where a double body had its secondary component in a highly eccentric orbit, there could have been a drift of the barycenter in and out of the primary body, leading to a shift in the classification of the secondary body between satellite and planet depending on where the system was in its orbit.[32] Thus the definition was reformulated so as to consider a double planet system in existence if its barycenter lay outside both bodies for a majority of the system's orbital period. Later on August 22, two open meetings were held which ended in an abrupt about-face on the basic planetary definition. The position of astronomer Julio ngel Fernndez gained the upper hand among the members attending and was described as unlikely to lose its hold by August 24. This position would result in only eight major planets, with Pluto ranking as a "dwarf planet".[33] The discussion at the first meeting was heated and lively, with IAU members in vocal disagreement with one another over such issues as the relative merits of static and dynamic physics; the main sticking point was whether or not to include a body's orbital characteristics among the definition criteria. In an indicative vote members heavily defeated the proposals on Pluto-like objects and double planet systems, and were evenly divided on the question of hydrostatic equilibrium. The debate was said to be "still open", with private meetings being held ahead of a vote scheduled for the following day.[34] At the second meeting of the day, following 'secret' negotiations, a compromise began to emerge after the Executive Committee moved explicitly to exclude consideration of extra-solar planets and to bring into the definition a criterion concerning the dominance of a body in its neighbourhood.[35]

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Final draft proposal

The final, third draft definition proposed on 24 August was:

The IAU...resolves that planets and other bodies in the Solar System be defined into three distinct categories in the following way: (1) A planet [1] is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit. (2) A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape [2], (c) has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite. [24] (3) All other objects [3] orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as "Small Solar System Bodies". [1] The eight planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. [2] An IAU process will be established to assign borderline objects into either dwarf planet and other categories. [3] These currently include most of the Solar System asteroids, most Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), comets, and other small bodies.

Plenary session debate

Voting on the definition took place at the Assembly plenary session during the afternoon. Following a reversion to the previous rules on 15 August, as a planetary definition is a primarily scientific matter every individual member of the Union attending the Assembly was eligible to vote. The number having registered their Illustration of the final proposal attendance at the Assembly at the time of the vote stood at 2411,[36] but out of the over a thousand who attended the session only 424 members chose to vote or indicate their abstention on Resolution 6A (below).[37] The IAU Executive Committee presented four Resolutions to the Assembly, each concerning a different aspect of the debate over the definition.[38] Minor amendments were made on the floor for the purposes of clarification. Resolution 5A constituted the definition itself as stated above. There was much discussion among members about the appropriateness of using the expression "cleared the neighbourhood" instead of the earlier reference to "dominant body", and about the implications of the definition for satellites. The Resolution was ultimately approved by a near-unanimous vote. Resolution 5B sought to amend the above definition by the insertion of the word classical before the word planet in paragraph (1) and footnote [1]. This represented a choice between having a set of three distinct categories of body (planet, "dwarf planet" and SSSB) and the opening of an umbrella of 'planets' over the first two such categories. The Resolution proposed the latter option; it was defeated convincingly, with only 91 members voting in its favour. Resolution 6A proposed a statement concerning Pluto: "Pluto is a dwarf planet by the above definition and is recognized as the prototype of a new category of trans-Neptunian objects." After a little quibbling over the grammar involved and questions of exactly what constituted a "trans-Neptunian object", the Resolution was approved by a vote of 237157, with 30 people indicating their abstention. A new category of dwarf planet was thus established. It would be named "plutoid" and more narrowly defined by the IAU Executive Committee on 11 June 2008.

IAU definition of planet Resolution 6B sought to insert an additional sentence at the end of the statement in 6A: "This category is to be called 'plutonian objects'." There was no debate on the question, and in the vote the proposed name was defeated by 186183; a proposal to conduct a re-vote was rejected. An IAU process will be put in motion to determine the name for the new category.[39] On a literal reading of the Resolution, "dwarf planets" are by implication of paragraph (1) excluded from the status of 'planet'. Use of the word planet in their title may, however, cause some ambiguity.

34

Final definition
The final definition, as passed on 24 August 2006 under the Resolution 5A of the 26th General Assembly is:[40][41]

Illustration of the outcome of the vote The IAU...resolves that planets and other bodies, except satellites, in the Solar System be defined into three distinct categories in the following way: (1) A planet [1] is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit. (2) A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape [2], (c) has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite. [24] (3) All other objects [3], except satellites, orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as "Small Solar System Bodies". Footnotes: [1] The eight planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. [2] An IAU process will be established to assign borderline objects into either dwarf planet and other categories. [3] These currently include most of the Solar System asteroids, most Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), comets, and other small bodies.

The IAU further resolves:

Pluto is a "dwarf planet" by the above definition and is recognized as the prototype of a new category of Trans-Neptunian Objects[1]. Footnote: [1] An IAU process will be established to select a name for this category.

The IAU also resolved that "planets and dwarf planets are two distinct classes of objects", meaning that dwarf planets, despite their name, would not be considered planets.[42]

IAU definition of planet

35

Criticism
Substance
There continues to be criticism regarding the wording of the final draft of the definition. Notably, the lead scientist on NASA's robotic mission to Pluto, Alan Stern, contends that, like Pluto, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Neptune have not fully cleared their orbital zones either. Earth orbits with 10,000 near-Earth asteroids. Jupiter, meanwhile, is accompanied by 100,000 Trojan asteroids on its orbital path. "If Neptune had cleared its zone, Pluto wouldn't be there", he added.[37] Mike Brown counters this opinion by saying that, far from not having cleared their orbits, the major planets completely control the orbits of the other bodies within their orbital zone. Jupiter may coexist with a large number of small bodies in its orbit (the Trojan asteroids), but these bodies only exist in Jupiter's orbit because they are in the sway of the planet's huge gravity. Similarly, Pluto may cross the orbit of Neptune, but Neptune long ago locked Pluto and its attendant Kuiper belt objects, called plutinos, into a 3:2 resonance, i.e., they orbit the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits. The orbits of these objects are entirely dictated by Neptune's gravity, and thus, Neptune is gravitationally dominant.[43] The definition may be difficult to apply outside the Solar System. Techniques for identifying extrasolar objects generally cannot determine if an object has "cleared its orbit", except indirectly via Stern and Levison's parameter, and provide limited information about when the objects were formed. The wording of the new definition is heliocentric in its use of the word Sun instead of star or stars, and is thus not applicable to the numerous objects that have been identified in orbit around other stars. However, a separate "working" definition for extrasolar planets was established by the IAU in 2001 and includes the criterion "the minimum mass/size required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in the Solar System."[44]

Process
The final vote has come under much criticism because of the relatively small percentage of the 9000-strong membership who participated. Besides the fact that most members do not attend the General Assemblies, this lack was also due to the timing of the vote: the final vote was taken on the last day of the 10-day event, after many participants had left or were preparing to leave. Of over 2,700 astronomers attending the conference, only 424 votes were cast, which is less than 5% of the entire community of astronomers.[37] There is also the issue of the many astronomers who were unable or who chose not to make the trip to Prague and, thus, cast no vote. Astronomer Marla Geha has clarified that not all members of the Union were needed to vote on the classification issue: only those whose work is directly related to planetary studies.[45]

Impact
It is expected that the decision will have cultural and societal implications. It will affect the "industry of astronomical artifacts and toys."[46] Educational books need to be revised. The decision was important enough to prompt the editors of the 2007 edition of the World Book Encyclopedia to hold off printing until a final result had been reached.[46] The new designation also has repercussions in the astrological world and finds mixed receptions, with differences of opinion as to whether to make any changes to astrological practice as a result of the redefinition.[47]

IAU definition of planet

36

Popular culture
The impact of the revised definition, particularly the change in the status of Pluto, has been reflected in popular culture. A number of musical contributions have commemorated the change: "Planet X" (1996), song by Christine Lavin. A good-natured protest against suggestions that Pluto is not a planet. "Pluto" (1998), song by 2 Skinnee J's. An impassioned defense of Pluto's status as a planet. Thing a Week, August 25, 2006 podcast by Jonathan Coulton. Featured a song "I'm Your Moon", from Charon's point of view, about Pluto being reclassified as a dwarf planet. "Bring Back Pluto" (2007), song by Aesop Rock on the album None Shall Pass. Hip-hop song supporting Pluto's status as the 9th planet in the Solar System. "Pluto" (2009), song by Robbie Fulks, part of his release "50-vc. Doberman." About Pluto's reclassification, remembered as a 9th planet from the times of the singer's youth, and re-presents Pluto as an unforgotten monarch of the Kuiper Belt.

Plutoed
The verb to pluto (preterite and past participle: plutoed) was coined in the aftermath of the 2006 IAU decision. In January 2007, the American Dialect Society chose plutoed as its 2006 Word of the Year, defining to pluto as "to demote or devalue someone or something, as happened to the former planet Pluto when the General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union decided Pluto no longer met its definition of a planet."[48][49] Society president Cleveland Evans stated the reason for the organization's selection of plutoed: "Our members believe the great emotional reaction of the public to the demotion of Pluto shows the importance of Pluto as a name. We may no longer believe in the Roman god Pluto, but we still have a sense of connection with the former planet."[50]

New dwarf planet subclass

On June 11, 2008, the IAU announced that the sub-category of dwarf planets with trans-Neptunian orbits would be known as "plutoids". In an accompanying press release, the IAU said that:[51]

Plutoids are celestial bodies in orbit around the Sun at a distance greater than that of Neptune that have sufficient mass for their self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that they assume a hydrostatic equilibrium (near-spherical) shape, and that have not cleared the neighbourhood around their orbit.

This sub-category includes Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris.

Notes
[1] Orbits and photometry of Pluto's satellites: Charon, S/2005 P1 and S/2005 P2 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0512491) Eliot F. Young, Leslie A. Young, and S. Alan Stern at Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, Colorado [2] Much Ado about Pluto (http:/ / www. plutopetition. com/ unplanet. php) plutopetition.com [3] Gibor Basri, Michael E. Brown; Brown (2006). "Planetesimals to Brown Dwarfs: What is a Planet?" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ papers/ ps/ basribrown. pdf) (PDF). Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences (California Institute of Technology) 34: 193. Bibcode2006AREPS..34..193B. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125058. . Retrieved 2008-08-04. [4] Pluto at 75: Still Crazy After All These Years (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 050215_pluto_anniv. html) Space.com [5] Soter, Steven (2007). "What Is a Planet?" (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article. cfm?chanID=sa006& colID=1& articleID=93385350-E7F2-99DF-3FD6272BB4959038). Scientific American 296 (1): 3441. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0107-34. PMID17186831. . [6] Stephen Eales, Prospect, p.p.31-34 (May 2007) [7] Eales, op. cit. [8] "The IAU draft definition of "planet" and "plutons"" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0601/ ) (Press release). International Astronomical Union. 2006-08-16. . Retrieved 2008-08-16.

IAU definition of planet

[9] Gareth Cook (2006-08-16). "Nine no longer: Panel declares 12 planets" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ science/ articles/ 2006/ 08/ 16/ nine_no_longer_panel_declares_12_planets/ ). Boston Globe. . Retrieved 2006-08-16. [10] Mike Brown (2006). "How Many Planets Are There?" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ whatsaplanet/ howmanplanets. html). CalTech. . Retrieved 2006-08-16. [11] Robert Roy Britt (2006). "Nine Planets Become 12 with Controversial New Definition" (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 060816_planet_definition. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2006-08-16. [12] "Draft Resolution 5 for GA-XXVI: Definition of a Planet" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060822191830/ http:/ / www. iau2006. org/ mirror/ www. iau. org/ iau0601/ iau0601_resolution. html). International Astronomical Union. 2006. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. iau2006. org/ mirror/ www. iau. org/ iau0601/ iau0601_resolution. html) on August 22, 2006. . Retrieved 2006-08-16. [13] "Planet Definition" Questions & Answers Sheet" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060822192043/ http:/ / www. iau2006. org/ mirror/ www. iau. org/ iau0601/ iau0601_Q_A. html). International Astronomical Union. 2006. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. iau2006. org/ mirror/ www. iau. org/ iau0601/ iau0601_Q_A. html) on August 22, 2006. . Retrieved 2006-08-16. [14] "Planetary Scientists Support Proposed Redefinition Of A Planet" (http:/ / www. spacedaily. com/ reports/ Planetary_Scientists_Support_Proposed_Redefinition_Of_A_Planet_999. html). SpaceDaily. 2006. . Retrieved 2006-08-19. [15] Mike Brown (2006). "New Planets" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ whatsaplanet/ howmanplanets. html). . Retrieved 2006-08-22. [16] Robert Roy Britt (2006). "Nine Planets Become 12 with Controversial New Definition" (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 060816_planet_definition. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2006-08-19. [17] Pearson education (2006). "The Flap over Pluto" (http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ ipa/ A0776605. html). infoplease.com. . Retrieved 2006-08-19. [18] Phil Plait (2006). "Congratulations! It's a planet!" (http:/ / blogs. discovermagazine. com/ badastronomy/ 2006/ 08/ 15/ congratulations-its-a-planet/ ). Bad Astronomy. . Retrieved 2006-08-18. [19] Nick Matzke (2006). "Wherein I argue emotionally about the definition of "planet"" (http:/ / www. pandasthumb. org/ archives/ 2006/ 08/ wherein_i_argue. html). The Panda's Thumb. . Retrieved 2006-08-18. [20] Robert Roy Britt (2006). "Moon Mechanics: What Really Makes Our World Go 'Round" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20100822072302/ http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ moon_mechanics_0303018. html). Space.com. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ moon_mechanics_0303018. html) on 2010-08-22. . Retrieved 2010-08-24. [21] Robert Roy Britt (2006). "Earth's moon could become a planet" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2006/ TECH/ space/ 08/ 18/ moon. planet/ ). CNN. . [22] Ira Flatow and Mike Brown (2006-08-18). "Pluto's Planet Status / String Theory" (http:/ / www. sciencefriday. com/ pages/ 2006/ Aug/ hour2_081806. html). Science Friday. National Public Radio. . Retrieved 2006-08-22. [23] Britt, Robert Roy (2006-08-18). "Pluto May Get Demoted After All" (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 060818_planet_newprop. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2006-08-24. [24] The use of title case for "Small Solar System Bodies" and "Trans-Neptunian Objects" by the IAU in this statement is not formally correct, since these terms are not proper nouns, and appears to be related to the existence of acronyms for these terms. [25] "Details Emerge on Plan to Demote Pluto" (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 060819_new_proposal. html). 2006. . Retrieved 2006-08-18. [26] Gnther Wuchterl (2006-08-22). "The IAU Committee Presents Today in Prague the new Proposals for the Definition of Planet" (http:/ / kuffner-sternwarte. at/ im_brennp/ archiv2006/ Planeten_Definition_Resolution_5_6_7. html). . Retrieved 2008-08-04. [27] Gnther Wuchterl (2006-08-23). "The IAU's Definition of Planet developes further - Draft c" (http:/ / kuffner-sternwarte. at/ im_brennp/ archiv2006/ Planeten_Definition_Resolution_c. html). . Retrieved 2008-08-04. [28] "Star-gazers puzzled by Pluto" (http:/ / www. iol. co. za/ index. php?set_id=1& click_id=31& art_id=qw1155925441701B222). Independent Online. 2006. . Retrieved 2006-08-18. [29] "Geologists Force Astronomers To Rethink Pluto Plan" (http:/ / www. playfuls. com/ news_001938_Geologists_Force_Astronomers_To_Rethink_Pluto_Plan. html). 2006. . Retrieved 2006-08-18. [30] Elise Kleeman (2006). "Planet, pluton or rock?" (http:/ / www. pasadenastarnews. com/ news/ ci_4210195). Pasadena Star News. . Retrieved 2006-08-20. [31] Geoff Brumfiel (2006-08-21). "Plutons, planets and dwarves : Geologists and astronomers wrangle over words." (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ 2006/ 060821/ full/ 060821-4. html). news@nature.com. . [32] Phil Plait (2006-08-15). "Congratulations! It's a planet!" (http:/ / blogs. discovermagazine. com/ badastronomy/ 2006/ 08/ 15/ congratulations-its-a-planet/ ) (blog). . Retrieved 2008-08-04. [33] Overbye, Dennis (2006-08-22). "Pluto Seems Poised to Lose Its Planet Status" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 08/ 22/ science/ space/ 22cnd-pluto. html). New York Times. . [34] "Astronomers divided over 'planet' definition" (http:/ / science. monstersandcritics. com/ news/ article_1193282. php/ Astronomers_divided_over_planet_definition). Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 2006-08-22. . [35] Tresch Fienberg, Richard (2006-08-22). "The Day We Lost Pluto" (http:/ / skytonight. com/ news/ home/ 3707031. html). Sky & Telescope. . [36] IAU General Assembly Welcome page (http:/ / www. astronomy2006. com/ ) 24 August 2006.

37

IAU definition of planet

[37] Paul Rincon (2006-08-25). "Pluto vote 'hijacked' in revolt" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 5283956. stm). BBC. . Retrieved 2008-08-01. [38] IAU General Assembly Newspaper, 24 August 2006 (http:/ / astro. cas. cz/ nuncius/ nsiii_09. pdf) [39] "IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ iau0603. 414. 0. html). IAU. 2006. . Retrieved 2007-01-02. [40] "IAU 2006 General Assembly: Resolutions 5 and 6" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ static/ resolutions/ Resolution_GA26-5-6. pdf) (PDF). IAU. 2006-08-24. . [41] "IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0603/ ) (Press release). IAU (News Release - IAU0603). August 24, 2006, Prague. . Retrieved 2008-08-04. [42] "IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0603/ ) (Press release). International Astronomical Union (News Release - IAU0603). 2006-08-24. . Retrieved 2007-12-31. ( orig link (http:/ / www. iau. org/ iau0603. 414. 0. html)) [43] Michael E. Brown (2006). "The Eight Planets" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ eightplanets/ ). Caltech. . Retrieved 2007-02-21. [44] "Position statement on the Definition of a "Planet"" (http:/ / www. dtm. ciw. edu/ boss/ definition. html). Working Group on Extrasolar Planets (IAU). 2003-02-28. . Retrieved 2008-08-04. [45] "A Passion For Pluto" (http:/ / www. thenation. com/ doc/ 20060925/ pluto). thenation.com. . Retrieved 2006-09-13. [46] Dennis Overbye (2006-08-24). "Pluto is demoted to dwarf planet" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 08/ 24/ science/ space/ 25pluto. html?_r=1& ei=5070& en=386a070cf318003c& ex=1156651200& adxnnl=1& oref=slogin& adxnnlx=1156726801-q8exJblHyCMw948iShQaRw). NYTimes. . Retrieved 2006-08-27. [47] Jane Spencer (2006-08-25). "Pluto's demotion divides astrologers, troubles Scorpios" (http:/ / www. planetwaves. net/ contents/ wsj. html). Wall Street Journal. . Retrieved 2006-08-27. [48] ""Plutoed" Voted 2006 Word of the Year" (http:/ / www. americandialect. org/ Word-of-the-Year_2006. pdf). American Dialect Society. January 5, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-01-07. [49] "Pluto's revenge: 'Word of the Year' award" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2007/ US/ 01/ 07/ word. of. the. year/ index. html). CNN. January 7, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-01-20. [50] "'Plutoed' chosen as '06 Word of the Year" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 16529756). Associated Press. Jan. 8, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-01-10. [51] "Plutoid chosen as name for Solar System objects like Pluto" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0804) (Press release). Paris: International Astronomical Union (News Release - IAU0804). 2008-06-11. . Retrieved 2008-06-11.

38

References External links

IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes (http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/ release/iau0603/) International Astronomical Union official site. IAU 2006 General Assembly: video-records of the discussion and of the final vote on the Planet definition. (http:/ /www.astronomy2006.com/media-stream-archive.php) Planet Definition Questions & Answers Sheet (http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0601/ q_answers/), International Astronomical Union Official Site Q&A: The IAU's Proposed Planet Definition (http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/ 060816_planet_qanda.html) Q&A article on the new definition from SPACE.com Dwarf planet discoverer Mike Brown explains the concept behind the new definition (http://www.gps.caltech. edu/~mbrown/eightplanets/)

39

Ceres
Ceres
Ceres

Ceres as seen by Hubble Space Telescope (ACS).

[1]

The contrast has been enhanced to reveal surface details.

[2]

Discovery Discovered by Discovery date

Giuseppe Piazzi 1 January 1801 Designations

MPC designation Pronunciation Named after Alternate name(s) Minor planet category Adjective

1 Ceres /sriz/ Ceres A899 OF; 1943 XB dwarf planet main belt Cererian /srri.n/ Orbital characteristics Epoch June 18, 2009 (JD 2455000.5)
[6] [5] [3][4]

or as Latin: Cers

Aphelion Perihelion Semi-major axis Eccentricity Orbital period Average orbitalspeed Mean anomaly

unknown operator: u'strong'AU (446669320km) unknown operator: u'strong'AU (380995855km) unknown operator: u'strong'AU (413832587km) 0.07934 4.60yr 1680.5d 17.882km/s 27.448

Ceres

40

Inclination

10.585 to Ecliptic [7] 9.20 to Invariable plane 80.399 72.825 Proper orbital elements
[8]

Longitudeof ascendingnode Argument of perihelion

Proper semi-major axis Proper eccentricity Proper inclination Proper mean motion Proper orbital period Precession of perihelion Precession of the ascending node

2.7670962AU 0.1161977 9.6474122 78.193318deg/yr 4.60397yr (1681.601d) 54.070272arcsec/yr 59.170034arcsec/yr Physical characteristics

Equatorial radius Polar radius Surface area Mass

487.31.8km 454.71.6km

[9] [9]

2,850,000 sq km 9.430.071020kg 0.00015 Earths 0.0128 Moons

[10]

Mean density Equatorial surfacegravity

2.0770.036g/cm3 0.27 m/s2 [11] 0.028 g 0.51km/s

[11]

[9]

Escape velocity Sidereal rotation period Axial tilt Northpole right ascension

0.3781d [12][13] 9.074170h about 3

[9]

19 h 24min [9] 291 59

[9] [14]

Northpole declination Albedo Surface temp. Kelvin

0.0900.0033(V-band geometric) min mean ? ~168K

[15]

max 235K
[16]

Spectral type Apparent magnitude Absolute magnitude (H)

[17] [18]

6.64

to 9.34
[14]

[19]

3.360.02

Ceres

41
0.854" to 0.339"

Angular diameter

Ceres, formally 1 Ceres, is the largest asteroid and the only dwarf planet in the inner Solar System.[1][2][3] It is a rockice body some 950km (590 mi) in diameter, comprising about a third of the mass of the asteroid belt.[4][5] Discovered on 1 January 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi,[6] it was the first asteroid to be identified, though it was classified as a planet at the time.[7] It is named after Ceres, the Roman goddess of growing plants, the harvest, and motherly love. The Cererian surface is probably a mixture of water ice and various hydrated minerals such as carbonates and clays.[17] It appears to be differentiated into a rocky core and icy mantle,[9] and may harbour an ocean of liquid water under its surface.[8][9] From Earth, the apparent magnitude of Ceres ranges from 6.7 to 9.3, and hence even at its brightest it is still too dim to be seen with the naked eye except under extremely dark skies.[18] The unmanned Dawn spacecraft, launched on 27 September 2007 by NASA, is expected to be the first to explore Ceres after its scheduled arrival there in 2015,[10] after the spacecraft leaves the asteroid 4 Vesta,[11] which it has been orbiting since July 2011.

Discovery
The idea that an undiscovered planet could exist between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter was suggested by Johann Elert Bode in 1772.[6] Previously, in 1596, Kepler had already noticed the gap between Mars and Jupiter.[6] Bode's considerations were based on the TitiusBode law, a now abandoned theory which had been first proposed by Johann Daniel Titius in 1766, observing that there was a regular pattern in the semi-major axes of the known planets marred only by the large gap between Mars and Jupiter.[6][12] The pattern predicted that the missing planet ought to have a semi-major axis near 2.8 AU.[12] William Herschel's discovery of Uranus in 1781[6] near the predicted distance for the next body beyond Saturn increased faith in the law of Titius and Bode, and in 1800, they sent requests to twenty-four experienced astronomers, asking that they combine their efforts and begin a methodical search for the expected planet.[6][12] The group was headed by Franz Xaver von Zach, editor of the Monatliche Correspondenz. While they did not discover Ceres, they later found several large asteroids.[12] One of the astronomers selected for the search was Giuseppe Piazzi at the Academy of Palermo, Sicily. Before receiving his invitation to join the group, Giuseppe Piazzi discovered Ceres on 1 January 1801.[13] He was searching for "the 87th [star] of the Catalogue of the Zodiacal stars of Mr la Caille", but found that "it was preceded by another".[6] Instead of a star, Piazzi had found a moving star-like object, which he first thought was a comet.[14] Piazzi observed Ceres a total of 24 times, the final time on 11 February 1801, when illness interrupted his observations. He announced his discovery on 24 January 1801 in letters to only two fellow astronomers, his compatriot Barnaba Oriani of Milan and Bode of Berlin.[15] He reported it as a comet but "since its movement is so slow and rather uniform, it has occurred to me several times that it might be something better than a comet".[6] In April, Piazzi sent his complete observations to Oriani, Bode, and Jrme Lalande in Paris. The information was published in the September 1801 issue of the Monatliche Correspondenz.[14]
Piazzi's book "Della scoperta del nuovo pianeta Cerere Ferdinandea" outlining the discovery of Ceres

Ceres By this time, the apparent position of Ceres had changed (mostly due to the Earth's orbital motion), and was too close to the Sun's glare for other astronomers to confirm Piazzi's observations. Toward the end of the year, Ceres should have been visible again, but after such a long time it was difficult to predict its exact position. To recover Ceres, Carl Friedrich Gauss, then 24 years old, developed an efficient method of orbit determination.[14] In only a few weeks, he predicted the path of Ceres and sent his results to von Zach. On 31 December 1801, von Zach and Heinrich W. M. Olbers found Ceres near the predicted position and thus recovered it.[14] The early observers were only able to calculate the size of Ceres to within about an order of magnitude. Herschel underestimated its size as 260km in 1802, while in 1811 Johann Hieronymus Schrter overestimated it as 2,613km.[16][17]

42

Name
Piazzi originally suggested the name Cerere Ferdinandea for his discovery, after both the mythological figure Ceres (Roman goddess of agriculture, Italian Cerere) and King Ferdinand III of Sicily.[6][14] "Ferdinandea" was not acceptable to other nations of the world and was thus dropped. Ceres was also called Hera for a short time in Germany.[18] In Greece, it is called (Demeter), after the Greek equivalent of the goddess Ceres;[19] in English, that name is used for the asteroid 1108 Demeter. The adjectival form of the name is Cererian,[20] derived from the Latin genitive Cereris.[5] The old astronomical symbol of Ceres is a sickle, ( ),[21] similar to Venus' symbol , but with a gap in the upper circle (and with a variant under the influence of the initial 'C'); this was later replaced with the numbered disk .[14][22] The element cerium, discovered in 1803, was named after the asteroid.[23] In the same year, another element was also initially named after Ceres, but its discoverer changed its name to palladium (after the second asteroid, 2 Pallas) when cerium was named.[24]

Status
The classification of Ceres has changed more than once and has been the subject of some disagreement. Johann Elert Bode believed Ceres to be the "missing planet" he had proposed to exist between Mars and Jupiter, at a distance of 419millionkm (2.8AU) from the Sun.[6] Ceres was assigned a planetary symbol, and remained listed as a planet in astronomy books and tables (along with 2 Pallas, 3 Juno and 4 Vesta) for about half a century.[6][14][25] As other objects were discovered in the area it was realised that Ceres represented the first of a class of many similar bodies.[6] In 1802 Sir William Herschel coined the term asteroid ("star-like") for such bodies,[25] writing "they resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them, even by very good telescopes".[26] As the first such body to be discovered, it was given the designation 1 Ceres under the modern system of asteroid numbering.[25]
Ceres (bottom left), the Moon and the Earth, shown to scale

The 2006 debate surrounding Pluto and what constitutes a 'planet' led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet.[27][28] A proposal before the International Astronomical Union for the definition of a planet would have defined a planet as "a celestial body that (a) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid-body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (b) is in orbit around a star, and is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet".[29] Had this resolution been adopted, it would have made Ceres the fifth planet in order from the Sun.[30] It was not accepted, and in its place an alternate definition came into effect as of 24 August 2006, carrying the additional requirement that a "planet" must have "cleared the neighborhood around its orbit". By this definition, Ceres is not a planet because it does not dominate its orbit, sharing it with the thousands of other asteroids

Ceres in the asteroid belt and constituting only about a third of the total mass. It is instead now classified as a dwarf planet. It is sometimes assumed that Ceres has been reclassified as a dwarf planet, and that it is therefore no longer considered an asteroid. For example, a news update at Space.com spoke of "Pallas, the largest asteroid, and Ceres, the dwarf planet formerly classified as an asteroid",[31] while an IAU question-and-answer posting states, "Ceres is (or now we can say it was) the largest asteroid", though it then speaks of "other asteroids" crossing Ceres' path and otherwise implies that Ceres is still one of the asteroids.[32] The Minor Planet Center notes that such bodies may have dual designations.[33] The 2006 IAU decision that classified Ceres as a dwarf planet never addressed whether it is or is not an asteroid, as indeed the IAU has never defined the word 'asteroid' at all, preferring the term 'minor planet' until 2006, and 'small Solar System body' and 'dwarf planet' after 2006. Lang (2011) comments, "The [IAU has] added a new designation to Ceres, classifying it as a dwarf planet. [...] By [its] definition, Eris, Haumea, Makemake and Pluto, as well as the largest asteroid, 1 Ceres, are all dwarf planets", and describes it elsewhere as "the dwarf planetasteroid 1 Ceres".[34] NASA continues to refer to Ceres as an asteroid, saying in a 2011 press announcement that "Dawn will orbit two of the largest asteroids in the Main Belt",[35] as do various academic textbooks.[36][37]

43

Physical characteristics
Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.[17] The mass of Ceres has been determined by analysis of the influence it exerts on smaller asteroids. Results differ slightly between researchers.[39] The average of the three most precise values as of 2008 is 9.41020kg.[10][39] With this mass Ceres comprises about a third of the estimated total 3.00.21021kg mass of the asteroid belt,[40] which is in turn about 4% of the mass of the Moon. The mass of Ceres is sufficient to give it a nearly spherical shape in hydrostatic equilibrium.[9] In contrast, other large asteroids such as 2 Pallas,[41] 3 Juno,[42] and in particular 10 Hygiea[43] are known to be somewhat irregular in shape.

Sizes of the first ten main-belt objects discovered profiled against Earth's Moon. Ceres is far left.

Internal structure
Ceres' oblateness is inconsistent with an undifferentiated body, which indicates that it consists of a rocky core overlain with an icy mantle.[9] This 100km-thick mantle (23%28% of Ceres by mass; 50% by volume)[44] contains 200million cubic kilometres of water, which is more than the amount of fresh water on the Earth.[45] This result is supported by the observations made by the Keck telescope in 2002 and by evolutionary modelling.[10][8] Also, some characteristics of its Hubble Space Telescope images of Ceres, taken surface and history (such as its distance from the Sun, which weakened in 200304 with a resolution of about 30km. The [38] nature of the bright spot is uncertain. solar radiation enough to allow some fairly low-freezing-point components to be incorporated during its formation), point to the presence of volatile materials in the interior of Ceres.[10] Alternatively, the shape and dimensions of Ceres may be explained by an interior that is porous and either partially differentiated or completely undifferentiated. The presence of a layer of rock on top of ice would be gravitationally unstable. If any of the rock deposits sank into a layer of differentiated ice, salt deposits would be formed. Such deposits have not been detected. Thus it is possible that Ceres does not contain a large ice shell, but was instead formed from low-density asteroids with an aqueous component. The decay of radioactive isotopes may not have

Ceres been sufficient to cause differentiation.[46]

44

Surface
The surface composition of Ceres is broadly similar to that of C-type asteroids.[17] Some differences do exist. The ubiquitous features of the Cererian IR spectra are those of hydrated materials, which indicate the presence of significant amounts of water in the interior. Other possible surface constituents include iron-rich clays (cronstedtite) and carbonate minerals (dolomite and siderite), which are common minerals in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites.[17] The spectral features of carbonates and clay are usually absent in the spectra of other C-type asteroids.[17] Sometimes Ceres is classified as a G-type asteroid.[47] The Cererian surface is relatively warm. The maximum temperature with the Sun overhead was estimated from measurements to be 235K (about 38C, 36F) on 5 May 1991.[16] Only a few Cererian surface features have been unambiguously detected. High-resolution ultraviolet Hubble Space Telescope images taken in 1995 showed a dark spot on its surface which was nicknamed "Piazzi" in honour of the discoverer of Ceres.[47] This was thought to be a crater. Later near-infrared images with a higher resolution taken over a whole rotation with the Keck telescope using adaptive optics showed several bright and dark features moving with the dwarf planet's rotation.[10][48] Two dark features had circular shapes and are presumably craters; one of them was observed to have a bright central region, while another was identified as the "Piazzi" feature.[10][48] More Diagram showing a possible internal structure of Ceres recent visible-light Hubble Space Telescope images of a full rotation taken in 2003 and 2004 showed 11 recognizable surface features, the natures of which are currently unknown.[14][49] One of these features corresponds to the "Piazzi" feature observed earlier.[14] These last observations also determined that the north pole of Ceres points in the direction of right ascension 19h 24min (291), declination +59, in the constellation Draco. This means that Ceres' axial tilt is very smallabout 3.[9][14]

Atmosphere
There are indications that Ceres may have a weak atmosphere and water frost on the surface.[50] Surface water ice is unstable at distances less than 5 AU from the Sun,[51] so it is expected to sublime if it is exposed directly to solar radiation. Water ice can migrate from the deep layers of Ceres to the surface, but will escape in a very short time. As a result, it is difficult to detect water vaporization. Water escaping from polar regions of Ceres was possibly observed in the early 1990s but this has not been unambiguously demonstrated. It may be possible to detect escaping water from the surroundings of a fresh impact crater or from cracks in the sub-surface layers of Ceres.[10] Ultraviolet observations by the IUE spacecraft detected statistically significant amounts of hydroxide ion near the Cererean north pole, which is a product of water-vapor dissociation by ultraviolet solar radiation.[50]

Ceres

45

Potential for extraterrestrial life

While not as actively discussed as a potential home for extraterrestrial life as Mars or Europa, the potential presence of water ice has led to speculation that life may exist there,[52] and that evidence for this could be found in hypothesized ejecta that could have come from Ceres to Earth.[53]

Orbit
Ceres follows an orbit between Mars and Jupiter, within the asteroid belt, with a period of 4.6 Earth years.[6] The orbit is moderately inclined (i = 10.6 compared to 7 for Mercury and 17 for Pluto) and moderately eccentric (e = 0.08 compared to 0.09 for Mars).[6] The diagram illustrates the orbits of Ceres (blue) and several planets (white and grey). The segments of orbits below the ecliptic are plotted in darker colours, and the orange plus sign is the Sun's location. The top left diagram is a polar view that shows the location of Ceres in the gap between Mars Orbit of Ceres and Jupiter. The top right is a close-up demonstrating the locations of the perihelia (q) and aphelia (Q) of Ceres and Mars. The perihelion of Mars is on the opposite side of the Sun from those of Ceres and several of the large main-belt asteroids, including 2 Pallas and 10 Hygiea. The bottom diagram is a side view showing the inclination of the orbit of Ceres compared to the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

Proper (long-term mean) orbital elements compared to osculating (instant) orbital elements for Ceres:
Element type Proper [8] a (in AU) e i Period (in days) 1681.60

2.7671 0.116198

9.647435

[6] 2.7653 0.079138 10.586821 1679.66 Osculating (Epoch 2010-Jul-23) Difference 0.0018 0.03706 0.939386 1.94

In the past, Ceres had been considered to be a member of an asteroid family.[54] These groupings of asteroids share similar proper orbital elements, which may indicate a common origin through an asteroid collision some time in the past. Ceres was found to have spectral properties different from other members of the family, and so this grouping is now called the Gefion family, named after the next-lowest-numbered family member, 1272 Gefion.[54] Ceres appears to be merely an interloper in its own family, coincidentally having similar orbital elements but not a common origin.[55] The rotational period of Ceres (the Cererian day) is 9 hours and 4minutes.[12] Ceres is in a near-1:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with Pallas (their orbital periods differ by 0.3%).[56] However, a true resonance between the two would be unlikely; due to their small masses relative to their large separations,

Ceres such relationships among asteroids are very rare.[57]

46

Transits of planets from Ceres

Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars can all appear to cross the Sun, or transit it, from a vantage on Ceres. The most common transits are those of Mercury, which usually happen every few years, most recently in 2006 and 2010. The corresponding dates are 1953 and 2051 for Venus, 1814 and 2081 for Earth, and 767 and 2684 for Mars.[58]

Origin and evolution

Ceres is probably a surviving protoplanet (planetary embryo), which formed 4.57billion years ago in the asteroid belt.[59] While the majority of inner Solar System protoplanets (including all lunar- to Mars-sized bodies) either merged with other protoplanets to form terrestrial planets or were ejected from the Solar System by Jupiter,[59] Ceres is believed to have survived relatively intact.[8] An alternative theory proposes that Ceres formed in the Kuiper Belt and later migrated to the asteroid belt.[60] Another possible protoplanet, Vesta, is less than half the size of Ceres; it suffered a major impact after solidifying, losing ~1% of its mass.[61] The geological evolution of Ceres was dependent on the heat sources available during and after its formation: friction from planetesimal accretion, and decay of various radionuclides (possibly including short-lived elements like 26 Al). These are thought to have been sufficient to allow Ceres to differentiate into a rocky core and icy mantle soon after its formation.[14][8] This process may have caused resurfacing by water volcanism and tectonics, erasing older geological features.[8] Due to its small size, Ceres would have cooled early in its existence, causing all geological resurfacing processes to cease.[8][9] Any ice on the surface would have gradually sublimated, leaving behind various hydrated minerals like clays and carbonates.[17] Today, Ceres appears to be a geologically inactive body, with a surface sculpted only by impacts.[14] The presence of significant amounts of water ice in its composition[9] raises the possibility that Ceres has or had a layer of liquid water in its interior.[8][9] This hypothetical layer is often called an ocean.[17] If such a layer of liquid water exists, it is believed to be located between the rocky core and ice mantle like that of the theorized ocean on Europa.[8] The existence of an ocean is more likely if dissolved solutes (i.e. salts), ammonia, sulfuric acid or other antifreeze compounds are dissolved in the water.[8]

Observations
When Ceres has an opposition near the perihelion, it can reach a visual magnitude of +6.7.[18] This is generally regarded as too dim to be seen with the naked eye, but under exceptional viewing conditions a very sharp-sighted person may be able to see this dwarf planet. Ceres will be at its brightest (6.73) on December 18, 2012.[19] The only other asteroids that can reach a similarly bright magnitude are 4 Vesta, and, during rare oppositions near perihelion, 2 Pallas and 7 Iris.[62] At a conjunction Ceres has a magnitude of around +9.3, which corresponds to the faintest objects visible with 1050 binoculars. It can thus be seen with binoculars whenever it is above the horizon of a fully dark sky. Some notable observational milestones for Ceres include: An occultation of a star by Ceres observed in Mexico, Florida and across the Caribbean on 13 November 1984.[63] Ultraviolet Hubble Space Telescope images with 50km resolution taken on 25 June 1995.[47][64] Infrared images with 30km resolution taken with the Keck telescope in 2002 using adaptive optics.[48] Visible light images with 30km resolution (the best to date) taken using Hubble in 2003 and 2004.[14][49]

Ceres

47

Exploration
To date, no space probe has visited Ceres. Radio signals from spacecraft in orbit around and on the surface of Mars have been used to estimate the mass of Ceres from its perturbations on the motion of Mars.[40] The unmanned Dawn spacecraft, launched by NASA in 2007, is en route to Ceres. The probe has been orbiting asteroid 4 Vesta since July 15, 2011. After completing one year of explorations there it will continue on to Ceres, arriving in 2015, five months prior to the arrival of New Horizons at Pluto.[10] Dawn will thus be the first mission to study a dwarf planet at close range.

Dawn's mission profile calls for it to enter orbit around Ceres at an altitude of 5,900km. The spacecraft will reduce its orbital distance to 1,300km after five months of study, and then down to 700km after another five months.[65] The spacecraft instrumentation includes a framing camera, a visual and infrared spectrometer, and a gamma-ray and neutron detector. These instruments will be used to examine the dwarf planet's shape and elemental composition.[10]

Artistic montage of Dawn firing its ion rocket engine, with conjectural Vesta, Ceres (right), and asteroid field.

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Houtkooper, Institute for Psychobiology and Behavioral Medicine, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany [54] Cellino, A. et al. (2002). "Spectroscopic Properties of Asteroid Families" (http:/ / www. lpi. usra. edu/ books/ AsteroidsIII/ pdf/ 3018. pdf). Asteroids III. University of Arizona Press. pp.633643 (Table on p. 636). Bibcode2002aste.conf..633C. . [55] Kelley, M. S.; Gaffey, M. J.; Gaffey (1996). "A Genetic Study of the Ceres (Williams #67) Asteroid Family". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 28: 1097. Bibcode1996BAAS...28R1097K. [56] Kovaevi, A. B. (2011-12-05). "Determination of the mass of Ceres based on the most gravitationally efficient close encounters". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 419 (3): 27252736. Bibcode2012MNRAS.419.2725K. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19919.x. [57] Christou, A. A. (2000-04). "Co-orbital objects in the main asteroid belt". Astronomy and Astrophysics 356: L71-L74. Bibcode2000A&A...356L..71C. [58] "Solex" (http:/ / chemistry. unina. it/ ~alvitagl/ solex/ ). Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5gOzK38bc) from the original on 2009-04-29. . Retrieved 2009-03-03 numbers generated by Solex. [59] Petit, Jean-Marc; Morbidelli, Alessandro (2001). "The Primordial Excitation and Clearing of the Asteroid Belt" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ classes/ ge133/ reading/ asteroids. pdf) (PDF). Icarus 153 (2): 338347. Bibcode2001Icar..153..338P. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6702. . Retrieved 2009-06-25. [60] About a 10% chance of the asteroid belt acquiring a Ceres-mass KBO. William B. McKinnon, 2008, "On The Possibility Of Large KBOs Being Injected Into The Outer Asteroid Belt" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2008DPS. . . . 40. 3803M). American Astronomical Society, DPS meeting #40, #38.03 Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 62D6Hmyrx) 5 October 2011 at WebCite [61] Thomas, Peter C.; Binzel, Richard P.; Gaffey, Michael J.; et al. (1997). "Impact Excavation on Asteroid 4 Vesta: Hubble Space Telescope Results". Science 277 (5331): 14921495. Bibcode1997Sci...277.1492T. doi:10.1126/science.277.5331.1492. [62] Martinez, Patrick, The Observer's Guide to Astronomy, page 298. Published 1994 by Cambridge University Press [63] Millis, L. R.; Wasserman, L. H.; Franz, O. Z.; et al. (1987). "The size, shape, density, and albedo of Ceres from its occultation of BD+8 deg 471". Icarus 72 (3): 507518. Bibcode1987Icar...72..507M. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(87)90048-0. [64] "Observations reveal curiosities on the surface of asteroid Ceres" (http:/ / www. swri. org/ press/ ceres. htm). Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 62D6K1UXD) from the original on 2011-10-05. . Retrieved 2006-08-16. [65] Rayman, Marc (2006-07-13). "Dawn: mission description" (http:/ / www-ssc. igpp. ucla. edu/ dawn/ mission. html). UCLAIGPP Space Physics Center. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5msUtkbkX) from the original on 2010-01-18. . Retrieved 2007-04-27.

49

Ceres

50

Ephemerides
Further information: Ephemeris Hilton, James L. (1999). "U.S. Naval Observatory Ephemerides of the Largest Asteroids" (http://aa.usno.navy. mil/publications/reports/asteroid_ephemerides.html). The Astronomical Journal 117 (2): 1077. Bibcode1999AJ....117.1077H. doi:10.1086/300728. Yeomans, Donald K. "Horizons system" (http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?horizons). NASA JPL. Retrieved 2007-03-20.Horizons can be used to obtain a current ephemeris

External links
Movie of one Ceres rotation (processed Hubble images) (http://anon.nasa-global.speedera.net/anon. nasa-global/HST_ceres/640.mov) How Gauss determined the orbit of Ceres (http://www.keplersdiscovery.com/Asteroid.html) from keplersdiscovery.com A simulation of the orbit of Ceres (http://orbitsimulator.com/gravity/articles/ceres.html) An up-to-date summary of knowledge about Ceres, plus an Earth-Ceres size comparison (the Planetary Society) (http://planetary.org/explore/topics/asteroids_and_comets/ceres.html)

51

Ceres direct missions

Dawn
Dawn

Artist's concept of Dawn with Vesta (left) and Ceres (right). The proximity of Vesta to Ceres is not to scale. Operator Major contractors Mission type Flyby of Satellite of Orbital insertion date NASA Orbital Sciences, JPL, UCLA Flyby / Orbiter Mars (February 4, 2009) Vesta (current), Ceres (planned) [1] Vesta: July 16, 2011, 04:47 UTC (10months and 8days ago) Ceres: February 2015 (projected) 2007-09-27 11:34:00 UTC (4years, 271days ago) Delta II 7925H Space Launch Complex 17B Cape Canaveral Air Force Station through July 2015 2007-043A [3] [4] [5] [2]

Launch date

Launch vehicle Launch site

Mission duration COSPAR ID Homepage Mass Power

dawn.jpl.nasa.gov

1240kg (unknown operator: u'strong'lb) (wet) 1300 W (Solar array) at 3 AU Orbital elements [5]

Eccentricity Inclination

~ circular Polar

Dawn is a NASA spacecraft tasked with the exploration and study of the asteroid Vesta and the dwarf planet Ceres, the two largest members of the asteroid belt. The spacecraft was constructed with some European cooperation, with

Dawn components contributed by partners in Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. The Dawn mission is managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Dawn will be the first spacecraft to visit either Vesta or Ceres. It may furthermore be the first spacecraft to orbit two separate extraterrestrial bodies, using ion thrusters to travel between its targets. Previous multi-target missions using conventional drives, such as the Voyager program, were restricted to flybys.[5] Launched on September 27, 2007, Dawn reached Vesta on July 16, 2011, and will orbit and explore it until August 26, 2012.[6] Thereafter, the spacecraft will head to Ceres, which it is scheduled to reach in February 2015.[7] Dawn is NASAs first purely exploratory mission to use ion propulsion.

52

History
The status of the Dawn mission has changed several times. In December 2003, the project was first cancelled,[8] and then reinstated in February 2004. In October 2005, work on Dawn was placed in "stand down" mode. In January 2006, Dawn's "stand down" was discussed in the press as "indefinitely postponed", even though NASA had announced no new decisions regarding the mission's status.[9] On March 2, 2006, Dawn was cancelled by NASA.[10] The spacecraft's manufacturer, Orbital Sciences Corporation, appealed One of Dawn's solar arrays pictured in 2007, the decision and offered to build the spacecraft at cost, forgoing any showing slight damage. profit in order to gain experience in a new market field. NASA then put the cancellation under review,[11] and on March 27, 2006, it was announced that the mission would not be cancelled after all.[12][13] In the last week of September 2006, the Dawn mission instrument payload integration reached full functionality. Although originally projected to cost US$373 million, cost overruns inflated the final cost of the mission to US$446 million in 2007.[14] The Dawn mission team is led by Christopher T. Russell.

Dawn

53

Scientific background
Dawn is intended to study two large bodies in the asteroid belt in order to answer questions about the formation of the Solar System, as well as to test the feasibility of its ion drive. Ceres and Vesta were chosen as two contrasting protoplanets, the first one apparently "wet" (that is, icy) and the other "dry" (or rocky), whose accretion was terminated by the formation of Jupiter. They provide a bridge in scientific understanding between the formation of rocky planets and the icy bodies of the Solar System, and under what conditions a rocky planet can hold water.[15] The IAU adopted a new definition of planet on August 24, 2006, which introduced the term "dwarf planet" for ellipsoidal worlds that were too small to qualify for planetary status by "clearing their neighborhood". If the IAU's definition stands and the spacecraft experiences no delays, Dawn will become the first mission to study a dwarf planet, arriving at Ceres five months prior to the arrival of the New Horizons probe at Pluto. Ceres is a dwarf planet whose mass comprises about one-third of the total mass of the bodies in the asteroid belt, and whose spectral characteristics suggest a composition similar to that of a water-rich carbonaceous chondrite.[16] Vesta, a smaller, water-poor achondritic asteroid, has experienced significant heating and differentiation. It shows signs of a metallic core, a Mars-like density and lunar-like basaltic flows.[17] Both bodies formed very early in the history of the Solar System, thereby retaining a record of events and processes from the time of the formation of the terrestrial planets. Radionuclide dating of pieces of meteorites thought to come from Vesta suggests that Vesta differentiated quickly, in only three million years. Thermal evolution studies suggest that Ceres must have formed a little later, more than three million years after the formation of CAIs (the oldest known objects of Solar System origin).[18] Moreover, Vesta is the source of many smaller objects in the Solar System. Most (but not all) V-type near-Earth asteroids, and some outer main-belt asteroids, have spectra similar to Vesta, and are thus known as vestoids. Five percent of the meteoritic samples found on Earth, the Howardite Eucrite Diogenite ("HED") meteorites, are thought to be the result of a collision or collisions with Vesta. Peter Thomas of Cornell University has proposed that Ceres has a differentiated interior;[19] its oblateness appears too small for an undifferentiated body, which indicates that it consists of a rocky core overlain with an icy mantle.[19] There is a large collection of potential samples from Vesta accessible to scientists, in the form of over 200 HED meteorites, giving insight into Vestian geologic history and structure. Vesta is thought to consist of a metallic ironnickel core, an overlying rocky olivine mantle, with a surface crust.[20][21][22]
Dawn prior to encapsulation at its launch pad on July 1, 2007.

Dawn

54

Objectives
The Dawn mission's goal is to characterize the conditions and processes of the Solar System's earliest eon by investigating in detail two of the largest protoplanets remaining intact since their formation.[23] The primary question that the mission addresses is the role of size and water in determining the evolution of the planets.[23] Ceres and Vesta are highly suitable bodies with which to address this question, as they are the most massive of the protoplanets. Ceres is geologically very primitive and icy, while Vesta is evolved and rocky. Their contrasting characteristics are thought to have resulted from them forming in two different regions of the early Solar System.[23] There are three principal scientific drivers for the mission. Firstly, the Dawn mission can capture the earliest moments in the origin of the solar system, enabling us to understand the conditions under which these objects formed. Secondly, Dawn determines the nature of the building blocks from which the terrestrial planets formed, improving our understanding of this formation. Finally, it contrasts the formation and evolution of two small planets that followed very different evolutionary paths, so that we can understand what controls that evolution.[23] An extended mission following the completion of the Ceres study is also possible, although unlikely, as greater scientific returns may be attained by spending more time at Vesta and Ceres.[24] Although 2 Pallas would have been a feasible extended target for the originally scheduled launch date, launch delays have meant that this may no longer be the case. Fuel was not specifically allocated to break orbit from Ceres, so doing this depends upon the details of the flight to Ceres.

A Dawn image of Vesta from orbit, taken on July 17, 2011.

Dawn's approximate flight trajectory.

Specifications
Dimensions
With its solar array in the retracted launch position, the Dawn spacecraft is 2.36 meters (7 feet, 9 inches) long. With its solar arrays fully extended, Dawn is 19.7 meters (65 ft) long.

Propulsion system

Dawn

55

The Dawn spacecraft is propelled by three xenon ion thrusters which inherited NSTAR engineering technology from the Deep Space 1 spacecraft.[25] They have a specific impulse of 3,100 s and produce a thrust of 90mN.[26] The whole spacecraft, including the ion propulsion thrusters, is powered by a 10kW (at 1AU) triple-junction gallium arsenide photovoltaic solar array manufactured by Dutch Space.[27][28] To get to Vesta, Dawn is allocated 275kg (unknown operator: u'strong'lb) of xenon, with another 110kg (unknown operator: u'strong'lb) to reach Dawn's solar array at full extension. Ceres,[29] out of a total capacity of 425kg (937 pounds) of on-board propellant.[30] With the propellant it carries, it can perform a velocity change of over 10km/s, far more than any other spacecraft has done with onboard propellant after separation from the launch rocket.[29] Dawn is NASAs first purely exploratory mission to use ion propulsion engines.[31]

Microchip
Dawn carries a memory chip bearing the names of more than 360,000 space enthusiasts.[32] The names were submitted online as part of a public outreach effort between September 2005 and November 4, 2006.[33] The microchip (about the size of a United States nickel coin) was installed on 17 May 2007 above the forward ion thruster, underneath the spacecraft's high-gain antenna.[34] More than one microchip was made, with a back-up copy on display at the 2007 Open House at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California.

Payload
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory provided overall planning and management of the mission, the flight system and scientific payload development, and provided the Ion Propulsion System. Orbital Sciences Corporation provided the spacecraft, which constituted the company's first interplanetary mission. The Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) provided the framing cameras, the Italian Space Agency provided the mapping spectrometer, and the Los Alamos National Laboratory provided the gamma ray and neutron spectrometer.[5] Framing camera (FC) The framing camera uses 20 mm aperture, f/7.5 refractive optical system with a focal length of 150mm.[35] A frame-transfer charge-coupled device (CCD), a Thomson TH7888A,[35] at the focal plane has 1024 1024 sensitive 93-rad pixels, yielding a wide field of view. An 8-position filter wheel permits panchromatic (clear filter) and spectrally selective imaging (7 narrow band filters). The broadest filter allows imaging from about 400 to 1050nm. In addition, the framing camera will acquire images for optical navigation in the vicinities of Vesta and Ceres. The FC computer is a custom radiation-hardened Xilinx with a Leon core and 8 GiB of memory.[35] The camera will offer resolutions of 17 m/pixel for Vesta and 66 m/pixel for Ceres.[35] Because the framing camera is vital for both science and navigation, the payload has two identical and physically separate cameras (FC1 & FC2) for redundancy, each with its own optics, electronics, and structure.[5][36] Visual and infrared spectrometer (VIR) This instrument is a modification of the visible and infrared thermal-imaging spectrometer used on the Rosetta and Venus Express spacecraft. It also draws its heritage from the Saturn orbiter Cassini's visible and infrared mapping spectrometer. The spectrometer's VIR spectral frames are 256 (spatial) 432 (spectral), and the slit length is 64 mrad. The mapping spectrometer incorporates two channels, both fed by a single grating. A CCD yields frames from 0.25 to 1.0 m, while an array of HgCdTe photodiodes cooled to about 70K spans the spectrum from 0.95 to 5.0 m.[5][37] Gamma Ray and Neutron Detector (GRaND) This instrument is based on similar instruments flown on the Lunar Prospector and Mars Odyssey space missions. It will be used to measure the abundances of the major

Dawn rock-forming elements (oxygen, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, calcium, titanium, and iron) on Vesta and Ceres, as well as potassium, thorium, uranium, and water (inferred from hydrogen content).[38][39][40][41][42][43] A magnetometer and laser altimeter were considered for the mission, but were not ultimately flown.[44]

56

Mission summary
Launch
Dawn was launched on September 27, 2007, from pad 17-B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station on a Delta 7925-H rocket.[45] Its original planned launch date was three months earlier on June 20, but the launch schedule suffered many interruptions and delays. On April 10, 2007, the spacecraft arrived at the Astrotech Space Operations subsidiary of SPACEHAB, Inc. in Titusville, Florida, where it was prepared for launch.[46][47] The launch was originally scheduled for June 20, but was delayed until June 30 due to delays with part deliveries.[48] A broken crane at the launch pad, used to raise the solid rocket boosters, further delayed the launch for a week, until July 7, but on June 15 the second stage was successfully hoisted into position.[49][50] A mishap at the Astrotech Space Operations facility, Dawn launching on a Delta II rocket from Cape involving slight damage to one of the solar arrays, did not have an Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch effect on the launch date; however, bad weather caused the launch to Complex 17. slip to July 8. Range tracking problems then delayed the launch to July 9, and then July 15. Launch planning was then suspended in order to avoid conflicts with the Phoenix mission to Mars, which was successfully launched on August 4. The launch of Dawn was first rescheduled for September 26, 2007,[51][52] then September 27, due to bad weather delaying fueling of the second stage, the same problem which had earlier delayed the July 7 launch attempt. The launch window extended from 07:2007:49 EDT (11:2011:49 GMT).[53] During the final built-in hold at T4 minutes, a ship entered the exclusion area offshore, the strip of ocean where the rocket boosters were likely to fall after separation. After commanding the ship to leave the area, the launch was required to wait for the end of a collision avoidance window with the International Space Station.[54] The spacecraft finally launched at 07:34 EDT from pad 17-B on a Delta II launch vehicle,[55][56][57] propelling Dawn to a velocity of 11.46 kilometers per second (25,600 miles per hour) relative to Earth.[58] Thereafter, Dawn's ion thrusters took over.

Cruise
After initial checkout, during which the ion thrusters accumulated more than 11 days of thrust, Dawn began long-term cruise propulsion on December 17, 2007.[59] On October 31, 2008, Dawn completed its first thrusting phase to send it on to Mars for a gravity assist flyby in February 2009. During this first interplanetary cruise phase, Dawn spent 270 days, or 85% of this phase, using its thrusters. It expended less than 72 kilograms (158 pounds) of xenon propellant for a total change in velocity of 1.81 kilometers per second (4050 miles per hour). On November 20, 2008, Dawn performed its first trajectory correction maneuver (TCM1), firing its number 1 thruster for 2 hours, 11 minutes. Following Dawn's solar conjunction, a course correction maneuver originally scheduled for January 2009 was determined to not be necessary.

Dawn

57

Dawn made its closest approach (549km) to Mars on February 17, 2009 during a successful gravity assist.[60][61] On this day, the spacecraft placed itself in safe mode, resulting in some data acquisition loss. The spacecraft was reported to be back in full operation two days later, with no impact on the subsequent mission identified. The root cause of the event was reported to be a software programming error.[62] To cruise from Earth to its targets, Dawn traveled in an elongated outward spiral trajectory. NASA posts and continually updates the current location and status of Dawn online.[63] The estimated chronology is as follows:[64] September 27, 2007: launch February 17, 2009: Mars gravity assist July 16, 2011: Vesta arrival (initial orbit) December 13, 2011: Vesta lowest orbit August 26, 2012: Vesta departure c. February 2015: Ceres arrival c. July 2015: End of primary operations
Greyscale NIR image of Mars (northwest Tempe Terra), taken by Dawn during its 2009 flyby.

Vesta approach
As Dawn approached Vesta, it could take progressively higher-resolution images. The images were taken by the Framing Camera instrument, and published online and at news conferences by NASA [65] and MPI [66].

Vesta from 265,000 km June 14, 2011

Vesta from 152,000 km June 24, 2011

Vesta from 100,000 km July 1, 2011

Vesta from 41,000 km July 9, 2011

On May 3, 2011, Dawn acquired its first targeting image, 1200000 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong' mi) from Vesta, and began its approach phase to the asteroid.[67] On June 12, Dawn's speed relative to Vesta was slowed in preparation for its orbital insertion 34 days later.[68] Dawn was scheduled to be inserted into orbit at 05:00 UTC on July 16 after a period of thrusting with its ion engines. Because its antenna was pointed away from the Earth during thrusting, scientists were not able to immediately confirm whether or not Dawn successfully made the maneuver. The spacecraft would then reorient itself, and was scheduled to check in at 06:30 UTC on July 17.[69] NASA later confirmed that it received telemetry from Dawn indicating that the spacecraft successfully entered orbit around Vesta.[70] The exact time of insertion could not be confirmed, as it depended on Vesta's mass distribution, which has only been estimated.[71] On December 8, 2011, Dawn reached its low-altitude mapping orbit, 210 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) above the surface of Vesta.[72]

Dawn

58

Vesta orbit
After being captured by Vesta's gravity and entering its orbit on July 15, 2011, Dawn moved itself to a lower, closer orbit by running its xenon ion rocket engine via solar power. On August 2, it paused its spiralling approach to enter a 69-hour survey orbit at an altitude of 2750 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi). It assumed a 12.3-hour high-altitude mapping orbit at 680 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) on September 27, and finally entered a 4.3-hour low-altitude mapping orbit at 210 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) on December 8, 2011.[72][73][74] In May 2012, NASA released the preliminary results of Dawn's study of Vesta, including estimates of the size of Vesta's metal-rich core, which is theorized to be 220 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) across. NASA scientists furthermore stated that they believed Vesta to be the "last of its kind" the only remaining example of the large planetoids that came together to form the rocky planets during the solar system's genesis.[75][76]

Image of Vesta from orbit at 16,000 km July 17, 2011

Image from 10,500 km July 18, 2011

Image from 5,200 km July 23, 2011

Image from 5,200 km July 24, 2011

Ceres
Dawn is planned to depart Vesta and begin its journey to Ceres on August 26, 2012.[6] It is scheduled to arrive at Ceres in 2015, five months prior to the arrival of New Horizons at Pluto; Dawn will thus be the first mission to study a dwarf planet at close range. Dawn's mission profile calls for it to enter orbit around Ceres at an initial altitude of 5900 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi). The spacecraft will reduce its orbital distance to 1300 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) after five months of study, then to 700 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) after another five months.[77]

References
[1] "NASA's Dawn Spacecraft Begins Science Orbits of Vesta" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ feature_stories/ spacecraft_begins_science_orbits. asp). NASA. 2011-08-01. . Retrieved 2011-08-06. [2] [3] [4] [5] Dawn Spacecraft Successfully Launched (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ dawn/ news/ dawn-20070927. html) September 27, 2007 http:/ / nssdc. gsfc. nasa. gov/ nmc/ masterCatalog. do?sc=2007-043A http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ Rayman, Marc; Fraschetti, Raymond, Russell (5). "Dawn: A mission in development for exploration of main belt asteroids Vesta and Ceres" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ Dawn_overview. pdf). Acta Astronautica 58 (11): 605616. Bibcode2006AcAau..58..605R. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.01.014. . Retrieved 14 April 2011. [6] "Dawn Gets Extra Time to Explore Vesta" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov. / mission_pages/ dawn/ news/ dawn20120418. html). NASA. 2012-04-18. . Retrieved 2012-04-24. [7] "DAWN A Journey to the Beginning of the Solar System" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ timeline. asp). Dawn Mission Timeline. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. . Retrieved 2012-03-18. [8] Ambrosiano, Nancy (2006-03-28). "NASA's Dawn mission is a go" (http:/ / www. lanl. gov/ news/ index. php/ fuseaction/ nb. story/ story_id/ 8140). Los Alamos National Laboratory. . Retrieved 2007-10-01. [9] Chang, Alicia (2006). "NASA Asteroid Mission Won't Launch This Year" (http:/ / www. space. com/ missionlaunches/ ap_060121_dawn_hold. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2006-03-04. [10] Clark, Stephen (2006). "Probe built to visit asteroids killed in budget snarl" (http:/ / www. spaceflightnow. com/ news/ n0603/ 03dawn/ ). Spaceflightnow.com. . Retrieved 2006-03-04.

Dawn
[11] "NASA reviewing canceled mission" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060321081642/ http:/ / www3. cnn. com/ 2006/ TECH/ space/ 03/ 16/ asteroid. mission. ap/ index. html). CNN.com. March 16, 2006. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2006/ TECH/ space/ 03/ 16/ asteroid. mission. ap/ index. html) on 2006-03-21. . Retrieved 2006-03-27. [12] Geveden, Rex (2006). "Dawn Mission Reclama" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ pdf/ 145511main_Dawn_letter. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2006-03-27. [13] Malik, Tariq (March 27, 2006). "NASA Reinstates Cancelled Asteroid Mission" (http:/ / space. com/ news/ 060327_dawn_mission. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2006-03-27. [14] "Dawn" (http:/ / nssdc. gsfc. nasa. gov/ nmc/ spacecraftDisplay. do?id=2007-043A). NASA - National Space Science Data Center. . Retrieved 16 July 2011. [15] "DAWN Mission Objectives" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ goal_index. asp). NASA. . Retrieved March 2010. [16] Thomas B. McCord and Christophe Sotin (2005). "Ceres: Evolution and current state". Journal of Geophysical Research 110 (E5): E05009. Bibcode2005JGRE..11005009M. doi:10.1029/2004JE002244. [17] Calvin J. Hamilton. "Vesta" (http:/ / www. solarviews. com/ eng/ vesta. htm). . Retrieved March 2010. [18] Asteroid Vesta (http:/ / www. solarviews. com/ eng/ vesta. htm) [19] Thomas, P. C.; Parker, J. Wm.; McFadden, L. A.; Russell, C. T.; Stern, S. A.; Sykes, M. V.; Young, E. F. (2005). "Differentiation of the asteroid Ceres as revealed by its shape". Nature 437 (7056): 2246. Bibcode2005Natur.437..224T. doi:10.1038/nature03938. PMID16148926. [20] Ghosh, A; McSween, Harry Y. (1998). "A Thermal Model for the Differentiation of Asteroid 4 Vesta, Based on Radiogenic Heating". Icarus 134 (2): 187. Bibcode1998Icar..134..187G. doi:10.1006/icar.1998.5956. [21] Sahijpal, S.; Soni, P.;Gagan, G. (2007). "Numerical simulations of the differentiation of accreting planetesimals with 26Al and 60Fe as the heat sources". Meteoritics & Planetary Science 42 (9): 15291548. Bibcode2007M&PS...42.1529S. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2007.tb00589.x. [22] Gupta, G.; Sahijpal, S. (2010). "Differentiation of Vesta and the parent bodies of other achondrites". J. Geophys. Res. (Planets) 115 (E8): E08001. Bibcode2010JGRE..11508001G. doi:10.1029/2009JE003525. [23] "Mission Objectives" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ goal_index. asp). JPL - NASA. 2006. . Retrieved 2012-03-23. [24] "Frequently asked questions" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ faqs. asp#). NASA. . Retrieved 2008-07-14. [25] "Dawn Mission" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ spacecraft. asp). JPL. NASA. . Retrieved July 18, 2011. [26] "Dawn, Ion Propulsion" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ ion_prop. asp). NASA. . Retrieved 2007-09-28. [27] "Dawn, Spacecraft" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ spacecraft. asp). NASA. . Retrieved 2007-09-28. [28] "Dawn Solar Arrays" (http:/ / www. dutchspace. nl/ pages/ business/ content. asp?id=234& LangType=1033). Dutch Space. 2007. . Retrieved 2011-07-18. [29] "Dawn: Mission description" (http:/ / www-ssc. igpp. ucla. edu/ dawn/ mission. html). UCLA Space Physics Center. 2006-10-17. . Retrieved 2007-09-28. [30] Watanabe, Susan (2007-07-05). "Dawn: Spacecraft & Instruments" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ dawn/ spacecraft/ ). NASA. . Retrieved 2006-08-10. [31] "Dawn Lifts Off" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2007/ 09/ photogalleries/ wip-week48/ ). National Geographic Society. . Retrieved 2007-09-28. [32] "All Aboard the Dawn Spacecraft" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ DawnCommunity/ index. asp). JPL.NASA.gov. May 20, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-06-21. [33] "Send Your Name to the Asteroid Belt" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070411054822/ http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ DawnCommunity/ Sendname2asteroid/ index_asteroid_blt. aspx). JPL.NASA.gov. November 4, 2006. Archived from the original (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ DawnCommunity/ Sendname2asteroid/ index_asteroid_blt. aspx) on 2007-04-11. . Retrieved 2007-06-21. [34] "Kennedy Media Gallery" (http:/ / mediaarchive. ksc. nasa. gov/ detail. cfm?mediaid=32165). KSC.NASA.gov. May 17, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-06-21. [35] Sierks, et al. - The Dawn Framing Camera: A Telescope En Route to the Asteroid Belt - MPS/DLR/IDA (http:/ / indico. cern. ch/ getFile. py/ access?contribId=19& resId=0& materialId=6& confId=43007) [36] Sierks, H.; Keller, H. U.; Jaumann, R.; Michalik, H.; Behnke, T.; Bubenhagen, F.; Bttner, I.; Carsenty, U. et al (2011). "The Dawn Framing Camera". Space Science Reviews. Bibcode2011SSRv..tmp...20S. doi:10.1007/s11214-011-9745-4. [37] Sanctis, M. C.; Coradini, A.; Ammannito, E.; Filacchione, G.; Capria, M. T.; Fonte, S.; Magni, G.; Barbis, A. et al (2010). "The VIR Spectrometer". Space Science Reviews. Bibcode2010SSRv..tmp..103D. doi:10.1007/s11214-010-9668-5. [38] "Science Payload" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ technology/ index. asp). . Retrieved 2010-03-21. [39] "GRaND science instrument moves closer to launch from Cape" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ technology/ GRaND. asp). . Retrieved 2010-03-21. [40] Righter, Kevin; Drake, Michael J. (1997). "A magma ocean on Vesta: Core formation and petrogenesis of eucrites and diogenites". Meteoritics & Planetary Science 32 (6): 929944. Bibcode1997M&PS...32..929R. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.1997.tb01582.x. [41] Drake, Michael J. (2001). "The eucrite/Vesta story". Meteoritics & Planetary Science 36 (4): 501513. Bibcode2001M&PS...36..501D. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2001.tb01892.x. [42] Prettyman, Thomas H. (2004). "Mapping the elemental composition of Ceres and Vesta: Dawn[quotation mark]s gamma ray and neutron detector". Proceedings of SPIE. 5660. pp. 107. doi:10.1117/12.578551.

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Dawn
[43] . Bibcode2003ITNS...50.1190P. doi:10.1109/TNS.2003.815156. [44] Oberg, James (September 27, 2007). "Spacecrafts ion drive gets its day in the sun" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 21014201/ #. TwhqB9XdNp8). msnbc.com. . Retrieved 2012-01-07. [45] "Expendable Launch Vehicle Status Report" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ centers/ kennedy/ launchingrockets/ status/ 2007/ elvstatus-20070511. html). NASA. 2007-05-11. . [46] NASA. "Dawn arrives in Florida" (http:/ / www. spaceflightnow. com/ news/ n0704/ 10dawnarrival/ ). Spaceflight Now. . [47] "Dawn at Astrotech's Payload Processing Facility" (http:/ / www. space. gs/ 11-apr-2007-dawn. html). Space and Astronautics News. . [48] "Launch of Dawn asteroid mission postponed again" (http:/ / space. newscientist. com/ article/ dn12215-launch-of-dawn-asteroid-mission-postponed-again. html). NewScientistSpace. . [49] "Pad 17 crane to be fixed mid-week" (http:/ / www. floridatoday. com/ floridatoday/ blogs/ spaceteam/ 2007/ 06/ pad-17a-to-be-fixed-mid-week. html). Florida Today. . [50] "Expendable Launch Vehicle Status Report" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ centers/ kennedy/ launchingrockets/ status/ 2007/ elvstatus-20070618. html). June 18, 2007. . [51] "NASA Mission to Asteroid Belt Rescheduled for September Launch" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ dawn/ news/ HQ_07150_Dawn_postpone_Sep. html). NASA. July 7, 2007. . [52] "Dawn Launch Date" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ missions/ highlights/ schedule. html). NASA launch schedule. . Retrieved 2007-09-01. [53] "Expendable Launch Vehicle Status Report" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ centers/ kennedy/ launchingrockets/ status/ 2007/ elvstatus-20070907. html). NASA. September 7, 2007. . [54] "NASA's Launch Blog" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ dawn/ launch/ launch-blog. html). NASA. September 27, 2007. . [55] "ULAOne Team for Assured Access to Space" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070928093124/ http:/ / www. ulalaunch. com/ images/ product_sheet/ Delta_Product_Sheet_FINAL. pdf) (PDF). ulalaunch.com. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ulalaunch. com/ images/ product_sheet/ Delta_Product_Sheet_FINAL. pdf) on 2007-09-28. . Retrieved 2008-03-04. [56] "NASA's Launch Coverage" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ dawn/ launch/ index. html). NASA. September 27, 2007. . Retrieved 2010-03-21. [57] "Dawn Spacecraft Successfully Launched" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ dawn/ news/ dawn-20070927. html). NASA. . Retrieved 2010-03-21. [58] Rayman, Marc D. (August 24, 2008). "Dear Dawnivores" (http:/ / www-ssc. igpp. ucla. edu/ dawn/ DawnJournal_24August08. html). . Retrieved 2010-03-21. [59] Rayman, Marc D.. "Dawn Journal: December 17, 2007" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ journal_12_17_07. asp). JPL. . Retrieved 2010-03-21. [60] Rayman, Marc D.. "Dawn Journal: Aiming away from a bull's eye at Mars" (http:/ / www. planetary. org/ blog/ article/ 00001755/ ). The Planetary Society. . Retrieved 2010-03-21. [61] Malik, Tariq (February 18, 2009). "Asteroid-Bound Probe Zooms Past Mars" (http:/ / www. space. com/ missionlaunches/ 090218-dawn-asteroid-mars. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2010-03-21. [62] "Dawn Receives Gravity Assist from Mars" (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ status. asp). NASA/JPL. 2009-02-28. . Retrieved 2009-08-04. [63] "Dawn Spacecraft Current Location" (http:/ / neo. jpl. nasa. gov/ orbits/ fulltraj. jpg). . Retrieved July 18, 2011. [64] "GSpace Topics: Dawn" (http:/ / planetary. org/ explore/ topics/ dawn/ ). . Retrieved 2010-03-21. [65] http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ multimedia/ vesta_dawn_gallery. asp [66] http:/ / www. dawn. mps. mpg. de/ index. php?id=10 [67] http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ dawn/ news/ dawn20110511. html NASA [68] http:/ / neo. jpl. nasa. gov/ orbits/ fullview4. jpg [69] Wall, Mike (July 16, 2011). "NASA Spacecraft Now Orbiting Huge Asteroid Vesta... Hopefully" (http:/ / www. space. com/ 12306-dawn-vesta-asteroid-orbit-arrival. html). Space.com. . Retrieved July 17, 2011. [70] Jonathan Amos (10:50, 17 July 2011). "Dawn probe orbits asteroid Vesta" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ science-environment-14160135). BBC News. . [71] Vega, Priscilla; Brown, Dwayne (July 16, 2011). "NASA's Dawn Spacecraft Enters Orbit Around Asteroid Vesta" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ dawn/ news/ dawn20110716. html). NASA. . Retrieved July 17, 2011. [72] Dawn Mission > Mission Status > 2011 (http:/ / dawn. jpl. nasa. gov/ mission/ status. asp?year=2011), JPL [73] SpringerLink (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ 0038-6308/ 163/ 1-4/ ). [74] Spacegrant.org (PDF) (http:/ / erps. spacegrant. org/ uploads/ images/ images/ iepc_articledownload_1988-2007/ 2011index/ IEPC-2011-326. pdf). [75] "Asteroid Vesta is 'last of a kind' rock" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ science-environment-18027933). BBC, 11 May 2012. [76] "Incredible video 'fly-over' by Nasa's Dawn probe reveals huge rippled asteroid Vesta is more like a small planet" (http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ sciencetech/ article-2144652/ Asteroid-Vesta-Nasas-Dawn-probe-reveals-huge-rippled-asteroid-like-small-planet. html?ito=feeds-newsxml). Daily Mail, 15 May 2012. Retrieved 23 May 2012. [77] Rayman, Marc (2006-07-13). "Dawn: mission description" (http:/ / www-ssc. igpp. ucla. edu/ dawn/ mission. html). UCLAIGPP Space Physics Center. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5msUtkbkX) from the original on 2010-01-18. . Retrieved 2007-04-27.

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Dawn

61

External links
Dawn mission home page (http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/) at JPL Dawn mission home page (http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ dawn/main/index.html) at NASA Dawn Website (http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/dawn/index. html) at UCLA Space Physics Center Visual and Infrared Spectrometer Instrument (http://www. ifsi-roma.inaf.it/vir/) at INAF (Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica) Dawn Framing Camera (http://www.dawn.mps.mpg.de/index. php?id=21&L=1) at Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research Gamma Ray and Neutron Spectrometer for Dawn (http://www.lpi. usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2006/pdf/2231.pdf), short paper on the instrument, from 37th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference
Dawn mission patch

62

Pluto
Pluto
Pluto

Computer-generated map of Pluto from Hubble images, synthesized true color with current technology.
Discovery Discovered by Discovery date

[1]

and among the highest resolutions possible

Clyde W. Tombaugh February 18, 1930 Designations

MPC designation Pronunciation Named after Minor planet category

134340 Pluto
i

/pluto/,

[2]

Pluto

dwarf planet TNO plutoid KBO plutino

Adjective

Plutonian Orbital characteristics Epoch J2000

Aphelion Perihelion

7,311,000,000 km 48.871AU 4,437,000,000km 29.657AU

[3]

(1989 Sep 05) Semi-major axis Eccentricity

5,874,000,000km 39.264AU

0.24880766

Pluto

63

Orbital period

90,613.305 days 248.09 years [4] 14,164.4 Pluto solar days

Synodic period Average orbitalspeed Mean anomaly Inclination Longitudeof ascendingnode Argument of perihelion Satellites

366.73 days 4.666km/s 14.86012204

[5]

17.14175 11.88 to Sun's equator

110.30347 113.76329 4 Physical characteristics

Mean radius

1,153 10 km 0.18 Earths [7] 1161 km (solid) 1.665107 km2 0.033 Earths 6.39109 km3 0.0059 Earths
[8]

[6]

Surface area

Volume

[9]

Mass

(1.305 0.007)1022 kg 0.00218 Earths 0.178 Moons

[6]

[6]

Mean density Equatorial surfacegravity

2.03 0.06 g/cm3

0.658 m/s2 0.067 g

[10]

Escape velocity Sidereal rotation period Equatorial rotationvelocity Axial tilt Northpole right ascension Northpole declination Albedo Surface temp. Kelvin

1.229 km/s

[11]

6.387230 day 6 d 9 h 17 m 36 s

47.18km/h 119.591 0.014 (to orbit) 312.993 6.163

[13] [6][12]

[13] [14][15]

0.490.66 (geometric, varies by 35%) min mean max 33 K 44 K 55 K

[16]

Apparent magnitude

13.65 to 16.3 [15] (mean is 15.1) 0.7

[17]

[15]

Absolute magnitude (H)

Pluto

64
[15][18]

Angular diameter

0.065" to 0.115" Atmosphere

Surface pressure Composition

0.30 Pa (summer maximum) nitrogen, methane, carbon monoxide

[19]

Pluto, formal designation 134340 Pluto, is the second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System (after Eris) and the tenth-most-massive body observed directly orbiting the Sun. Originally classified as the ninth planet from the Sun, Pluto was recategorized as a dwarf planet and plutoid due to the discovery that it is only one of several large bodies within the Kuiper belt.[20] Like other members of the Kuiper belt, Pluto is composed primarily of rock and ice and is relatively small: approximately a sixth the mass of the Earth's Moon and a third its volume. It has an eccentric and highly inclined orbit that takes it from 30 to 49AU (4.47.4 billionkm) from the Sun. This causes Pluto to periodically come closer to the Sun than Neptune. As of 2011, it is 32.1 AU from the Sun.[21] From its discovery in 1930 until 2006, Pluto was classified as a planet. In the late 1970s, following the discovery of minor planet 2060 Chiron in the outer Solar System and the recognition of Pluto's relatively low mass, its status as a major planet began to be questioned.[22] In the late 20th and early 21st century, many objects similar to Pluto were discovered in the outer Solar System, notably the scattered disc object Eris in 2005, which is 27% more massive than Pluto.[23] On August 24, 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) defined what it means to be a "planet" within the Solar System. This definition excluded Pluto as a planet and added it as a member of the new category "dwarf planet" along with Eris and Ceres.[24] After the reclassification, Pluto was added to the list of minor planets and given the number 134340.[25][26] A number of scientists hold that Pluto should continue to be classified as a planet, and that other dwarf planets should be added to the roster of planets along with Pluto.[27][28] Pluto has four known moons, the largest being Charon discovered in 1978, along with Nix and Hydra, discovered in 2005,[29] and the provisionally named S/2011 P 1, discovered in 2011.[30] Pluto and Charon are sometimes described as a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body.[31] However, the IAU has yet to formalise a definition for binary dwarf planets, and as such Charon is officially classified as a moon of Pluto.[32]

Discovery
In the 1840s, using Newtonian mechanics, Urbain Le Verrier predicted the position of the then-undiscovered planet Neptune after analysing perturbations in the orbit of Uranus.[33] Subsequent observations of Neptune in the late 19th century caused astronomers to speculate that Uranus' orbit was being disturbed by another planet besides Neptune. In 1906, Percival Lowell, a wealthy Bostonian who had founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona in 1894, started an extensive project in search of a possible ninth planet, which he termed "Planet X".[34] By 1909, Lowell and William H. Pickering had suggested several possible celestial coordinates for such a planet.[35] Lowell and his observatory conducted his search until his death in 1916, but to no avail. Unknown to Lowell, on March 19, 1915, his observatory had captured two faint images of Pluto, but did not recognise them for what they were.[35][36] Lowell was not the first to unknowingly photograph Pluto. There are sixteen known pre-discoveries, with the oldest being made by the Yerkes Observatory on August 20, 1909.[37] Due to a ten-year legal battle with Constance Lowell, Percival's widow, who attempted to wrest the observatory's million-dollar portion of his legacy for herself, the search for Planet X did not resume until 1929,[38] when its director, Vesto Melvin Slipher, summarily handed the job of locating Planet X to Clyde Tombaugh, a 23-year-old Kansan who had just arrived at the Lowell Observatory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his astronomical drawings.[38]

Pluto Tombaugh's task was to systematically image the night sky in pairs of photographs taken two weeks apart, then examine each pair and determine whether any objects had shifted position. Using a machine called a blink comparator, he rapidly shifted back and forth between views of each of the plates to create the illusion of movement of any objects that had changed position or appearance between photographs. On February 18, 1930, after nearly a year of searching, Tombaugh discovered a possible moving object on photographic plates taken on January 23 and January 29 of that year. A lesser-quality photograph taken on January 21 helped confirm the movement.[39] After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs, news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13, 1930.[35]

65

Name
The discovery made headlines across the globe. The Lowell Observatory, which had the right to name the new object, received over 1,000 suggestions from all over the world, ranging from Atlas to Zymal.[40] Tombaugh urged Slipher to suggest a name for the new object quickly before someone else did.[40] Constance Lowell proposed Zeus, then Percival and finally Constance. These suggestions were disregarded.[41] The name Pluto was proposed by Venetia Burney (19182009), an eleven-year-old schoolgirl in Oxford, England.[42] Venetia was interested in classical mythology as well as astronomy, and considered the name, a name for the god of the underworld, appropriate for such a presumably dark and cold world. She suggested it in a conversation with her grandfather Falconer Madan, a former librarian at the University of Oxford's Bodleian Library. Madan passed the name to Professor Herbert Hall Turner, who then cabled it to colleagues in the United States.[43] The object was officially named on March 24, 1930.[44][45] Each member of the Lowell Observatory was allowed to vote on a short-list of three: Minerva (which was already the name for an asteroid), Cronus (which had lost reputation through being proposed by the unpopular astronomer Thomas Jefferson Jackson See), and Pluto. Pluto received every vote.[46] The name was announced on May 1, 1930.[42] Upon the announcement, Madan gave Venetia five pounds (5) (234 as of 2012),[47] as a reward.[42] It has been noted that the first two letters of Pluto are the initials of Percival Lowell, and Pluto's astronomical symbol ( ) is a monogram constructed from the letters 'PL'.[48] Pluto's astrological symbol resembles that of Neptune ( ), but has a circle in place of the middle prong of the trident ( ). The name was soon embraced by wider culture. In 1930, Walt Disney introduced for Mickey Mouse a canine companion, named Pluto apparently in the object's honour, although Disney animator Ben Sharpsteen could not confirm why the name was given.[49] In 1941, Glenn T. Seaborg named the newly created element plutonium after Pluto, in keeping with the tradition of naming elements after newly discovered planets, following uranium, which was named after Uranus, and neptunium, which was named after Neptune.[50] In Chinese, Japanese and Korean the name was translated as underworld king star ( ),[51][52] as suggested by Houei Nojiri in 1930.[53] Many other non-European languages use a transliteration of "Pluto" as their name for the object; some Indian languages use a form of Yama, the Guardian of Hell in Hindu mythology, such as the Gujarati Yamdev.[51]

Pluto

66

Demise of Planet X

Clyde W. Tombaugh, the discoverer of Pluto

Mass estimates for Pluto

Year 1931 1948 1976 Mass 1 Earth 0.1 (1/10) Earth 0.01 (1/100) Earth Notes Nicholson & Mayall Kuiper [54][55][56]

[57] [58]

Cruikshank, Pilcher, & Morrison Christy & Harrington [59]

1978 0.002 (1/500) Earth

Once found, Pluto's faintness and lack of a resolvable disc cast doubt on the idea that it was Lowell's Planet X. Estimates of Pluto's mass were revised downward throughout the 20th century. In 1978, the discovery of Pluto's moon Charon allowed the measurement of Pluto's mass for the first time. Its mass, roughly 0.2% that of the Earth, was far too small to account for the discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent searches for an alternate Planet X, notably by Robert Sutton Harrington,[60] failed. In 1992, Myles Standish used data from Voyager 2's 1989 flyby of Neptune, which had revised the planet's total mass downward by 0.5%, to recalculate its gravitational effect on Uranus. With the new figures added in, the discrepancies, and with them the need for a Planet X, vanished.[61] Today, the majority of scientists agree that Planet X, as Lowell defined it, does not exist.[62] Lowell had made a prediction of Planet X's position in 1915 that was fairly close to Pluto's position at that time; Ernest W. Brown concluded almost immediately that this was a coincidence,[63] a view still held today.[61]

Pluto

67

Orbit and rotation

Pluto's orbital period is 248 Earth years. Its orbital characteristics are substantially different from those of the planets, which follow nearly circular orbits around the Sun close to a flat reference plane called the ecliptic. In contrast, Pluto's orbit is highly inclined relative to the ecliptic (over 17) and highly eccentric (elliptical). This high eccentricity means a small region of Pluto's orbit lies nearer the Sun than Neptune's. The PlutoCharon barycentre came to perihelion on September 5, 1989,[3][64] and was last closer to the Sun than Neptune between February 7, 1979 and February 11, 1999.[65] In the long term Pluto's orbit is in fact chaotic. While computer simulations can be used to predict its position for several million years (both forward and backward in time), after intervals longer than the Lyapunov time of 1020 million years, calculations become speculative: Pluto's tiny size makes it sensitive to unmeasurably small details of the Solar System, hard-to-predict factors that will gradually disrupt its orbit.[66][67] Millions of years from now, Pluto may well be at aphelion, at perihelion or anywhere in between, with no way for us to predict which. This does not mean Pluto's orbit itself is unstable, but its position on that orbit is impossible to determine so far ahead. Several resonances and other dynamical effects keep Pluto's orbit stable, safe from planetary collision or scattering.

Pluto's orbit and the ecliptic.

Orbit of Plutoecliptic view. This 'side view' of Pluto's orbit (in red) shows its large inclination to Earth's ecliptic orbital plane.

This diagram shows the relative positions of Pluto (red) and Neptune (blue) on selected dates. The size of Neptune and Pluto is depicted as inversely proportional to the distance between them to emphasise the closest approach in 1896.

Pluto

68

Relationship with Neptune

Despite Pluto's orbit appearing to cross that of Neptune when viewed from directly above, the two objects' orbits are aligned so that they can never collide or even approach closely. There are several reasons why. At the simplest level, one can examine the two orbits and see that they do not intersect. When Pluto is closest to the Sun, and hence closest to Neptune's orbit as viewed from above, it is also the farthest above Neptune's path. Pluto's orbit passes about 8 AU above that of Neptune, preventing a collision.[68][69][70] Pluto's ascending and descending nodes, the points at which its orbit crosses the ecliptic, are currently separated from Neptune's by over 21.[71] This alone is not enough to protect Pluto; perturbations from the Orbit of Plutopolar view. This 'view from planets (especially Neptune) could alter aspects of Pluto's orbit (such above' shows how Pluto's orbit (in red) is less as its orbital precession) over millions of years so that a collision could circular than Neptune's (in blue), and how Pluto be possible. Some other mechanism or mechanisms must therefore be is sometimes closer to the Sun than Neptune. The darker halves of both orbits show where they pass at work. The most significant of these is that Pluto lies in the 3:2 mean below the plane of the ecliptic. motion resonance with Neptune: for every three of Neptune's orbits around the Sun, Pluto makes two. The two objects then return to their initial positions and the cycle repeats, each cycle lasting about 500 years. This pattern is such that, in each 500-year cycle, the first time Pluto is near perihelion Neptune is over 50 behind Pluto. By Pluto's second perihelion, Neptune will have completed a further one and a half of its own orbits, and so will be a similar distance ahead of Pluto. Pluto and Neptune's minimum separation is over 17AU. Pluto comes closer to Uranus (11AU) than it does to Neptune.[70] The 3:2 resonance between the two bodies is highly stable, and is preserved over millions of years.[72] This prevents their orbits from changing relative to one another; the cycle always repeats in the same way, and so the two bodies can never pass near to each other. Thus, even if Pluto's orbit were not highly inclined the two bodies could never collide.[70]

Other factors
Numerical studies have shown that over periods of millions of years, the general nature of the alignment between Pluto and Neptune's orbits does not change.[68][73] There are several other resonances and interactions that govern the details of their relative motion, and enhance Pluto's stability. These arise principally from two additional mechanisms (besides the 3:2 mean motion resonance). First, Pluto's argument of perihelion, the angle between the point where it crosses the ecliptic and the point where it is closest to the Sun, librates around 90.[73] This means that when Pluto is nearest the Sun, it is at its farthest above the plane of the Solar System, preventing encounters with Neptune. This is a direct consequence of the Kozai mechanism,[68] which relates the eccentricity of an orbit to its inclination to a larger perturbing bodyin this case Neptune. Relative to Neptune, the amplitude of libration is 38, and so the angular separation of Pluto's perihelion to the orbit of Neptune is always greater than 52 (= 9038). The closest such angular separation occurs every 10,000 years.[72] Second, the longitudes of ascending nodes of the two bodiesthe points where they cross the eclipticare in near-resonance with the above libration. When the two longitudes are the samethat is, when one could draw a straight line through both nodes and the SunPluto's perihelion lies exactly at 90, and it comes closest to the Sun at its peak above Neptune's orbit. In other words, when Pluto most closely intersects the plane of Neptune's orbit, it must be at its farthest beyond it. This is known as the 1:1 superresonance, and is controlled by all the Jovian planets.[68]

Pluto To understand the nature of the libration, imagine a polar point of view, looking down on the ecliptic from a distant vantage point where the planets orbit counter-clockwise. After passing the ascending node, Pluto is interior to Neptune's orbit and moving faster, approaching Neptune from behind. The strong gravitational pull between the two causes angular momentum to be transferred to Pluto, at Neptune's expense. This moves Pluto into a slightly larger orbit, where it travels slightly slower, according to Kepler's third law. As its orbit changes, this has the gradual effect of changing the pericentre and longitudes of Pluto (and, to a lesser degree, of Neptune). After many such repetitions, Pluto is sufficiently slowed, and Neptune sufficiently speeded up, that Neptune begins to catch Pluto at the opposite side of its orbit (near the opposing node to where we began). The process is then reversed, and Pluto loses angular momentum to Neptune, until Pluto is sufficiently speeded up that it begins to catch Neptune again at the original node. The whole process takes about 20,000 years to complete.[70][72]

69

Rotation
Pluto's rotation period, its day, is equal to 6.39 Earth days.[74] Like Uranus, Pluto rotates on its "side" on its orbital plane, with an axial tilt of 120, and so its seasonal variation is extreme; at its solstices, one-fourth of its surface is in permanent daylight, while another fourth is in permanent darkness.[75]

Physical characteristics
Pluto's distance from Earth makes in-depth investigation difficult. Many details about Pluto will remain unknown until 2015, when the New Horizons spacecraft is expected to arrive there.[76]

Appearance and surface

Pluto's visual apparent magnitude averages 15.1, brightening to 13.65 at perihelion.[15] To see it, a telescope is required; around 30cm (12in) aperture being desirable.[77] It looks star-like and without a visible disk even in large telescopes, because its angular diameter is only 0.11".

Hubble map of Pluto's surface, showing great variations in color and albedo

The earliest maps of Pluto, made in the late 1980s, were brightness maps created from close observations of eclipses by its largest moon, Charon. Observations were made of the change in the total average brightness of the PlutoCharon system during the eclipses. For example, eclipsing a bright spot on Pluto makes a bigger total brightness change than eclipsing a dark spot. Computer processing of many such observations can be used to create a brightness map. This method can also track changes in brightness over time.[78][79]

Pluto

70 Current maps have been produced from images from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), which offers the highest resolution currently available, and show considerably more detail,[80] resolving variations several hundred kilometres across, including polar regions and large bright spots.[81] The maps are produced by complex computer processing, which find the best-fit projected maps for the few pixels of the Hubble images.[82] The two cameras on the HST used for these maps are no longer in service, so these will likely remain the most detailed maps of Pluto until the 2015 flyby of New Horizons.[82] These maps, together with Pluto's lightcurve and the periodic variations in its infrared spectra, reveal that Pluto's surface is remarkably varied, with large changes in both brightness and colour.[83] Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System, with as much contrast as Saturn's moon Iapetus.[80] The colour varies between charcoal black, dark orange and white:[84] Buie et al. term it "significantly less red than Mars and much more similar to the hues seen on Io with a slightly more orange cast".[81]

Map of Pluto's surface by NASA, ESA and Marc W. Buie

Three views of Pluto from different orientations

Pluto's surface has changed between 1994 and 2002-3: the northern polar region has brightened and the southern hemisphere darkened.[84] Pluto's overall redness has also increased substantially between 2000 and 2002.[84] These rapid changes are probably related to seasonal condensation and sublimation of portions of Pluto's atmosphere, amplified by Pluto's extreme axial tilt and high orbital eccentricity.[84] Spectroscopic analysis of Pluto's surface reveals it to be composed of more than 98 percent nitrogen ice, with traces of methane and carbon monoxide.[85] The face of Pluto oriented toward Charon contains more methane ice, while the opposite face contains more nitrogen and carbon monoxide ice.[86]

1990 photograph of Pluto and Charon. Taken by the Hubble Telescope.

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71

Structure
Observations by the Hubble Space Telescope place Pluto's density at between 1.8 and 2.1g/cm3, suggesting its internal composition consists of roughly 5070 percent rock and 3050 percent ice by mass.[88] Because decay of radioactive minerals would eventually heat the ices enough for the rock to separate from them, scientists expect that Pluto's internal structure is differentiated, with the rocky material having settled into a dense core surrounded by a mantle of ice. The diameter of the core should be around 1,700km, 70% of Pluto's diameter.[87] It is possible that such heating continues today, creating a subsurface ocean layer of liquid water some 100 to 180 km thick at the coremantle boundary.[87][89] The DLR Institute of Planetary Research calculated that Pluto's density-to-radius ratio lies in a transition zone, along with Neptune's moon Triton, between icy satellites like the mid-sized moons of Uranus and Saturn, and rocky satellites such as Jupiter's Europa.[90]

Theoretical structure of Pluto (2006) [85] 1. Frozen nitrogen 2. Water ice 3. Rock

[87]

Mass and size

Pluto's mass is 1.311022kg, less than 0.24 percent that of the Earth,[91] while its diameter is 2,306 (+/- 20)km, or roughly 66% that of the Moon.[6] Pluto's atmosphere complicates determining its true solid size within a certain margin.[7] Astronomers, assuming Pluto to be Lowell's Planet X, initially calculated its mass based on its presumed effect on Neptune and Uranus. In 1955 Pluto was calculated to be roughly the mass of the Earth, with further calculations in 1971 bringing the mass down to roughly that of Mars.[58] In 1976, Dale Cruikshank, Carl Pilcher and David Morrison of the University of Hawaii calculated Pluto's albedo for the first time, finding that it matched that for methane ice; this meant Pluto had to be exceptionally luminous for its size and therefore could not be more than 1 percent the mass of the Earth.[58] Pluto's albedo is 1.32.0 times

Pluto's volume is about 0.6% that of Earth

greater than that of Earth.[15] The discovery of Pluto's satellite Charon in 1978 enabled a determination of the mass of the PlutoCharon system by application of Newton's formulation of Kepler's third law. Once Charon's gravitational effect was measured, Pluto's true mass could be determined. Observations of Pluto in occultation with Charon allowed scientists to establish Pluto's diameter more accurately, while the invention of adaptive optics allowed them to determine its shape more accurately.[92]

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Selected size estimates for Pluto

Year Radius (Diameter) 1993 1993 1994 2006 2007 1195 (2390)km 1180 (2360)km 1164 (2328)km 1153 (2306)km 1161 (2322)km Millis, et al. Notes [93] (If no haze) [94] [94]

Millis, et al. (surface & haze) Young & Binzel Buie, et al. [95]

[6] [7]

Young, Young, & Buie

Among the objects of the Solar System, Pluto is much less massive than the terrestrial planets, and at less than 0.2 lunar masses, it is also less massive than seven moons: Ganymede, Titan, Callisto, Io, Earth's Moon, Europa and Triton. Pluto is more than twice the diameter and a dozen times the mass of the dwarf planet Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. It is less massive than the dwarf planet Eris, a trans-Neptunian object discovered in 2005. Given the error bars in the different size estimates, it is currently unknown whether Eris or Pluto has the larger diameter.[94] Both Pluto and Eris are estimated to have solid-body diameters of about 2330km.[94] Determinations of Pluto's size are complicated by its atmosphere, and possible hydrocarbon haze.[94]

Atmosphere
Pluto's atmosphere consists of a thin envelope of nitrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide gases, which are derived from the ices of these substances on its surface.[96] Its surface pressure ranges from 6.5 to 24 bar.[97] Pluto's elongated orbit is predicted to have a major effect on its atmosphere: as Pluto moves away from the Sun, its atmosphere should gradually freeze out, and fall to the ground. When Pluto is closer to the Sun, the temperature of Pluto's solid surface increases, CRIRES model-based computer-generated causing the ices to sublimate into gas. This creates an anti-greenhouse impression of the Plutonian surface, with effect; much as sweat cools the body as it evaporates from the surface atmospheric haze, and Charon and the Sun in the of the skin, this sublimation cools the surface of Pluto. Scientists using sky. the Submillimeter Array have recently discovered that Pluto's temperature is about 43 K (unknown operator: u'strong'C), 10 K colder than would otherwise be expected.[98] The presence of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, in Pluto's atmosphere creates a temperature inversion, with average temperatures 36K warmer 10km above the surface.[99] The lower atmosphere contains a higher concentration of methane than its upper atmosphere.[99] The first evidence of Pluto's atmosphere was first suggested by N. Brosch and H. Mendelson of the Wise Observatory in Israel in 1985,[100] and then definitively detected by the Kuiper Airborne Observatory in 1988, from observations of occultations of stars by Pluto.[101] When an object with no atmosphere moves in front of a star, the star abruptly disappears; in the case of Pluto, the star dimmed out gradually.[100] From the rate of dimming, the atmospheric pressure was determined to be 0.15pascal, roughly 1/700,000 that of Earth.[102] In 2002, another occultation of a star by Pluto was observed and analysed by teams led by Bruno Sicardy of the Paris Observatory,[103] James L. Elliot of MIT,[104] and Jay Pasachoff of Williams College.[105] Surprisingly, the atmospheric pressure was estimated to be 0.3pascal, even though Pluto was farther from the Sun than in 1988 and thus should have been colder and had a more rarefied atmosphere. One explanation for the discrepancy is that in 1987 the south pole of Pluto came out of shadow for the first time in 120 years, causing extra nitrogen to sublimate from the polar cap. It will take decades for the excess nitrogen to condense out of the atmosphere as it freezes onto

Pluto the north pole's now permanently dark ice cap.[106] Spikes in the data from the same study revealed what may be the first evidence of wind in Pluto's atmosphere.[106] Another stellar occultation was observed by the MIT-Williams College team of James Elliot, Jay Pasachoff, and a Southwest Research Institute team led by Leslie Young on June 12, 2006 from sites in Australia.[107] In October 2006, Dale Cruikshank of NASA/Ames Research Center (a New Horizons co-investigator) and his colleagues announced the spectroscopic discovery of ethane on Pluto's surface. This ethane is produced from the photolysis or radiolysis (i.e., the chemical conversion driven by sunlight and charged particles) of frozen methane on Pluto's surface and suspended in its atmosphere.[108]

73

Satellites
Pluto has four known natural satellites: Charon, first identified in 1978 by astronomer James Christy; Nix and Hydra, both discovered in 2005,[109] and S/2011 P 1 (provisional name, also known as P4), identified by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2011.[110] The Plutonian moons are unusually close to Pluto, compared to other observed systems. Moons could potentially orbit Pluto up to 53% (or Pluto and Charon as taken with the ESA/Dornier 69%, if retrograde) of the Hill sphere radius, the stable gravitational Faint Object Camera on Hubble Space Telescope zone of Pluto's influence. For example, Psamathe orbits Neptune at in 1994 40% of the Hill radius. In the case of Pluto, only the inner 3% of the zone is known to be occupied by satellites. In the discoverers terms, the Plutonian system appears to be "highly compact and largely empty",[111] although others have pointed out the possibility of additional objects, including a small ring system.[112]

Charon
The PlutoCharon system is noteworthy for being one of the Solar System's few binary systems, defined as those whose barycentre lies above the primary's surface (617 Patroclus is a smaller example, the Sun and Jupiter the only larger one).[113] This and the large size of Charon relative to Pluto has led some astronomers to call it a dwarf double planet.[114] The system is also unusual among planetary systems in that each is tidally locked to the other: Charon always presents the same face to Pluto, and Pluto always presents the same face to An oblique view of the PlutoCharon system showing that Pluto orbits a point Charon: from any position on either body, outside itself. Pluto's orbit is shown in red and Charon's orbit is shown in green. the other is always at the same position in the sky, or always obscured.[115] Because of this, the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its common centre of gravity.[74] Just

Pluto

74

as Pluto revolves on its side relative to the orbital plane, so the PlutoCharon system does also.[75] In 2007, observations by the Gemini Observatory of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active cryo-geysers.[116]

The surface of Charon

Nix and Hydra

Two additional moons of Pluto were imaged by astronomers working with the Hubble Space Telescope on May 15, 2005, and received provisional designations of S/2005P1 and S/2005P2. The International Astronomical Union officially named Pluto's newest moons Nix (or PlutoII, the inner of the two moons, formerly P2) and Hydra (PlutoIII, the outer moon, formerly P1), on June 21, 2006.[117] These small moons orbit Pluto at approximately two and three times the distance of Charon: Nix at 48,700 kilometres and Hydra at 64,800 kilometres from the barycenter of the system. They have nearly circular prograde orbits in the same orbital plane as Charon. Observations of Nix and Hydra to determine individual characteristics are ongoing. Hydra is sometimes brighter than Nix, suggesting either that it is larger or that different parts of its surface may vary in brightness. Sizes are estimated from albedos. If the moons' albedo is similar to Charon's at 35%, then their diameters can be estimated at 46 kilometres for Nix and 61 kilometres for the brighter Hydra. Upper limits on their diameters can be estimated by assuming the 4% albedo of the darkest Kuiper Belt objects; these bounds are 13711km and 16710km, respectively. At the larger end of this range, the inferred masses are less than 0.3% that of Charon, or 0.03% of Pluto's.[118]
Plutonian system with imaging artifacts

The discovery of the two small moons suggests that Pluto may possess Diagram of the Plutonian system. a variable ring system. Small body impacts can create debris that can form into planetary rings. Data from a deep optical survey by the Advanced Camera for Surveys on the Hubble Space Telescope suggest that no ring system is present. If such a system exists, it is either tenuous like the rings of Jupiter or is tightly confined to less than 1,000km in width.[112] Similar conclusions have been made from occultation studies.[119] In imaging the Plutonian system, observations from Hubble placed limits on any additional moons. With 90% confidence, no additional moons larger than 12km (or a maximum of 37km with an albedo of 0.041) exist beyond the glare of Pluto 5 arcseconds from the dwarf planet. This assumes a Charon-like albedo of 0.38; at a 50% confidence level the limit is 8 kilometres.[120]

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75

S/2011 P 1
On July 20, 2011 Mark Showalter of the SETI Institute announced the discovery of a fourth moon of Pluto, provisionally named S/2011 P 1 or P4. It was noticed by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope during a survey searching for rings around the dwarf planet. It has an estimated diameter of 13 to 34km and is located between the orbits of Nix and Hydra.[110] S/2011 P 1 was first seen in a photo taken with Hubble's Wide Field Camera 3 on June 28. It was confirmed in subsequent Hubble pictures taken on July 3 and July 18.[110]
Hubble images of S/2011 P 1 or P4

Near resonances
Nix and Hydra are very close to (but not in) 4:1 and 6:1 mean motion orbital resonances with Charon.[121] S/2011 P 1 fits neatly into this arrangement with a near 5:1 resonance with Charon. Determining how close any of these near integer orbital period ratios might actually be to a true resonance requires accurate knowledge of the satellites' precessions.

Pluto and its satellites, with Earth's Moon comparison[6][122]

Name (Pronunciation) Discovery Year Diameter (km) Mass (kg) Orbital radius (km) (barycentric) 2,040 (0.6%Moon) Orbital period (d)

Pluto

/pluto/

1930

2,306 (66%Moon)

13,050 1018 (18%Moon)

Charon

/rn/, /krn/ /nks/

1978

1,205 1,520 1018 (35%Moon) (2%Moon) 91 1334 114 8 1017 4 1017

17,530 (5%Moon) 48,708 ~59,000 64,749

6.3872 (25%Moon) 24.856 32.1 38.206

Nix S/2011 P 1 Hydra

2005 2011

/hadr/

2005

Mass of Nix and Hydra assumes icy/porous density of 1.0 g/cm3

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76

Origins
Pluto's origin and identity had long puzzled astronomers. One early hypothesis was that Pluto was an escaped moon of Neptune, knocked out of orbit by its largest current moon, Triton. This notion has been heavily criticised because Pluto never comes near Neptune in its orbit.[123] Pluto's true place in the Solar System began to reveal itself only in 1992, when astronomers began to find small icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto not only in orbit but also in size and composition. This trans-Neptunian population is believed to be the source of many short-period comets. Astronomers now believe Pluto to be the largest[20] member of the Kuiper belt, a somewhat stable ring of objects located between 30 Plot of known Kuiper belt objects, set against the four gas giants. and 50 AU from the Sun. Like other Kuiper-belt objects (KBOs), Pluto shares features with comets; for example, the solar wind is gradually blowing Pluto's surface into space, in the manner of a comet.[124] If Pluto were placed as near to the Sun as Earth, it would develop a tail, as comets do.[125] Though Pluto is the largest of the Kuiper belt objects discovered so far, Neptune's moon Triton, which is slightly larger than Pluto, is similar to it both geologically and atmospherically, and is believed to be a captured Kuiper belt object.[126] Eris (see below) is also larger than Pluto but is not strictly considered a member of the Kuiper belt population. Rather, it is considered a member of a linked population called the scattered disc. A large number of Kuiper belt objects, like Pluto, possess a 3:2 orbital resonance with Neptune. KBOs with this orbital resonance are called "plutinos", after Pluto.[127] Like other members of the Kuiper belt, Pluto is thought to be a residual planetesimal; a component of the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into a full-fledged planet. Most astronomers agree that Pluto owes its current position to a sudden migration undergone by Neptune early in the Solar System's formation. As Neptune migrated outward, it approached the objects in the proto-Kuiper belt, setting one in orbit around itself, which became its moon Triton, locking others into resonances and knocking others into chaotic orbits. The objects in the scattered disc, a dynamically unstable region overlapping the Kuiper belt, are believed to have been placed in their current positions by interactions with Neptune's migrating resonances.[128] A 2004 computer model by Alessandro Morbidelli of the Observatoire de la Cte d'Azur in Nice suggested that the migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt may have been triggered by the formation of a 1:2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn, which created a gravitational push that propelled both Uranus and Neptune into higher orbits and caused them to switch places, ultimately doubling Neptune's distance from the Sun. The resultant expulsion of objects from the proto-Kuiper belt could also explain the Late Heavy Bombardment 600million years after the Solar System's formation and the origin of Jupiter's Trojan asteroids.[129] It is possible that Pluto had a near-circular orbit about 33 AU from the Sun before Neptune's migration perturbed it into a resonant capture.[130] The Nice model requires that there were about a thousand Pluto-sized bodies in the original planetesimal disk; these may have included the bodies which became Triton and Eris.[129]

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77

Exploration
Pluto presents significant challenges for spacecraft because of its small mass and great distance from Earth. Voyager 1 could have visited Pluto, but controllers opted instead for a close flyby of Saturn's moon Titan, resulting in a trajectory incompatible with a Pluto flyby. Voyager 2 never had a plausible trajectory for reaching Pluto.[131] No serious attempt to explore Pluto by spacecraft occurred until the last decade of the 20th century. In August 1992, JPL scientist Robert Staehle telephoned Pluto's discoverer, Clyde Tombaugh, requesting permission to visit his planet. "I told him he was welcome to it," Tombaugh later remembered, "though he's got to go one long, cold trip."[132] Despite this early momentum, in 2000, NASA cancelled the Pluto Kuiper Express mission, citing increasing costs and launch vehicle delays.[133]

New Horizons, launched on January 19, 2006

After an intense political battle, a revised mission to Pluto, dubbed New Horizons, was granted funding from the US government in 2003.[134] New Horizons was launched successfully on January 19, 2006. The mission leader, S. Alan Stern, confirmed that some of the ashes of Clyde Tombaugh, who died in 1997, had been placed aboard the spacecraft.[135] In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter. Its closest approach to Pluto will be on July 14, 2015; scientific observations of Pluto will begin 5 months before closest approach and will continue for at least a month after the encounter. New Horizons captured its first (distant) images of Pluto in late September 2006, First Pluto sighting from New Horizons during a test of the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI).[136] The images, taken from a distance of approximately 4.2 billion kilometres, confirm the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper Belt objects. New Horizons will use a remote sensing package that includes imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments, to characterise the global geology and morphology of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition and analyse Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape rate. New Horizons will also photograph the surfaces of Pluto and Charon. The discovery of Pluto's two small moons, Nix and Hydra, may present unforeseen challenges for the probe. Debris from collisions between Kuiper belt objects and the smaller moons, with their relatively low escape velocities, may produce a tenuous dusty ring. Were New Horizons to fly through such a ring system, there would be an increased potential for micrometeoroid damage that could disable the probe.[112]

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78

Concepts
A Pluto orbiter/lander/sample return mission was proposed in 2003. The plan included a twelve-year trip from Earth to Pluto, mapping from orbit, multiple landings, a warm water probe, and possible in situ propellant production for another twelve-year trip back to Earth with samples. Power and propulsion would come from the bimodal MITEE nuclear reactor system.[137]

Classification
After Pluto's place within the Kuiper belt was determined, its official status as a planet became controversial, with many questioning whether Pluto should be considered together with or separately from its surrounding population. Museum and planetarium directors occasionally created controversy by omitting Pluto from planetary models of the Solar System. The Hayden Planetarium reopened after renovation in 2000 with a model of only eight planets. The controversy made headlines at the time.[138]
10}}, Quaoar, Orcus, and Earth. These eight In 2002, the KBO 50000 Quaoar was discovered, with a diameter then [139] trans-Neptunian objects have the brightest thought to be roughly 1280 kilometres, about half that of Pluto. In absolute magnitudes; several other TNOs have 2004, the discoverers of 90377 Sedna placed an upper limit of 1800km been found to be physically larger than Orcus, on its diameter, nearer to Pluto's diameter of 2320km,[140] although and several more may yet be found to be that. Sedna's diameter was revised downward to less than 1600km by 2007.[141] Just as Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta eventually lost their planet status after the discovery of many other asteroids, so, it was argued, Pluto should be reclassified as one of the Kuiper belt objects.

On July 29, 2005, the discovery of a new Trans-Neptunian object was announced. Named Eris, it is now known to be approximately the same size as Pluto.[94] This was the largest object discovered in the Solar System since Triton in 1846. Its discoverers and the press initially called it the tenth planet, although there was no official consensus at the time on whether to call it a planet.[142] Others in the astronomical community considered the discovery the strongest argument for reclassifying Pluto as a minor planet.[143]

2006: IAU classification

The debate came to a head in 2006 with an IAU resolution that created an official definition for the term "planet". According to this resolution, there are three main conditions for an object to be considered a 'planet': 1. The object must be in orbit around the Sun. 2. The object must be massive enough to be a sphere by its own gravitational force. More specifically, its own gravity should pull it into a shape of hydrostatic equilibrium. 3. It must have cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.[144][145] Pluto fails to meet the third condition, since its mass is only 0.07 times that of the mass of the other objects in its orbit (Earth's mass, by contrast, is 1.7 million times the remaining mass in its own orbit).[143][145] The IAU further resolved that Pluto be classified in the simultaneously created dwarf planet category, and that it act as the prototype for the plutoid category of trans-Neptunian objects, in which it would be separately, but concurrently, classified.[146] On September 13, 2006, the IAU included Pluto, Eris, and the Eridian moon Dysnomia in their Minor Planet Catalogue, giving them the official minor planet designations "(134340) Pluto", "(136199) Eris", and "(136199) Eris I Dysnomia".[147] If Pluto had been given a minor planet name upon its discovery, the number would have been about 1,164 rather than 134,340.

Pluto There has been some resistance within the astronomical community toward the reclassification.[148][149][150] Alan Stern, principal investigator with NASA's New Horizons mission to Pluto, has publicly derided the IAU resolution, stating that "the definition stinks, for technical reasons."[151] Stern's contention is that by the terms of the new definition Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Neptune, all of which share their orbits with asteroids, would be excluded.[152] His other claim is that because less than five percent of astronomers voted for it, the decision was not representative of the entire astronomical community.[152] Marc W. Buie of the Lowell observatory has voiced his opinion on the new definition on his website and is one of the petitioners against the definition.[153] Others have supported the IAU. Mike Brown, the astronomer who discovered Eris, said "through this whole crazy circus-like procedure, somehow the right answer was stumbled on. Its been a long time coming. Science is self-correcting eventually, even when strong emotions are involved."[154] Researchers on both sides of the debate gathered on August 1416, 2008, at The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory for a conference that included back-to-back talks on the current IAU definition of a planet.[155] Entitled "The Great Planet Debate",[156] the conference published a post-conference press release indicating that scientists could not come to a consensus about the definition of a planet.[157] Just before the conference, on June 11, 2008, the IAU announced in a press release that the term "plutoid" would henceforth be used to describe Pluto and other objects similar to Pluto which have an orbital semimajor axis greater than that of Neptune and enough mass to be of near-spherical shape.[146][158][159] Reaction Reception to the IAU decision was mixed. While some accepted the reclassification, others seek to overturn the decision with online petitions urging the IAU to consider reinstatement. A resolution introduced by some members of the California State Assembly light-heartedly denounces the IAU for "scientific heresy", among other crimes.[160] The U.S. state of New Mexico's House of Representatives passed a resolution in honor of Tombaugh, a longtime resident of that A promotional event with a staged Pluto "protest". Members playing protesters of the state, which declared that Pluto will always be considered a planet reclassification of Pluto on the left, with those while in New Mexican skies and that March 13, 2007 was Pluto Planet playing counter-protesters on the right [161][162] Day. The Illinois State Senate passed a similar resolution in 2009, on the basis that Clyde Tombaugh, the discoverer of Pluto, was born in Illinois. The resolution asserted that Pluto was "unfairly downgraded to a 'dwarf' planet" by the IAU.[163] Some members of the public have also rejected the change, citing the disagreement within the scientific community on the issue, or for sentimental reasons, maintaining that they have always known Pluto as a planet and will continue to do so regardless of the IAU decision.[164]

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Notes
[1] The HST observations were made in two wavelengths, which is insufficient to directly make a true-colour image. The surface maps at each wavelength limit the shape of the spectrum that could be produced by the materials that are potentially on Pluto's surface. These spectra, generated for each resolved point on the surface, are then converted to the RGB colour values seen here. See Buie et al, 2010. [2] In US dictionary transcription, USdict:plt. From the Latin: Plto [3] "Horizon Online Ephemeris System for Pluto Barycenter" (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ horizons. cgi?find_body=1& body_group=mb& sstr=9). JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System @ Solar System Dynamics Group. . Retrieved 2011-01-16. (set Observer Location to @sun to place the observer at the center of the sun) [4] Seligman, Courtney. "Rotation Period and Day Length" (http:/ / cseligman. com/ text/ sky/ rotationvsday. htm). . Retrieved 2009-08-13. [5] Williams, J G. "Keplerian Elements for Approximate Positions of the Major Planets" (http:/ / iau-comm4. jpl. nasa. gov/ keplerformulae/ kepform. pdf). . Retrieved 2011-01-12. [6] Marc W. Buie, William M. Grundy, Eliot F. Young, Leslie A. Young, S. Alan Stern (2006). "Orbits and photometry of Pluto's satellites: Charon, S/2005 P1, and S/2005 P2". Astronomical Journal 132 (1): 290. arXiv:astro-ph/0512491. Bibcode2006AJ....132..290B.

Pluto
doi:10.1086/504422. [7] Young, Eliot F.; Young, L. A.; Buie, M.; Young; Buie (2007). "Pluto's Radius". American Astronomical Society, DPS meeting No. 39, #62.05; Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 39: 541. Bibcode2007DPS....39.6205Y. [8] Surface area derived from the radius r: [9] Volume v derived from the radius r: . .

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[10] Surface gravity derived from the mass m, the gravitational constant G and the radius r: . [11] Escape velocity derived from the mass m, the gravitational constant G and the radius r: 2Gm/r. [12] Based on the orientation of Charon's orbit, which is assumed the same as Pluto's spin axis due to the mutual tidal locking. [13] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1007. 2fs10569-007-9072-y_?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit) [14] Calvin J. Hamilton (2006-02-12). "Dwarf Planet Pluto" (http:/ / www. solarviews. com/ eng/ pluto. htm). Views of the Solar System. . Retrieved 2007-01-10. [15] D. R. Williams (September 7, 2006). "Pluto Fact Sheet" (http:/ / nssdc. gsfc. nasa. gov/ planetary/ factsheet/ plutofact. html). NASA. . Retrieved 2007-03-24. [16] "AstDys (134340) Pluto Ephemerides" (http:/ / hamilton. dm. unipi. it/ astdys/ index. php?pc=1. 1. 3. 1& n=134340& oc=500& y0=1870& m0=2& d0=9& h0=0& mi0=0& y1=1870& m1=3& d1=20& h1=0& mi1=0& ti=1. 0& tiu=days). Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy. . Retrieved 2010-06-27. [17] "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 134340 Pluto" (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ sbdb. cgi?sstr=Pluto). . Retrieved 2008-06-12. [18] Based on geometry of minimum and maximum distance from Earth and Pluto radius in the factsheet [19] "Pluto has carbon monoxide in its atmosphere" (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news/ 2011-04-pluto-carbon-monoxide-atmosphere. html). Physorg.com. April 19, 2011. . Retrieved 2011-11-22. [20] The dwarf planet Eris is roughly the same size as Pluto, about 2330km, (http:/ / www. mikebrownsplanets. com/ 2010/ 11/ how-big-is-pluto-anyway. html) but 28% more massive. 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[122] Lakdawalla, E. (2011-07-20). "A fourth moon for Pluto" (http:/ / www. planetary. org/ blog/ article/ 00003107/ ). Planetary Society weblog (http:/ / planetary. org/ blog). The Planetary Society. . Retrieved 2011-07-20. [123] "Pluto's Orbit" (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ science/ everything_pluto/ 16_plutoOrbit. html). pluto.jhuapl.edu NASA New Horizons mission site. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. 2007. . Retrieved 2007-03-26. [124] "Colossal Cousin to a Comet?" (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ science/ everything_pluto/ 8_cousin. html). pluto.jhuapl.edu NASA New Horizons mission site. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. . Retrieved 2006-06-23. [125] Tyson, Neil deGrasse (1999). "Pluto Is Not a Planet" (http:/ / www. planetary. org/ explore/ topics/ topten/ tyson_pluto_is_not. html). The Planetary Society. . Retrieved 2011-11-30. [126] "Neptune's Moon Triton" (http:/ / www. planetary. org/ explore/ topics/ neptune/ triton. html). The Planetary Society. . Retrieved 2011-11-30. [127] Jewitt, David (2004). "The Plutinos" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070419234021/ http:/ / www. ifa. hawaii. edu/ ~jewitt/ kb/ plutino. html). University of Hawaii. Archived from the original (http:/ / www2. ess. ucla. edu/ ~jewitt/ kb/ plutino. html) on April 19, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-03-26. [128] Hahn, Joseph M. (2005). "Neptune's Migration into a StirredUp Kuiper Belt: A Detailed Comparison of Simulations to Observations" (http:/ / gemelli. colorado. edu/ ~hahnjm/ pubs/ migrate. pdf). Saint Marys University. . Retrieved 2008-03-05. [129] Harold F. Levison et al (2007). "Origin of the Structure of the Kuiper Belt during a Dynamical Instability in the Orbits of Uranus and Neptune". Icarus 196 (1): 258. arXiv:0712.0553. Bibcode2008Icar..196..258L. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.11.035. [130] R. Malhotra (1995). "The Origin of Pluto's Orbit: Implications for the Solar System Beyond Neptune". Astronomical Journal 110: 420. arXiv:astro-ph/9504036. Bibcode1995AJ....110..420M. doi:10.1086/117532. [131] "Voyager Frequently Asked Questions" (http:/ / voyager. jpl. nasa. gov/ faq. html). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. January 14, 2003. . Retrieved 2006-09-08. [132] Dava Sobel (1993). "The last world" (http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 1993/ may/ thelastworld215). Discover magazine. . Retrieved 2007-04-13. [133] Williams, Dr. David R. (2005). "Pluto Kuiper Express" (http:/ / nssdc. gsfc. nasa. gov/ nmc/ spacecraftDisplay. do?id=PLUTOKE). NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. . Retrieved 2007-03-26. [134] Britt, Robert Roy (2003). "Pluto Mission a Go! Initial Funding Secured" (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ pluto_horizons_030225. html). space.com. . Retrieved 2007-04-13. [135] Stern, Dr. Alan (2006). "Happy 100th Birthday, Clyde Tombaugh" (http:/ / www. jhuapl. edu/ newscenter/ pressreleases/ 2006/ 060203. asp). Southwest Research Institute. . Retrieved 2007-04-13. [136] "New Horizons, Not Quite to Jupiter, Makes First Pluto Sighting" (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ news_center/ news/ 112806. php). pluto.jhuapl.edu NASA New Horizons mission site. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. 2006-11-28. . Retrieved 2011-11-29. [137] "Powell, et al., ''Pluto Orbiter/lander/sample return missions using the MITEE nuclear engine'' (2003) ISBN 0-7803-7651-X" (http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ freeabs_all. jsp?arnumber=1235077). Ieeexplore.ieee.org. 2004-08-02. doi:10.1109/AERO.2003.1235077. . Retrieved 2011-11-22. [138] Tyson, Neil deGrasse (February 2, 2001). "Astronomer Responds to Pluto-Not-a-Planet Claim" (http:/ / www. space. com/ 1925-astronomer-responds-pluto-planet-claim. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2011-11-30. [139] Brown, Michael E.; Trujillo, Chadwick A. (2004). "Direct Measurement of the Size of the Large Kuiper Belt Object (50000) Quaoar". The Astronomical Journal 127 (4): 24132417. Bibcode2004AJ....127.2413B. doi:10.1086/382513. [140] Grundy, W. M.; Noll, K. S.; Stephens, D. C. (2005). "Diverse Albedos of Small Trans-Neptunian Objects". Icarus 176: 184. arXiv:astro-ph/0502229. Bibcode2005Icar..176..184G. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.01.007. [141] Stansberry, J. et al (2007). "Physical Properties of Kuiper Belt and Centaur Objects: Constraints from Spitzer Space Telescope". The Solar System Beyond Neptune: 161. arXiv:astro-ph/0702538v2. Bibcode2008ssbn.book..161S. [142] "NASA-Funded Scientists Discover Tenth Planet" (http:/ / www. jpl. nasa. gov/ news/ news-print. cfm?release=2005-126). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 2005-07-29. . Retrieved 2007-02-22. [143] Steven Soter (2007). "What is a Planet?" (http:/ / www. scientificamerican. com/ article. cfm?id=what-is-a-planet& page=2). The Astronomical Journal 132 (6): 2513. arXiv:astro-ph/0608359. Bibcode2006AJ....132.2513S. doi:10.1086/508861. . [144] "IAU 2006 General Assembly: Resolutions 5 and 6" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ static/ resolutions/ Resolution_GA26-5-6. pdf). IAU. August 24, 2006. . [145] "IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ detail/ iau0603/ ). International Astronomical Union (News ReleaseIAU0603). 24 August 2006. . Retrieved 2008-06-15. [146] "Plutoid chosen as name for Solar System objects like Pluto" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0804). International Astronomical Union (News ReleaseIAU0804). June 11, 2008, Paris. . Retrieved 2011-12-01. [147] Green, Daniel W. E. (2006-09-13). "(134340) Pluto, (136199) Eris, and (136199) Eris I (Dysnomia)" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070205035336/ http:/ / www. cfa. harvard. edu/ iau/ special/ 08747. pdf). IAU Circular 8747. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 08700/ 08747. html#Item1) on February 5, 2007. . Retrieved 2011-12-01. [148] Robert Roy Britt (August 24, 2006). "Pluto Demoted: No Longer a Planet in Highly Controversial Definition" (http:/ / space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 060824_planet_definition. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2006-09-08. [149] Sal Ruibal (January 6, 1999). "Astronomers question if Pluto is real planet". USA Today.

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Pluto
[150] Robert Roy Britt (November 21, 2006). "Why Planets Will Never Be Defined" (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 061121_exoplanet_definition. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2006-12-01. [151] Robert Roy Britt (August 24, 2006). "Scientists decide Plutos no longer a planet" (http:/ / msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 14489259/ ). MSNBC. . Retrieved 2006-09-08. [152] David Shiga (August 25, 2006). "New planet definition sparks furore" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn9846-new-planet-definition-sparks-furore. html). NewScientist.com. . Retrieved 2006-09-08. [153] Buie, Marc W. (September 2006). "My response to 2006 IAU Resolutions 5a and 6a" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070603104622/ http:/ / www. lowell. edu/ users/ buie/ pluto/ iauresponse. html). Southwest Research Institute. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. boulder. swri. edu/ ~buie/ pluto/ iauresponse. html) on June 3, 2007. . Retrieved 2011-12-01. [154] Overbye, Dennis (2006-08-24). "Pluto Is Demoted to 'Dwarf Planet'" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 08/ 24/ science/ space/ 25pluto. html). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2011-12-01. [155] Minkel, JR (April 10, 2008). "Is Rekindling the Pluto Planet Debate a Good Idea?" (http:/ / www. scientificamerican. com/ article. cfm?id=rekindling-the-pluto-planet-debate). Scientific American. . Retrieved 2011-12-01. [156] "The Great Planet Debate: Science as Process. A Scientific Conference and Educator Workshop" (http:/ / gpd. jhuapl. edu/ ). gpd.jhuapl.edu. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. 2008-06-27. . Retrieved 2011-12-01. [157] Planetary Science Institute press release on September 19, 2008 "Scientists Debate Planet Definition and Agree to Disagree" PSI.edu (http:/ / www. psi. edu/ press/ archive/ 20080919planetdebate/ ) [158] Discover Magazine, January 2009, p. 76. "Plutoids Join the Solar Family" [159] Science News, July 5, 2008 p. 7 [160] DeVore, Edna (September 7, 2006). "Planetary Politics: Protecting Pluto" (http:/ / www. space. com/ 2855-planetary-politics-protecting-pluto. html). Space.com. . Retrieved 2011-12-01. [161] Holden, C. (23 March 2007). "Rehabilitating Pluto". Science 315 (5819): 1643. doi:10.1126/science.315.5819.1643c. [162] Gutierrez, Joni Marie (2007). "A joint memorial. Declaring Pluto a planet and declaring March 13, 2007, 'Pluto planet day' at the legislature" (http:/ / legis. state. nm. us/ Sessions/ 07 Regular/ memorials/ house/ HJM054. html). Legislature of New Mexico. . Retrieved 2009-09-05. [163] "Illinois General Assembly: Bill Status of SR0046, 96th General Assembly" (http:/ / www. ilga. gov/ legislation/ BillStatus. asp?DocNum=46& GAID=10& DocTypeID=SR& LegId=40752& SessionID=76& GA=96). ilga.gov. Illinois General Assembly. . Retrieved 2011-03-16. [164] "Pluto's still the same Pluto" (http:/ / www. iol. co. za/ index. php?set_id=1& click_id=31& art_id=qw1161415265563B221). Independent Newspapers. Associated Press. October 21, 2006. . Retrieved 2011-11-29. "Mickey Mouse has a cute dog."

85

References Bibliography
Croswell, Ken (1997). Planet Quest: The Epic Discovery of Alien Solar Systems. New York: The Free Press. ISBN978-0-684-83252-4.

External links
Pluto Profile (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Pluto) at NASA's Solar System Exploration site (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/) NASA Pluto factsheet (http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/plutofact.html) Website of the observatory that discovered Pluto (http://www.lowell.edu/)

Moons of Pluto

86

Moons of Pluto
Pluto has four known moons. The largest, Charon, is proportionally larger, compared to its primary, than any other satellite of a known planet or dwarf planet in the Solar System. The other moons, Nix, Hydra, and S/2011 P 1 ("P4")[1] are much smaller.[2] The team that discovered S/2011 P 1 also found possible evidence of a couple of even fainter moons, but this needs more study to be confirmed.[3]

Hubble image of the Plutonian system

History
The innermost moon, Charon, was discovered by James Christy on June 22, 1978, nearly half a century after Pluto. Two outer moons were imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope Pluto Companion Search Team in May 2005, and precovered from Hubble images taken in June 2002. With the orbits confirmed, the moons have been given definitive names: Hydra (Pluto III, formerly S/2005P1) and Nix (Pluto II, formerly S/2005P2). The names were chosen in part because the initials (NH) allude to the New Horizons mission.[4] Further Hubble observations were made in February and March 2006. The possibility of rings created by impacts on the smaller moons will be investigated by the New Horizons probe. The fourth moon was announced in July 2011.[1]

Relative sizes and colors of the components of the Plutonian system.

Moons of Pluto

87

Characteristics
The Plutonian system is highly compact: the four known satellites orbit within the inner 3% of the region where prograde orbits would be stable. Pluto and Charon have been called a double planet because Charon is larger compared to Pluto (half its diameter and an eighth its mass) than any other moon is to a planet or dwarf planet; indeed, Charon is massive enough that, despite their proximity, Pluto orbits the system's barycenter at a point outside its surface.[5] Charon and Pluto are also tidally locked, so that they always present the same face toward each other. Following Buie and Grundy's recent recalculations taking into account older images, the orbits of the moons are confirmed to be circular and coplanar, with inclinations differing less than 0.4 and eccentricities less than 0.005. The diagram on the left shows the view from the axis of the moons' orbits (declination 0, right ascension 133), aligned with the HST diagram above it. As seen from Earth, these circular orbits appear foreshortened into ellipses depending on Pluto's position.[6]

Orbits of the four known moons of Pluto.

When discovered, Hydra was somewhat brighter than Nix, and therefore thought to be larger by 20%, but follow-up observations found them to be nearly identical. It is likely that the change in brightness is due to the light curve of Hydra, but whether this is due to an irregular shape or to a variation in surface brightness (albedo) is unknown. The diameters of objects can be estimated from their assumed albedos; the estimates above correspond to a 35% albedo like Charon, but the The relative masses of the Plutonian moons. Charon dominates the moons could be as large as 130km if they have the 4% system; Nix and Hydra are barely visible at this scale. albedo of the darkest KBOs. However, given their color and suspected chemical similarities to Charon, it is likely that their albedos are similar as well and that the diameters are closer to the lower estimates.

Moons of Pluto

88

Formation and resonances

It is suspected that the Plutonian satellite system was created by a massive collision, similar to the "big whack" believed to have created the Earth's Moon.[7][8] In both cases it may be that the high angular momenta of the moons can only be explained by such a scenario. The nearly circular orbits of the smaller moons suggests that they were also formed in this collision, rather than being captured Kuiper Belt objects. This and their near orbital resonances with Charon (see below) suggest that they formed even closer to Pluto than they are at present, and that they migrated outward as Charon achieved its current orbit. If Hydra and Nix turn out to be tidally locked, as Charon is, that will settle the issue, as tidal forces are insufficient to damp their rotations in their present orbits. The color of each is a lunar grey like Charon,[9] which is consistent with a common origin. Their difference in color from Pluto, one of the reddest bodies in the Solar System due to the effects of sunlight on the nitrogen and methane ices of its surface, may be due to a loss of such volatiles during the impact or subsequent coalescence, leaving the surfaces of the moons dominated by water ice. Such an impact would be expected to create additional debris (more moons), but these must be relatively small to have avoided detection by Hubble. It is possible that there are also undiscovered irregular satellites, which are captured Kuiper Belt objects.

Creation of Pluto's moons. 1: a Kuiper Belt Object nears Pluto; 2: the KBO impacts Pluto; 3: a dust ring forms around Pluto; 4: the debris aggregates to form Charon; 5: Pluto and Charon relax into spherical bodies.

Pluto orbits a point outside itself. Pluto's orbit is shown as red while Charon's orbit is shown as green.

Nix, S/2011 P 1 and Hydra are very close to a 1:4:5:6 orbital resonance with the CharonPluto orbital period: Nix is within 2.7% of resonance, S/2011 P 1 is apparently within 0.6%, while Hydra is within 0.3%, though none appear to be in an exact resonance. It may be that these orbits originated as forced resonances when Charon was tidally boosted into its current geosynchronous orbit, and then released from resonance as Charon's orbital eccentricity was tidally damped. Today the PlutoCharon pair continue to produce strong tidal forces, with the gravitational field at the outer moons varying by 15% peak to peak. At the lower estimated size range, Nix should have no significant precession, while Hydra should have a precession period of 15 years. However, at their maximum projected masses (assuming an albedo of 4%), the two moons may be in a 3:2 orbital resonance with each other, with libration periods of 400 to 450 days, though this may already be ruled out by the low eccentricity of Charon.[10] Thus accurate orbital data can help resolve the sizes of these moons. However, it was recently calculated that a resonance with Charon could boost either Nix or Hydra into its current orbit, but not both: boosting Hydra would have required a near-zero Charonian eccentricity of 0.024, while boosting Nix would have required a larger eccentricity of at least 0.05. This suggests that Nix and Hydra were instead captured and migrated inward until they were trapped in resonance with Charon.[11]

Moons of Pluto

89

Table
The Plutonian moons are listed here by orbital period, from shortest to longest. Moons massive enough for their surfaces to have collapsed into a spheroid are highlighted in light purple. Pluto has been added for comparison, for it orbits a point outside itself. The team that discovered S/2011 P 1 also found possible evidence of a couple of even fainter moons, but this needs more study to be confirmed.[3]
Name (pronunciation) Image Mean diameter (km) 2306 Mass (1021kg) 13.05 0.07 Semi-major axis (km) Orbital period (days) 6.387230 Eccentricity Inclination (to Pluto's equator) 0.001 Discovery date

Pluto

2035*

0.0022

1930

Pluto I

Charon /rn/,[12] /krn/

1207 3

1.52 0.06

17536 3*

6.387230

0.0022

0.001

1978

Pluto II

Nix

/nks/

46137

< 0.002

48708

24.856 0.001 32.1 [13]

0.0030

0.195

2005

S/2011 P1 Pluto III Hydra /hadr/

1334

~59,000

[13]

~0

[13]

2011

61167

< 0.002

64749

38.206 0.001

0.0051

0.212

2005

Pluto and its moons to scale, including barycentre. (Full detail not visible unless image opened to full size).

* The maximum distance between the centers of Pluto and Charon are the sums of their semi-major axes, 19,571 4km.

Notes
[1] "Fourth Moon Adds to Pluto's Appeal" (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ news_center/ news/ 20110720. php?utm_source=feedburner& utm_medium=feed& utm_campaign=Feed:+ NewHorizonsHeadlines+ (New+ Horizons+ News+ Feed)). . Retrieved 2011-07-20. [2] Schilling, Govert (20 June 2006). "Pluto's Twins Get Their Names" (http:/ / sciencenow. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 2006/ 620/ 1). ScienceNOW Daily News. . Retrieved 2006-06-21. [3] Is the Pluto System Dangerous? New Horizons (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ overview/ piPerspective. php?page=piPerspective_11_07_2011) [4] comcast.net (http:/ / www. comcast. net/ news/ science/ index. jsp?cat=SCIENCE& fn=/ 2006/ 06/ 22/ 419501. html) [5] See "P1P2_motion.avi" (http:/ / wwwsa. boulder. swri. edu/ P1P2_motion. avi) (AVI). . and barycenter for animations [6] "Orbits of 4 Bodies in Pluto System about Barycenter as Seen from Earth" (http:/ / hubblesite. org/ newscenter/ newsdesk/ archive/ releases/ 2005/ 19/ image/ h). Hubblesite. . Retrieved 2006-06-21. [7] Canup, R. M. (2005-01-08). "A Giant Impact Origin of Pluto-Charon" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 307/ 5709/ 546. abstract). Science 307 (5709): 546550. Bibcode2005Sci...307..546C. doi:10.1126/science.1106818. PMID15681378. . Retrieved 2011-07-20. [8] Stern, S. A.; Weaver, H. A.; Steff, A. J.; Mutchler, M. J.; Merline, W. J.; Buie, M. W.; Young, E. F.; Young, L. A.; Spencer, J. R. (2006-02-23). "A giant impact origin for Plutos small moons and satellite multiplicity in the Kuiper belt" (http:/ / ns1. plutoportal. net/ ~layoung/ eprint/ Stern2006plutosat. pdf). Nature 439 (7079): 946948. Bibcode2006Natur.439..946S. doi:10.1038/nature04548. PMID16495992. . Retrieved 2011-07-20.

Moons of Pluto
[9] "Hubble's Latest Look at Pluto's Moons Supports a Common Birth" (http:/ / hubblesite. org/ newscenter/ newsdesk/ archive/ releases/ 2006/ 15/ ). Hubblesite. . Retrieved 2006-06-21. [10] Lee, Man Hoi; S. J. Peale (2006). "On the Orbits and Masses of the Satellites of the PlutoCharon System". arXiv:astro-ph/0603214[astro-ph]. [11] Y. Lithwick & Y. Wu; Wu (2007). "On the Origin of Pluto's Minor Moons, Nix and Hydra". American Astronomical Society, DDA meeting #38, #3.05 38. Bibcode2007DDA....38.0305L. [12] Many astronomers use this idiosyncratic pronunciation, rather than the classical English pronunciation: /krn/, but both are acceptable. [13] Lakdawalla, E. (2011-07-20). "A fourth moon for Pluto" (http:/ / www. planetary. org/ blog/ article/ 00003107/ ). Planetary Society weblog (http:/ / planetary. org/ blog). The Planetary Society. . Retrieved 2011-07-20.

90

References
S.A. Stern, H.A. Weaver, A.J. Steffl, M.J. Mutchler, W.J. Merline, M.W. Buie, E.F. Young, L.A. Young, & J.R. Spencer (2006), Characteristics and Origin of the Quadruple System at Pluto, Nature, submitted ( preprint (http:/ /arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0512599)) Steffl A.J., Mutchler M.J., Weaver H.A., Stern S.A., Durda D.D., Terrell D., Merline W.J., Young L.A., Young E.F., Buie M.W., Spencer J.R. (2005), New Constraints on Additional Satellites of the Pluto System, Astronomical Journal, submitted ( preprint (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0511837)) Buie M.W., Grundy W.M., Young, E.F., Young L.A., Stern S.A. (2005), Orbits and photometry of Pluto's satellites: Charon, S/2005 P1 and S/2005 P2, submitted ( preprint (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0512491)) IAU Circular No. 8625 describing the discovery (http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/08600/08625.html) IAU Circular No. 8686 (http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/08600/08686.html) which reports a much more neutral color for P2 IAU Circular No. 8723 (http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/08700/08723.html) announcing the names of Nix and Hydra Background Information Regarding Our Two Newly Discovered Satellites of Pluto (http://www.boulder.swri. edu/plutonews/) The discoverers' website

External links
Animation of the Plutonian system (http://wwwsa.boulder.swri.edu/P1P2_motion.avi) Hubble Spots Possible New Moons Around Pluto (http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/ hubble_pluto.html) (NASA) Two More Moons Discovered Orbiting Pluto (http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/ 051031_pluto_moons.html) (SPACE.com)

91

Pluto moons
Charon
Charon

Charon's Pluto-facing hemisphere (determined from brightness variations during PlutoCharon occultations), rendered by Celestia. Based on mapping work done by Marc W. Buie.
Discovery Discovered by Discovery date James W. Christy June 22, 1978 Designations Pronunciation English pronunciation: /rn/ or English pronunciation: [1] /krn/ Charon (134340) Pluto I Charonian Orbital characteristics Epoch 2452600.5 Semi-major axis Eccentricity Orbital period Inclination 17536 4 km to system barycenter, 19571 4 km to the center of Pluto 0.0022 6.3872304 0.0000011 d (6 d 9 h 17 m 36.7 0.1 s) 0.001 (to Pluto's equator) 119.591 0.014 (to Pluto's orbit) 112.783 0.014 (to the ecliptic) 223.046 0.014 (to vernal equinox) Pluto
[3] [2]

Named after Alternate name(s) Adjective

Longitudeof ascendingnode Satelliteof

Charon

92

Physical characteristics Mean radius 603.5 1.5 km (0.095 Earths) 4.58106km2 9.027108km3 [5] (0.0008 Earths) (1.52 0.06)1021 kg (2.54104 Earths) (11.6% of Pluto) 1.65 0.06 g/cm3 0.278 m/s2 0.580 km/s 0.36 mi/s synchronous zero? varies between 0.36 and 0.39 220C (53 K) 16.8 1
[7] [8] [6] [3] [3] [4]

Surface area Volume

Mass

Mean density Equatorial surfacegravity Escape velocity Rotation period Axial tilt Albedo Temperature Apparent magnitude Absolute magnitude (H) Angular diameter

55 milli-arcsec

Charon is the largest satellite of the dwarf planet Pluto. It was discovered in 1978 at the United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station. Following the 2005 discovery of two other natural satellites of Pluto (Nix and Hydra), and in 2011, a fourth, S/2011 P 1, Charon may also be referred to as (134340) Pluto I.[2] The New Horizons mission is scheduled to visit Charon and Pluto in July 2015.

Discovery
Charon was discovered by astronomer James Christy on June 22, 1978, when he was examining highly magnified images of Pluto on photographic plates taken a couple of months earlier. Christy noticed that a slight elongation appeared periodically. The discovery was announced on July 7, 1978.[9] Later, the bulge was confirmed on plates dating back to April 29, 1965. Subsequent observations of Pluto determined that the bulge was due to a smaller accompanying body. The periodicity of the bulge corresponded to Pluto's rotation period, which was previously known from Pluto's light curve. This indicated a synchronous orbit, which strongly suggested that the bulge effect was real and not spurious.

Charon's discovery as a time-varying bulge on the image of Pluto (seen near the top at left, but absent on the right)

All doubts were erased when Pluto and Charon entered a five-year period of mutual eclipses and transits between 1985 and 1990. This occurs when the PlutoCharon orbital plane is edge-on as seen from Earth, which only happens

Charon at two intervals in Pluto's 248-year orbital period. It was fortuitous that one of these intervals happened to occur so soon after Charon's discovery.

93

Observations
Images showing Pluto and Charon resolved into separate disks were taken for the first time by the Hubble Space Telescope in the 1990s. Later, the development of adaptive optics made it possible to resolve Pluto and Charon into separate disks using ground-based telescopes.

Physical characteristics
Charon's diameter is about 1207 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi), just over half that of Pluto, with a surface area of 4580000 square kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong' sqmi). Unlike Pluto, which is covered with nitrogen and methane ices, the Charonian surface appears to be dominated by less volatile water ice, and also appears to have no atmosphere. In 2007, observations by the Gemini Observatory of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active cryo-geysers.[10][11] (See also Cryovolcano.) Mutual eclipses of Pluto and Charon in the 1980s allowed astronomers to take spectra of Pluto and then the combined spectrum of the pair. By subtracting Pluto's spectrum from the total, astronomers were able to spectroscopically determine the surface composition of Charon.

1990 photograph of Pluto and Charon. Taken by the Hubble Telescope.

1994 image of Pluto and Charon (right) from ESA/Dornier FOC on the NASA Hubble

Charon's volume and mass allow calculation of its density from which it can be determined that Charon is largely an icy body and contains less rock by proportion than its partner Pluto. This supports the idea that Charon was created by a giant impact into Pluto's icy mantle. There are two conflicting theories about Charon's internal structure: some scientists believe it to be a differentiated body like Pluto with a rocky core and an icy mantle while others believe Charon to be of uniform composition throughout. Evidence in support of the former position was found in 2007, when observations by the Gemini Observatory of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active cryo-geysers. The fact that the ice was still in crystalline form suggested it had been recently deposited, as solar radiation would have degraded older ice to an amorphous state after roughly thirty thousand years.[10]
The two conflicting theories about Charon's internal structure

Photometric mapping of Charon's surface shows a latitudinal trend in albedo, with a bright equator band and darker poles. In particular the south polar region seems darker than the north.[12]

Charon

94

Orbital characteristics
Charon and Pluto revolve about each other every 6.387 days. The two objects are gravitationally locked, so each keeps the same face towards the other. The average distance between Charon and Pluto is 19570 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi). The discovery of Charon allowed astronomers to accurately calculate the mass of the Plutonian system, and mutual occultations revealed their sizes. However, neither indicated the two bodies' individual masses, which could only be estimated, until the discovery of Pluto's outer moons in Artist's concept of Charon seen from the surface late 2005. Details in the orbits of the outer moons reveal that Charon of Pluto. has approximately 11.65% of the mass of Pluto.[3] This shows it to have a density of 1.650.06 g/cm3, suggesting a composition of 555% "rock" to 45% ice, whereas Pluto is somewhat denser and about 70% "rock". Simulation work published in 2005 by Robin Canup suggested that Charon could have been formed by a giant impact around 4.5 billion years ago, much like the Earth and Moon. In this model a large Kuiper belt object struck Pluto at high velocity, destroying itself and blasting off much of Pluto's outer mantle, and Charon coalesced from the debris.[13] However, such an impact should result in an icier Charon and rockier Pluto than scientists have found. It is now thought that Pluto and Charon may have been two bodies that collided before going into orbit about each other. The collision would have been violent enough to boil off volatile ices like methane but not violent enough to have destroyed either body.

Classification as a moon or dwarf planet

The center of mass (barycenter) of the PlutoCharon system lies outside either body. Since neither object truly orbits the other, and Charon has 11.6% the mass of Pluto, it has been argued that Charon should be considered to be part of a binary system. However, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) describes Charon simply as a satellite of Pluto. In a draft proposal for the 2006 redefinition of the term, the IAU proposed that a planet be defined as a body that orbits the sun that is large enough for gravitational forces to render the object (nearly) Charon compared with Eris, Pluto, Makemake, Haumea, Sedna, Orcus, 2007 OR10, Quaoar, their spherical. Under this proposal, Charon would have been classified as a moons and Earth. All to scale planet, since the draft explicitly defined a planetary satellite as one in which the barycenter lies within the major body. In the final definition, Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet, but the formal definition of a planetary satellite was not

Charon

95 decided upon. Charon is not in the list of dwarf planets currently recognized by the IAU.[14] Had the draft proposal been accepted, even Earth's moon would have been classified as a planet in billions of years when the tidal acceleration that is gradually moving the Moon away from the Earth takes the Moon far enough away that the center of mass of the system no longer lies within the Earth.[15] The other moons of Pluto, Nix, Hydra and S/2011 P 1, orbit the same barycenter, but they are not large enough to be spherical, and they are simply considered to be satellites of Pluto.[16]

An oblique view of the PlutoCharon system showing that Pluto orbits a point outside itself. Pluto's orbit is shown in red and Charon's orbit is shown in green.

Name
Charon was originally known by the temporary designation S/1978 P 1, according to the then recently instituted convention. On June 24, 1978, Christy first suggested the name Charon as a scientific-sounding version of his wife Charlene's nickname, "Char."
The Plutonian system contains 5 known bodies: Pluto and its four moons.

Although colleagues at the Naval Observatory proposed Persephone, Christy stuck with Charon after discovering it coincidentally refers to a Greek mythological figure:[17] Charon is the ferryman of the dead, closely associated in myth with the god Hades, whom the Romans identified with their god Pluto. Official adoption of the name by the IAU waited until late 1985 and was announced on January 3, 1986.[18] There is minor debate over the preferred pronunciation of the name. The practice of following the classical pronunciation established for the mythological ferryman Charon is used by major English-language dictionaries such as the Merriam-Webster and Oxford English Dictionary.[19][20] These indicate only one pronunciation of "Charon" when referring specifically to Pluto's moon: with an initial "k" sound. Speakers of languages other than English, and many English-speaking astronomers as well, follow this pronunciation.[21]
Charon discovery image with description

Charon However, Christy himself pronounced the ch in the moon's name as sh (IPA []), after his wife Charlene. Because of this, as an acknowledgement of Christy and sometimes as an in-joke or shibboleth, the initial sh pronunciation is common among astronomers when speaking English,[22][21][23][24] and this is the prescribed pronunciation at NASA and of the New Horizons Pluto mission team.[25][26]

96

Notes
[1] In US dictionary transcription, USdict:shrn, krn, the latter per the anglicized pronunciation of the Greek: . [2] Jennifer Blue (2009-11-09). "Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature" (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ append7. html#DwarfPlanets). IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN). . Retrieved 2010-02-24. [3] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1086. 2f504422_?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit). a, i, e per JPL (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ ?sat_elem#pluto) (site updated 2008 Aug 25) [4] B. Sicardy et al (2006). "Charon's size and an upper limit on its atmosphere from a stellar occultation". Nature 439 (7072): 524. Bibcode2006Natur.439...52S. doi:10.1038/nature04351. PMID16397493. [5] Volume of a sphere with radius 603.5 km = 902,704,853.6 km3 / 1,083,207,317,374 km3 = 8.4104 = 0.00084 Earth [6] "Classic Satellites of the Solar System" (http:/ / www. oarval. org/ ClasSaten. htm). Observatorio ARVAL. . Retrieved 2007-10-19. [7] David Jewitt (2008 June). "The 1000 km Scale KBOs" (http:/ / www2. ess. ucla. edu/ ~jewitt/ kb/ big_kbo. html). Institute for Astronomy (UH). . Retrieved 2008-06-13. [8] "Stellar occultation allows VLT to determine Charon's size and to put upper limit on its atmosphere" (http:/ / www. eso. org/ public/ outreach/ press-rel/ pr-2006/ pr-02-06. html). ESO 02/06 Science Release. 2006-01-04. . Retrieved 2007-10-19. [9] "IAUC 3241: 1978 P 1; 1978 (532) 1; 1977n" (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 03200/ 03241. html). . Retrieved 2011-07-05. [10] "Charon: An ice machine in the ultimate deep freeze" (http:/ / www. spaceflightnow. com/ news/ n0707/ 17charon/ ). Gemini Observatory. 2007. . Retrieved 2007-07-18. [11] Cook et al (2007). "Near-Infrared Spectroscopy of Charon: Possible Evidence for Cryovolcanism on Kuiper Belt Objects" (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ article/ 0004-637X/ 663/ 2/ 1406/ 70488. html). The Astrophysical Journal 663 (2): 14061419. Bibcode2007ApJ...663.1406C. doi:10.1086/518222. . [12] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1088. 2f0004-6256. 2f139. 2f3. 2f1128?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit) [13] Canup, Robin (January 28, 2005). "A Giant Impact Origin of PlutoCharon" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 307/ 5709/ 546). Science 307 (5709): 54650. Bibcode2005Sci...307..546C. doi:10.1126/science.1106818. PMID15681378. . [14] "IAU names fifth dwarf planet Haumea" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0807/ ). IAU Press Release. 2008-09-17. . Retrieved 2008-09-17. [15] Robert Roy Britt (2006-08-18). "Earth's moon could become a planet" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2006/ TECH/ space/ 08/ 18/ moon. planet). CNN Science & Space. . Retrieved 2009-11-25. [16] Stern, Alan (2005-05-15). "Background Information Regarding Our Two Newly Discovered Satellites of Pluto" (http:/ / www. boulder. swri. edu/ plutomoons/ ). Planetary Science Directorate (Boulder Office). . Retrieved 2006-08-30. [17] Govert Shilling, "A Bump in the Night" in Sky & Telescope (June 2008) pp. 2627. Prior to this, Christy had considered naming the moon Oz. [18] "IAU Circular No. 4157" (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 04100/ 04157. html). January 3, 1986. . Retrieved 2011-07-05. [19] Charon 5 dictionary results (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ Charon?r=75) [20] Charon (http:/ / dictionary. oed. com/ cgi/ entry/ 50037018?single=1& query_type=word& queryword=charon& first=1& max_to_show=10) at Oxford English Dictionary [21] Pronounced "KAIR en" or "SHAHR en" per "Charon" (http:/ / www. nineplanets. org/ pluto. html#charon). . Retrieved 2008-10-03. [22] Astronomer Mike Brown can be heard pronouncing it [n] in ordinary conversation on the KCET interview "Julia Sweeney and Michael E. Brown" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081006182705/ http:/ / www. pluggd. tv/ audio/ channels/ kcet_podcast__hammer_conversations/ episodes/ 2h10l). Hammer Conversations: KCET podcast. 2007. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. pluggd. tv/ audio/ channels/ kcet_podcast__hammer_conversations/ episodes/ 2h10l) on 2008-10-06. . Retrieved 2008-10-01. at 42min 48sec. Being a long-time resident of California, he does not distinguish the /r/ vowel of the name Sharon and the /r/ vowel of the classical pronunciation of Charon. [23] Pronounced 'with a soft "sh" ' per "Welcome to the solar system, Nix and Hydra!" (http:/ / www. planetary. org/ blog/ article/ 00000613/ ). The Planetary Society Weblog. . Retrieved 2008-10-03. [24] US Naval Observatory spokesman Jeff Chester, when interviewed on the NPR commentary "Letters: Radiology Dangers, AIDS, Charon" (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=5162958). Morning Edition. 2006-01-19. . Retrieved 2008-10-03. (at 2min 49sec), says Christy pronounced it [n] rather than classical [kn]. In normal conversation, the second vowel is reduced to a schwa: /krn/ in RP (ref: OED).

Charon
[25] Pronounced "Sharon" /rn/ per "NASA New Horizons: The PI's PerspectiveTwo for the Price of One" (http:/ / www. spaceref. com/ news/ viewsr. html?pid=17180). . Retrieved 2008-10-03. and per "New Horizons Team Names Science Ops Center After Charon's Discoverer" (http:/ / www. spaceref. com/ news/ viewpr. html?pid=9477). . Retrieved 2008-10-03. [26] Hal Weaver, who led the team that discovered Nix and Hydra, also pronounces it [n] on the Discovery Science Channel documentary Passport to Pluto, premiered 2006-01-15.

97

References External links

Charon Profile (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Plu_Charon) at NASA's Solar System Exploration site (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov) James W. Christy and Robert S. Harrington, "The satellite of Pluto," The Astronomical Journal 83 (1978) 1005 (http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AJ.../0083//0001005.000.html) Marc W. Buie, Phases of Charon as seen from Pluto (http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~buie/pluto/chphases. html), Lowell Observatory Buie, Surface of Charon and Pluto (http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~buie/pluto/plutomap1.html) Hubble reveals new map of Pluto (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4230918.stm), BBC News, September 12, 2005 IAU Circular No. 3241 (http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/03200/03241.html) describing the discovery Measuring the Size of a Small, Frost World (http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr-2006/pr-02-06.html) (ESO press release January 2006) M. J. Person et al.: Charons Radius and Density from the Combined Data Sets of the 2005 July 11 Occultation (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0602082) (submitted to the Astronomical Journal, February 3, 2006) Cryovolcanism on Charon and other Kuiper Belt Objects (http://spacescience.arc.nasa.gov/agu/abstracts/ Deschetal.pdf)

Nix

98

Nix
Nix

Discovery images of Nix (and Hydra)

Discovery Discovered by Discovery date Hubble Space Telescope Pluto Companion Search Team June 2005 Designations Pronunciation Named after Alternate name(s) Adjective English pronunciation: /nks/ Nyx (134340) Pluto II Nictian Orbital characteristics Semi-major axis Eccentricity Orbital period Inclination Satelliteof 48708 km 0.0030 24.856 0.001 d 0.195 Pluto Physical characteristics Mean radius Mass Mean density Rotation period Axial tilt Albedo Temperature 23 68 km
[4] [5] [3] [2] [1]

5101621018 kg (unknown) (unknown) (unknown)

0.04 0.35 (assumed) 3355 K

[6]

Apparent magnitude 23.38 to 23.7 (measured)[6]

Nix Nix is a natural satellite of Pluto. It was discovered along with Hydra in June 2005, and is to be visited along with Pluto by the New Horizons mission in July 2015.

99

Discovery
Nix was found by the Hubble Space Telescope Pluto Companion Search Team, composed of Hal A. Weaver, S. Alan Stern, Max J. Mutchler, Andrew J. Steffl, Marc W. Buie, William J. Merline, John R. Spencer, Eliot F. Young, and Leslie A. Young. The discovery images were taken on May 15, 2005, and May 18, 2005; the moons were independently discovered by Max J. Mutchler on June 15, 2005, and Andrew J. Steffl on August 15, 2005. The discoveries were announced on October 31, 2005, after confirmation by precoveries from 2002. The moons were provisionally designated S/2005 P 1 (Hydra) and S/2005 P 2 (Nix).[7][8]

Orbit
The moon follows a circular orbit in the same plane as Charon. Its orbital period of 24.9 days is close to a 1:4 orbital resonance with Charon, but the timing discrepancy is 2.7%, which suggests that there is no active resonance.[3] A hypothesis explaining such a near-resonance is that it originated before the outward migration of Charon following the formation of all four known moons, and is maintained by the periodic local fluctuation of 9% in the PlutoCharon gravitational field strength.

Physical characteristics
Although its size has not been directly measured, the moon has been calculated to have a diameter of Labeled image of Nix released upon IAU name approval. between 46km, if its geometric albedo is similar to Charon's 35%, and 137km, if it has a reflectivity of 4%, like the darkest Kuiper Belt Objects.[4] Nix is slightly fainter than Hydra, suggesting that it is somewhat smaller in size.[6] In the discovery image, Nix is 6,300 times fainter than Pluto.[9] Early research appeared to show that Nix was reddish like Pluto and unlike the other moons,[3] but more recent reports have been that it is grey like the remaining satellites.[6]

Name
The formal name "Nix", from the Greek goddess of darkness and night, and mother of Charon, was announced on June 21, 2006, on IAU Circular 8723,[8] where the designation Pluto II is also given. Together with Hydra, Pluto's third moon, the initials are those of the New Horizons probe. The initial proposal was to use the classical spelling Nyx, but to avoid confusion with the asteroid 3908 Nyx, the spelling was changed to Nix. The USGS Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature states that Nix is the "Egyptian spelling,"[10] while Jrgen Blunck explains it as the "Spanish translation" of the Greek name.[11]

Nix

100

Notes
[1] In US dictionary transcription, USdict:nks, or as in Greek . [2] Jennifer Blue (2009-11-09). "Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature" (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ append7. html#DwarfPlanets). IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN). . Retrieved 2010-08-30. [3] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1086. 2f504422_?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit). a, i, e per JPL (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ ?sat_elem#pluto) (site updated 2008 Aug 25) [4] H. A. Weaver; S. A. Stern, M. J. Mutchler, A. J. Steffl, M. W. Buie, W. J. Merline, J. R. Spencer, E. F. Young and L. A. Young (23 February 2006). "Discovery of two new satellites of Pluto". Nature 439 (7079): 943945. arXiv:astro-ph/0601018. Bibcode2006Natur.439..943W. doi:10.1038/nature04547. PMID16495991. [5] Based on the range of diameters from Buie et al. (2006), and densities ranging from 1 g/cm3 (ice) to 2 g/cm3 (Pluto). [6] Stern, S. A.; Mutchler, M. J.; Weaver, H. A.; and Steffl, A. J. (2006). "The Positions, Colors, and Photometric Variability of Pluto's Small Satellites from HST Observations 20052006". Astronomical Journal 132 (3): submitted. arXiv:astro-ph/0607507. Bibcode2006AJ....132.1405S. doi:10.1086/506347. ( Final preprint (http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0605014)) [7] IAU Circular No. 8625 (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 08600/ 08625. html) describing the discovery [8] IAU Circular No. 8723 (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 08700/ 08723. html) naming the moons [9] Brightness Difference on 2005-05-15: (5th root of 100) ^ (Nix APmag 23.38 Pluto APmag 13.87) = 6,368x [10] "Planet and Satellite Names and Discoverers" (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ append7. html). Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. USGS Astrogeology. July 21, 2006. . Retrieved 2006-08-15. [11] Blunck, Jrgen, Solar System Moons: Discovery and Mythology (2009), p. 129.

References
Steffl, A. J.; Mutchler, M. J.; Weaver, H. A.; Stern, S. A.; Durda, D. D.; Terrell, D.; Merline, W. J.; Young, L. A.; Young, E. F.; Buie, M. W.; and Spencer, J. R. (2006). "New Constraints on Additional Satellites of the Pluto System". The Astronomical Journal 132 (2): 614619. arXiv:astro-ph/0511837. Bibcode2006AJ....132..614S. doi:10.1086/505424.( Final preprint (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0511837))

External links
Nix Profile (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Plu_Nix) by NASA's Solar System Exploration (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov) Background Information Regarding Our Two Newly Discovered Satellites of Pluto (http://www.boulder.swri. edu/plutonews/) The discoverers' website NASA's Hubble Reveals Possible New Moons Around Pluto (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/ archive/releases/2005/19/) Hubble press release Two More Moons Discovered Orbiting Pluto (http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/ 051031_pluto_moons.html) (SPACE.com) Pluto's Newest Moons Named Hydra and Nix (http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060621_nix_hydra. html) (SPACE.com)

S/2011 P 1

101

S/2011 P 1
S/2011 P 1

Hubble Space Telescope discovery images of S/2011 P 1.

Discovery Discovered by Discovery date
[1]

Showalter, M. R. et al. June 28, 2011 (verified July 20, 2011) Orbital characteristics
[1]

Meanorbit radius Eccentricity Orbital period Inclination Satelliteof

(59 2)103km 0 32.1 0.3 days 0 Pluto Physical characteristics

Apparent magnitude

26.1 0.3

[1]

S/2011 P 1

102

S/2011 P 1 (also known as S/2011 (134340) 1[1] or P4) is a small natural satellite of Pluto whose existence was announced on July 20, 2011.[1] Its discovery, following the discoveries of Charon in 1978 and Nix and Hydra in 2005, made it Pluto's fourth known moon.

Discovery
S/2011 P 1 was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope's Pluto Companion Search Team on June 28, 2011, using the Wide Field Camera 3, during an attempt to find any rings that Pluto might possess.[2][3] Orbits of the four moons of Pluto Further observations were made on July 3 and July 18, 2011 and it was verified as a new moon on July 20, 2011.[1][4] It was later identified in archival Hubble images from February 15, 2006 and June 25, 2010.[1] S/2011 P 1's brightness is only about 10% of that of Nix, and it was found because the discovery team took 8-minute exposures; earlier observations had used shorter exposures.[5]

Physical properties
With an estimated diameter of 1334 km (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong' unknown operator: u'strong'), S/2011 P 1 is the smallest known moon of Pluto.[6][7] This diameter range is derived from an assumed possible geometric albedo range of 0.06 to 0.35.[1][5]

Orbital properties
Current observations suggest a circular, equatorial orbit with a radius of approximately 59,000 km (about 37,000 miles).[1][5] The moon orbits in the region between Nix and Hydra and makes a complete orbit around Pluto roughly every 32.1 days.[1][5] This period is close to a 1:5 orbital resonance with Charon, with the timing discrepancy being apparently less than 0.6%.[8] As with the near resonances between Nix or Hydra and Charon (1:4 and 1:6, respectively), determining how close this relationship is to a true resonance will require more accurate knowledge of S/2011 P 1's orbit, in particular its rate of precession.

Origin
Like Pluto's other satellites,[9] it is suspected that S/2011 P 1 coalesced from the debris of a massive collision between Pluto and another Kuiper belt object, similar to the "big whack" believed to have created the Earth's Moon.[3]

Naming
A formal name for S/2011 P 1 will probably be proposed to the International Astronomical Union by the discovery team. According to team leader Mark Showalter, a name associated with Hades and the underworld will be chosen from Greek mythology.[10]

S/2011 P 1

103

Notes
[1] 134340 is Pluto's Minor Planet Center number, assigned following its demotion from full planetary status in 2006. S/2011 P 1 is the format used for planetary satellites. [2] The search for rings is motivated in part by a desire to avoid damage to the New Horizons spacecraft when it passes through the Pluto system in July 2015.Wall, M. (2011-07-20). "New Pluto Moon Foreshadows More Surprises for NASA Probe En Route" (http:/ / www. space. com/ 12372-pluto-fourth-moon-nasa-spacecraft. html). Space.Com web site (http:/ / www. space. com/ ). TechMediaNetwork. . Retrieved 2011-07-21.McKee, M. (2006-02-22). "Rings of ice and dust may encircle Pluto" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn8760-rings-of-ice-and-dust-may-encircle-pluto. html). New Scientist web site (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ section/ space). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2011-07-21. [3] Boyle, A. (2011-07-20). "Scientists spot Pluto's fourth moon" (http:/ / cosmiclog. msnbc. msn. com/ _news/ 2011/ 07/ 20/ 7119984-scientists-spot-plutos-fourth-moon). Cosmic Log on msnbc.com (http:/ / cosmiclog. msnbc. msn. com/ ). msnbc.com. . Retrieved 2011-07-20. [4] Pluto Has Another Moon, Hubble Photos Reveal | Dwarf Planet Pluto | Pluto's Moons | Space.com (http:/ / www. space. com/ 12356-pluto-fourth-moon-discovery-hubble-photo. html) [5] Lakdawalla, E. (2011-07-20). "A fourth moon for Pluto" (http:/ / www. planetary. org/ blog/ article/ 00003107/ ). Planetary Society weblog (http:/ / planetary. org/ blog). The Planetary Society. . Retrieved 2011-07-20. [6] "NASA's Hubble Discovers Another Moon Around Pluto" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ hubble/ science/ pluto-moon. html). . Retrieved 2011-07-20. [7] "Tiny fourth moon discovered in Pluto's orbit" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2011/ US/ 07/ 20/ us. pluto. moon/ ). CNN. . Retrieved 2011-07-20. [8] 100*(P4 period - 5*Charon period)/P4 period 100*(32.1 d - 5*6.3872304 d)/32.1 d 0.51% [9] Stern, S. A.; Weaver, H. A.; Steff, A. J.; Mutchler, M. J.; Merline, W. J.; Buie, M. W.; Young, E. F.; Young, L. A.; Spencer, J. R. (2006-02-23). "A giant impact origin for Plutos small moons and satellite multiplicity in the Kuiper belt" (http:/ / ns1. plutoportal. net/ ~layoung/ eprint/ Stern2006plutosat. pdf). Nature 439 (7079): 946948. Bibcode2006Natur.439..946S. doi:10.1038/nature04548. PMID16495992. . Retrieved 2011-07-20. [10] Shiga, D. (2011-07-20). "What should Pluto's new moon be named?" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ blogs/ shortsharpscience/ 2011/ 07/ what-should-plutos-new-moon-be. html). New Scientist web site (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ section/ space). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2011-07-21.

References

Hydra

104

Hydra
Hydra

Discovery images of Hydra (and Nix)

Discovery Discovered by Discovery date Hubble Space Telescope Pluto Companion Search Team June 2005 Designations Pronunciation Named after Alternate name(s) Adjective English pronunciation: /hadr/ Lernaean Hydra (134340) Pluto III Hydrian Orbital characteristics Semi-major axis Eccentricity Orbital period Inclination Satelliteof 64749 km 0.0051 38.206 0.001 d 0.212 Pluto Physical characteristics Mean radius Mass Mean density Rotation period Axial tilt Albedo Temperature 30 84 km
[3] [4] [2] [1]

4.21017 kg (unknown) (unknown) (unknown)

0.04 0.35 (assumed) 3355 K

[5]

Apparent magnitude 22.9 to 23.3 (measured)[5]

Hydra Hydra (Greek: ) is the second outermost known natural satellite of Pluto. It was discovered along with Nix in June 2005, and is to be visited along with Pluto by the New Horizons mission in July 2015.

105

Discovery
Hydra was found by the Hubble Space Telescope's Pluto Companion Search Team, which is composed of Hal A. Weaver, Alan Stern, Max J. Mutchler, Andrew J. Steffl, Marc W. Buie, William J. Merline, John R. Spencer, Eliot F. Young, and Leslie A. Young. The discovery images were taken on May 15, 2005, and May 18, 2005; the moons were independently discovered by Max J. Mutchler on June 15, 2005, and Andrew J. Steffl on August 15, 2005. The discoveries were announced on October 31, 2005, after confirmation by precoveries from 2002. The moons were provisionally designated S/2005 P 1 (Hydra) and S/2005 P 2 (Nix).[6][7] The name Hydra was announced on June 21, 2006, in IAU Circular 8723,[7] along with the formal designation Pluto III. It was named after Hydra, the nine-headed serpent who battled Hercules in Greco-Roman Mythology.

Orbital properties
The satellite orbits the barycenter of the system in the same plane as Charon and Nix, at a distance of about 65,000km. Unlike other satellites of Pluto, its orbit is only nearly circular; its eccentricity of 0.0052 is small, but significantly non-zero. Its orbital period of 38.2 days is close to a 1:6 orbital resonance with Charon, with the timing discrepancy being 0.3%. Whether this is an actual resonance awaits more detailed determinations of its orbit, in particular its rate of precession. If there is no actual resonance, a hypothesis to explain the near-resonance is that it originated before the outward migration of Charon following the formation of all four known moons, and is maintained by the periodic local fluctuation of 5% in the PlutoCharon gravitational field strength.

Labeled image of Hydra released upon IAU name approval

Physical properties
Although its size has not been directly measured, calculations based on its brightness give it a diameter of between 61km, if its geometric albedo is similar to Charon's 35 percent, and about 167km, if it has a reflectivity of 4 percent like the darkest Kuiper belt objects (KBOs).[3] At the time of discovery, Hydra was about 25 percent brighter than its sister moon Nix, which led to the assumption that its diameter was some 10 percent larger.[8] Pre-discovery data from Hubble observations in 2002-3 implied that Nix was the brighter moon.[2] However, Hubble observations in 2005-6, specifically targeting the dim moons, once again showed Hydra to be a little brighter.[5] Hydra appears to be spectrally neutral like Charon and Nix, whereas Pluto is reddish.

Hydra

106

Notes
[1] In US dictionary transcription, USdict:hdr. Or as in Greek ). [2] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1086. 2f504422_?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit). a, i, e per JPL (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ ?sat_elem#pluto) (site updated 2008 Aug 25) [3] H. A. Weaver; S. A. Stern, M. J. Mutchler, A. J. Steffl, M. W. Buie, W. J. Merline, J. R. Spencer, E. F. Young and L. A. Young (23 February 2006). "Discovery of two new satellites of Pluto". Nature 439 (7079): 943945. arXiv:astro-ph/0601018. Bibcode2006Natur.439..943W. doi:10.1038/nature04547. PMID16495991. [4] Tholen, David J.; Buie; Grundy; M. W. Buie, W. M. Grundy (October 2010). "Improved Masses of Nix and Hydra". AAS DPS Meeting #42 42: 984. Bibcode2010DPS....42.2008T. [5] Stern, S. A.; Mutchler, M. J.; Weaver, H. A.; and Steffl, A. J. (2006). "The Positions, Colors, and Photometric Variability of Pluto's Small Satellites from HST Observations 20052006". Astronomical Journal 132 (3): submitted. arXiv:astro-ph/0607507. Bibcode2006AJ....132.1405S. doi:10.1086/506347. ( Final preprint (http:/ / www. arxiv. org/ abs/ astro-ph/ 0605014)) [6] IAU Circular No. 8625 (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 08600/ 08625. html) describing the discovery [7] IAU Circular No. 8723 (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 08700/ 08723. html) naming the moons [8] Stern, Alan; Hal Weaver (JHU APL), Max Mutchler (STScI), Andrew Steffl (SwRI), Bill Merline (SwRI), Marc Buie (Lowell Observatory), John Spencer (SwRI), Eliot Young (SwRI), and Leslie Young (SwRI) (15 May 2005). "Background Information Regarding Our Two Newly Discovered Satellites of Pluto" (http:/ / www. boulder. swri. edu/ plutomoons/ ). Planetary Science Directorate (Boulder Office). . Retrieved 2007-11-10.

References
Steffl, A. J.; Mutchler, M. J.; Weaver, H. A.; Stern, S. A.; Durda, D. D.; Terrell, D.; Merline, W. J.; Young, L. A.; Young, E. F.; Buie, M. W.; and Spencer, J. R. (2006). "New Constraints on Additional Satellites of the Pluto System". The Astronomical Journal 132 (2): 614619. arXiv:astro-ph/0511837. Bibcode2006AJ....132..614S. doi:10.1086/505424.( Final preprint (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0511837))

External links
Hydra Profile (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Plu_Hydra) by NASA's Solar System Exploration (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov) NASA's Hubble Reveals Possible New Moons Around Pluto (http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/ archive/releases/2005/19/) Hubble press release Two More Moons Discovered Orbiting Pluto (http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/ 051031_pluto_moons.html) (SPACE.com) Pluto's Newest Moons Named Hydra and Nix (http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060621_nix_hydra. html) (SPACE.com) Hydra at ESA/Hubble (http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/html/opo0609b.html)

107

Pluto flyby missions

New Horizons
New Horizons

Operator

NASA

Major contractors Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) Mission type Flyby of Flyby date Launch date Flyby APL, Jupiter, Pluto, Charon, Hydra, Nix, S/2011 P 1 2015-07-14 (projected) 2006-01-19 19:00:00 UTC (6years, 4months and 5days elapsed) Atlas V 551 Launch Complex 41 Cape Canaveral Air Force Station In transit (Pluto) (6years, 4months and 5days elapsed) APL flyby (completed 2006-06-13) Jupiter flyby (completed 2007-02-28) 2006-001A [1] [2]

Launch vehicle Launch site

Mission duration

COSPAR ID Homepage Mass Power

pluto.jhuapl.edu

478kg (unknown operator: u'strong'lb) 228 W (RTG) Orbital elements

Inclination

negligible as of 2010

New Horizons is a NASA robotic spacecraft mission currently en route to the dwarf planet Pluto. It is expected to be the first spacecraft to flyby and study Pluto and its moons, Charon, Nix, Hydra and S/2011 P 1, with an estimated arrival date at the Pluto-Charon system of July 14, 2015. NASA may then also attempt flybys of one or more other

New Horizons Kuiper belt objects, if a suitable target can be located. New Horizons was launched on January 19, 2006, directly into an Earth-and-solar-escape trajectory with an Earth-relative velocity of about 16.26km/s (unknown operator: u'strong' km/h; unknown operator: u'strong' mph) after its last engine was shut down. Thus, the spacecraft left Earth at the greatest-ever launch speed for a man-made object. It flew by the orbit of Mars on April 7, 2006, the orbit of Jupiter on February 28, 2007, the orbit of Saturn on June 8, 2008; and the orbit of Uranus on March 18, 2011. Since February 2012, its distance to Pluto is less than 10 AU[3] (more than 20 AU from Earth).

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Current status
As of February 12, 2012, the spacecraft was traveling at 15.41km/s, or about 3.249 AU per year, at a distance of 21.99 astronomical units (expected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operator109 km) from the Sun and 22.97 astronomical units (expected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operator109 km) from Earth, just New Horizons mission logo beyond the orbit of Uranus.[4] The spacecraft was at a declination of 21.44 degrees, and a right ascension of 18.483 hours at that time.[5] At that distance, light takes about 3.03 hours to reach the spacecraft from Earth, meaning that a round trip time for a radio signal was about 6.06 hours.[5]

Background
New Horizons is the first mission in NASA's New Frontiers mission category, larger and more expensive than Discovery missions but smaller than the Flagship Program. The cost of the mission (including spacecraft and instrument development, launch vehicle, mission operations, data analysis, and education/public outreach) is approximately 650 million USD over 15 years (from 2001 to 2016). An earlier proposed Pluto mission Pluto Kuiper Express was cancelled by NASA in 2000 for budgetary reasons. Further information relating to an overview with historical context[6] can be found at the IEEE website and gives further background and details, with more details regarding the Jupiter fly-by.[7] The spacecraft was built primarily by Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL). The mission's principal investigator is Alan Stern (NASA Associate Administrator, formerly of the Southwest Research Institute).

New Horizons on the launchpad

Overall control, after separation from the launch vehicle, is performed at Mission Operations Center (MOC) at the Applied Physics Laboratory. The science instruments are operated at the Clyde Tombaugh Science Operations Center (T-SOC) in Boulder, Colorado.[8] Navigation, which is not real-time, is performed at various contractor facilities; KinetX is the lead on the New Horizons navigation team and is responsible for planning trajectory adjustments as the spacecraft speeds toward the outer Solar System.

New Horizons New Horizons was originally planned as a voyage to what was the only unexplored planet in the Solar System. When the spacecraft was launched, Pluto was still classified as a planet, later to be reclassified as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Some members of the New Horizons team, including Alan Stern, disagree with the IAU definition and still describe Pluto as the ninth planet.[9] Pluto's newly-discovered satellites, Nix and Hydra, also have a connection with the spacecraft: the first letters of their names, N and H, are the initials of "New Horizons". The moons' discoverers chose these names for this reason, in addition to Nix and Hydra's relationship to the mythological Pluto.[10] In addition to the scientific equipment, there are several cultural artifacts traveling with the spacecraft. These include a collection of 434,738 names stored on a compact disc,[11] a piece of Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne,[12] and an American flag, along with other mementos.[13] One of the trim weights on the spacecraft is a Florida state quarter. To commemorate the discovery of Pluto, one ounce of the ashes of Pluto discoverer Clyde Tombaugh are aboard the spacecraft,[14] while one of the science packages (a dust counter) is named after Venetia Burney, who, as a child, suggested the name Pluto after its discovery.

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Launch
The launch of New Horizons was originally scheduled for January 11, 2006, but was initially delayed until January 17 to allow for borescope inspections of the Atlas rocket's kerosene tank. Further delays related to low cloud ceiling conditions downrange, and high winds and technical difficulties unrelated to the rocket itself prevented launch for a further two days. The probe finally lifted off from Pad 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, directly south of Space Shuttle Launch Complex 39, at 14:00 EST on January 19, 2006.

New Horizons at lift-off

The Centaur second stage reignited at 14:30 EST (19:30 UTC), successfully sending the probe on a solar-escape trajectory. New Horizons took only nine hours to reach the Moon's orbit, passing lunar orbit before midnight EST that day. Although there were backup launch opportunities in February 2006 and February 2007, only the first 23 days of the 2006 window permitted the Jupiter fly-by. Any launch outside that period would have forced the spacecraft to fly a slower trajectory directly to Pluto, delaying its encounter by 24 years.

Space Launch Complex 41 during New Horizons launch

The craft was launched by a Lockheed Martin Atlas V 551 rocket, with an ATK Star 48B third stage added to increase the heliocentric (escape) speed. This was the first launch of the 551 configuration of the Atlas V, as well as the first Atlas V launch with an additional third stage (Atlas V rockets usually do not have a third stage). Previous flights had used none, two, or three solid boosters, but never five. This puts the Atlas V 551 take-off thrust, at well over 2000000 lbf (unknown operator: u'strong'MN), past the Delta IV-Heavy. The major part of this thrust is supplied by the Russian RD-180 engine, providing 4.152MN (unknown

New Horizons operator: u'strong' lbf). The Delta IV-H remains the larger vehicle, at over 1600000 lb (unknown operator: u'strong' kg) compared to 1260000 lb (unknown operator: u'strong' kg) of the AV-010. The Atlas V rocket had earlier been slightly damaged when Hurricane Wilma swept across Florida on October 24, 2005. One of the solid rocket boosters was hit by a door. The booster was replaced with an identical unit, rather than inspecting and requalifying the original.[15] The Star 48B third stage is also on a hyperbolic Solar System escape trajectory, and reached Jupiter before the New Horizons spacecraft. However, since it is not in controlled flight, it did not receive the correct gravity assist, and will only pass within 200000000 km (unknown operator: u'strong' mi) of Pluto.[16] New Horizons is often erroneously given the title of Fastest Spacecraft Ever Launched, when in fact the Helios probes are the holders of that title. To be more specific New Horizons achieved the highest launch velocity and thus left Earth faster than any other spacecraft to date. It is also the first spacecraft launched directly into a solar escape trajectory, which requires an approximate velocity of 16.5km/s (unknown operator: u'strong' mph), plus losses, all to be provided by the launcher. However, it will not be the fastest spacecraft to leave the Solar System. This record is held by Voyager 1, currently travelling at 17.145km/s (unknown operator: u'strong' mph) relative to the Sun. Voyager 1 attained greater hyperbolic excess velocity from Jupiter and Saturn gravitational slingshots than New Horizons. Other spacecraft, such as Helios 1 & 2, can also be measured as the fastest objects, due to their orbital velocity relative to the Sun at perihelion. However, because they remain in solar orbit, their orbital energy relative to the Sun is lower than the five probes, and three other third stages on hyperbolic trajectories, including New Horizons, that achieved solar escape velocity, as the Sun has a much deeper gravitational well than Earth.

110

Trajectory corrections and instrument testing

On January 28 and January 30, 2006, mission controllers guided the probe through its first trajectory correction maneuver (TCM), which was divided into two parts (TCM-1A and TCM-1B). The total velocity change of these two corrections was about 18meters per second. TCM-1 was accurate enough to permit the cancellation of TCM-2, the second of three originally scheduled corrections.[17] During the week of February 20, controllers conducted initial in-flight tests of three onboard scientific instruments, the Alice ultraviolet imaging spectrometer, the PEPSSI plasma-sensor, and the LORRI long-range visible-spectrum camera. No scientific measurements or images were taken, but instrument electronics, and in the case of Alice, some electromechanical systems were shown to be functioning correctly.[18] On March 9 at 1700 UTC, controllers performed TCM-3, the last of three scheduled course corrections. The engines burned for 76seconds, adjusting the spacecraft's velocity by about 1.16meters per second.[19] On September 25, 2007 on 16:04 EDT, the engines were fired for 15minutes and 37seconds, changing the spacecraft's velocity by 2.37meters per second.[20] On June 30, 2010 on 7:49 EDT, mission controllers executed a fourth TCM on New Horizons that lasted 35.6seconds.[21]

Passing Mars orbit and asteroid flyby

On April 7, 2006 at 10:00 UTC, the spacecraft passed the orbit of Mars, moving at roughly 21km/s away from the Sun at a solar distance of 243 million kilometers.[22] New Horizons made a distant flyby of the small asteroid 132524 APL (previously known by its provisional designation, 2002 JF56), at a distance of 101,867km at 04:05 UTC on June 13, 2006. The best current estimate of the asteroid's diameter is approximately 2.3kilometers, and the spectra obtained by New Horizons showed that APL is an S-type asteroid. The spacecraft successfully tracked the asteroid over June 1012, 2006. This allowed the mission team to test the spacecraft's ability to track rapidly moving objects. Images were obtained through the Ralph telescope.[23]

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Jupiter gravity assist

New Horizons' Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) took its first photographs of Jupiter on September 4, 2006. The spacecraft began further study of the Jovian system in December 2006.[24] New Horizons received a Jupiter gravity assist with a closest approach at 5:43:40 UTC (12:43:40am EST) on February 28, 2007. It passed through the Jupiter system at 21km/s (unknown operator: u'strong' mph) relative to Jupiter (23km/s (unknown operator: u'strong' mph) relative to the Sun). The flyby increased New Horizons' speed away from the Sun by nearly 4km/s (unknown operator: u'strong'mph), putting the spacecraft on a faster trajectory to Pluto, about 2.5 degrees out of the plane of the Earth's orbit (the "ecliptic"). As of November 2009, the Suns gravity has slowed the spacecraft to about 16.656km/s (unknown operator: u'strong' mph).[25] New Horizons was the first probe launched directly toward Jupiter since the Ulysses probe in 1990.

New Horizons at periapsis with Jupiter on February 28, 2007

While at Jupiter, New Horizons' instruments made refined measurements of the orbits of Jupiter's inner moons, particularly Amalthea. The probe's cameras measured volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail, as well as long distance studies of the outer moons Himalia and Elara. Imaging of the Jovian system began on September 4, 2006.[26] The craft also studied Jupiter's Little Red Spot and the planet's magnetosphere and tenuous ring system.[27]

Jupiter and Io

Jupiter's moon Io

Jupiter's moon Europa

Jupiter's moon Ganymede

New Horizons

112

Jupiter's moon Callisto

Jupiter observations
The flyby came within about 32 Jovian radii (3 Gm) of Jupiter and was the center of a 4-month intensive observation campaign. Jupiter is an interesting, ever-changing target, observed intermittently since the end of the Galileo mission. New Horizons also has instruments built using the latest technology, especially in the area of cameras. They are much improved over Galileo's cameras, which were evolved versions of Voyager cameras which, in turn, were evolved Mariner cameras. The Jupiter encounter also served as a shakedown and dress rehearsal for the Pluto encounter. Because of the much shorter distance from Jupiter to Earth, the communications link can transmit multiple loadings of the memory buffer; thus the mission actually returned more data from the Jovian system than it is expected to transmit from Pluto. Imaging of Jupiter began on September 4, 2006, after which several images were taken.[28] The primary encounter goals included Jovian cloud dynamics, which were greatly reduced from the Galileo observation program, and particle readings from the magnetotail of the Jovian magnetosphere. The spacecraft trajectory coincidentally flew down the magnetotail for months. New Horizons also examined the Jovian nightside for auroras and lightning.

Jupiter through infrared camera.

New Horizons also provided the first close-up examination of Oval BA, a storm feature that has informally become known as the "Little Red Spot", since the storm turned red. It was still a white spot when Cassini flew by. Jovian moons The major (Galilean) moons were in poor position. The aim point of the gravity-assist maneuver meant the spacecraft passed millions of kilometers from any of the Galilean moons. Still, the New Horizons instruments were intended for small, dim targets, so they were scientifically useful on large, distant moons. LORRI searched for volcanoes and plumes on Io. The infrared capabilities of LEISA searched for chemical compositions (including Europa ice dopants), and nightside temperatures (including hotspots on Io). The ultraviolet resolution of Alice searched for aurorae and atmospheres, including the Io torus.
Animation of volcanic plumes on Io, a moon of Jupiter, by New Horizons.

Minor moons such as Amalthea had their orbit solutions refined. The cameras determined their position, acting as "reverse optical

navigation".

New Horizons

113

Pluto approach
The first images of Pluto from New Horizons were created between September 2124, 2006, during a test of the LORRI. They were released on November 28.[29] The images, taken from a distance of approximately 4.2 billion kilometers (2.6 billion miles), confirmed the spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects. It is planned for New Horizons to fly within 10000km (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) of Pluto in 2015. New Horizons will have a relative velocity of 13.78km/s at closest approach, and will come as close as 27000km (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) to Charon, although these parameters may be changed during flight.

Kuiper-belt mission

First Pluto sighting from New Horizons (September 2124, 2006)

After passing by Pluto, New Horizons will continue farther into the Kuiper belt. Mission planners are now searching for one or more additional Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) on the order of 50100 km (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong' unknown operator: u'strong') in diameter for flybys similar to the spacecraft's Plutonian encounter. As maneuvering capability is limited, this phase of the mission is contingent on finding suitable KBOs close to New Horizons's flight path, ruling out any possibility for a planned flyby of Eris, a trans-Neptunian object comparable in size to Pluto.[30] The available region, being fairly close to the plane of the Milky Way and thus difficult to survey for dim objects, is one that has not been well-covered by previous KBO search efforts. The public is being encouraged to help scan telescopic images for possible mission candidates by participating in the Ice Hunters project.[31]

Key mission dates

Next event Date Event Description References

8 June 2001

New Horizons picked by After a three month concept study before submission of the proposal, two design NASA. teams were competing: POSSE (Pluto and Outer Solar System Explorer) and New Horizons. Spacecraft departed APL for final testing. Spacecraft shipped to Cape Canaveral Spacecraft to endure final testing at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC).

[32]

13 June 2005 24 September 2005 17 December 2005 11 January 2006 16 January 2006 17 January 2006

It was moved through Andrews Air Force Base aboard a C-17 Globemaster III cargo aircraft.

[33]

Spacecraft ready for in rocket positioning

Transported from Hazardous Servicing Facility to Vertical Integration Facility at Space Launch Complex 41.

Primary launch window opened Rocket moved onto launch pad Launch delayed

The launch was delayed for further testing.

Atlas V launcher, serial number AV-010, rolled out onto pad.

First day launch attempts scrubbed because of unacceptable weather conditions (high winds).

New Horizons

114
Launch delayed again Second launch attempt scrubbed because of morning power outage at the Applied Physics Laboratory. The spacecraft was successfully launched after brief delay due to cloud cover. [34][35]

18 January 2006 19 January 2006

Successful launch at 14:00 EST (19:00 UTC)

7 April 2006 Passing of Mars's orbit 13 June 2006 28 November 2006 10 January 2007 28 February 2007 8 June 2008 29 December 2009 25 February 2010 Flyby of asteroid 132524 APL First image of Pluto

The probe passed Mars's orbit: 1.7 AU from Earth. The probe passed closest to the asteroid 132524 APL in the Belt at about 101,867km at 04:05 UTC. Pictures were taken. The image of Pluto was taken from a great distance, rendering the dwarf planet faint.

[36][37] [38]

[29]

Navigation exercise near Long distance observations of Jupiter's outer moon Callirrhoe as a navigation Jupiter exercise. Jupiter flyby Closest approach occurred at 05:43:40 UTC at 2.305 million km, 21.219km/s.

[39]

[40] [40][41] [42][43][44]

Passing of Saturn's orbit The probe became closer to Pluto than to Earth Half mission distance reached

The probe passed Saturn's orbit: 9.5 AU from Earth. Pluto was then 32.7 AU from Earth, and the probe was 16.4 AU from Earth

Half the travel distance of 1480000000 miles (expected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operator109 km) was completed. This is the fourth planetary orbit the spacecraft crossed since its start. New Horizons reached Uranus's orbit at 22:00 GMT.

[45]

18 March 2011 2 December 2011

The probe passed Uranus's orbit

[46][47]

New Horizons drew Previously, Voyager 1 held the record for the closest approach. (~10.58 AU) closer to Pluto than any other spacecraft has ever been. New Horizons was 10 AU from Pluto. New Horizons will only be 5 AU from Pluto. The probe will pass Neptune's orbit Observation begins on Pluto Better than Hubble This will be the fifth planetary orbit the spacecraft crosses. Happened at around 4:55 UTC.

[48]

11 February 2012 October 2013 24 August 2014 February 2015 5 May 2015

[3]

[3]

[49]

New Horizons is now close enough to Pluto for the main science mission to begin.

[50]

Images exceed best Hubble Space Telescope resolution. Flyby of Pluto around 11:47 UTC at 13,695km, 13.78km/s. Flyby of Charon, Hydra, Nix and S/2011 P 1 around 12:01 UTC at 29,473km, 13.87km/s.

[50] [51]

14 July 2015 Flyby of Pluto, Charon, Hydra, Nix, and S/2011 P1 20162020

Possible flyby of one or The probe will perform flybys of other KBOs, if any are in the spacecraft's more Kuiper belt objects proximity. (KBOs) Expected end of mission According to NASA,[53] the Dwarf Planets mission will come to an end.

[52]

2026

New Horizons

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Spacecraft subsystems
The spacecraft is comparable in size and general shape to a grand piano and has been compared to a "piano glued to a sports-car-sized satellite dish".[54] As a point of departure, the team took inspiration from the Ulysses spacecraft,[55] which also carried an RTG and dish on a box-in-box structure through the outer Solar System. Many subsystems and components have flight heritage from APL's CONTOUR spacecraft, which in turn had heritage from APL's TIMED spacecraft.

Structural
The spacecraft's body forms a triangle, almost 2.5 feet (unknown operator: u'strong'm) thick. (The Pioneers had hexagonal bodies, while the Voyagers, Galileo, and CassiniHuygens had decagonal, hollow bodies.) A 7075 aluminium alloy tube forms the main structural column, between the launch vehicle adapter ring at the "rear," and the 2.1m radio dish antenna affixed to the "front" flat side. The titanium fuel tank is in this tube. The radioisotope thermoelectric generator, or RTG attaches with a 4-sided titanium mount resembling a grey pyramid or stepstool. Titanium provides strength and thermal isolation. The rest of the triangle is primarily sandwich panels of thin aluminium facesheet (less than 164 in or unknown operator: u'strong'mm) bonded to aluminium honeycomb core.

New Horizons in its assembly hall.

The structure is larger than strictly necessary, with empty space inside. The structure is designed to act as shielding, reducing electronics errors caused by radiation from the RTG. Also, the mass distribution required for a spinning spacecraft demands a wider triangle.

Propulsion and attitude control

New Horizons has both spin-stabilized (cruise) and three-axis stabilized (science) modes, controlled entirely with hydrazine monopropellant. 77kg (unknown operator: u'strong'lb) of hydrazine provides a delta-v capability of over 290m/s (unknown operator: u'strong'mph) after launch. Helium is used as a pressurant, with an elastomeric diaphragm assisting expulsion. The spacecraft's on-orbit mass including fuel will be over 470kg (unknown operator: u'strong'lb) for a Jupiter flyby trajectory, but would have been only 445kg (unknown operator: u'strong'lb) for a direct flight to Pluto. This would have meant less fuel for later Kuiper belt operations and is caused by the launch vehicle performance limitations for a direct-to-Pluto flight. There are 16 thrusters on New Horizons: four 4.4N (unknown operator: u'strong'lbf) and twelve 0.9N (unknown operator: u'strong'lbf) plumbed into redundant branches. The larger thrusters are used primarily for trajectory corrections, and the small ones (previously used on Cassini and the Voyager spacecraft) are used primarily for attitude control and spinup/spindown maneuvers. Two star cameras (from Galileo Avionica) are used for fine attitude control. They are mounted on the face of the spacecraft and provide attitude information while in spinning or in 3-axis mode. Between star camera readings, knowledge is provided by dual redundant Miniature Inertial Measurement Unit (MIMU) from Honeywell. Each unit contains three solid-state gyroscopes and three accelerometers. Two Adcole Sun sensors provide coarse attitude control. One detects angle to the Sun, while the other measures spin rate and clocking.

New Horizons

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Power
A cylindrical radioisotope thermoelectric generator, or RTG, protrudes from one vertex in the plane of the triangle. The RTG will provide about 240 W, 30 V DC at launch, and is predicted to drop approximately 5% every 4 years, decaying to 200 W by the encounter with the Plutonian system in 2015. The RTG, model "GPHS-RTG," was originally a spare from the Cassini mission. The RTG contains 11kg (unknown operator: u'strong'lb) of plutonium-238 oxide pellets. Each pellet is clad in iridium, then encased in a graphite shell. It was developed by the U.S. Department of Energy. The use of a plutonium RTG battery was opposed by about 30 anti-nuclear protesters in minor demonstrations some days before launch. The amount of radioactive plutonium in the RTG is 10.9kg, about one-third the amount on-board the CassiniHuygens probe when it launched in 1997. That launch was protested by over 300 people. The United States Department of Energy estimated the chances of a launch accident that would release radiation into the atmosphere at 1 in 350 and monitored the launch[56] as it always does when RTGs are involved. It was believed that a worst-case scenario of total dispersal of on-board plutonium would spread the equivalent radiation of 80% the average annual dosage in North America from background radiation over an area with a radius of 105km (unknown operator: u'strong'mi), at the Materials and Fuels Complex (formerly Argonne West), a part of the Idaho National Laboratory in Bingham County, near the town of Arco and the city of Idaho Falls.[57] The plutonium was produced at Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico. Less than the original design goal was produced, due to delays at the United States Department of Energy, including security activities, which held up production. The mission parameters and observation sequence had to be modified for the reduced wattage; still, not all instruments can operate simultaneously. The Department of Energy transferred the space battery program from Ohio to Argonne in 2002 because of security concerns. There are no onboard batteries. RTG output is relatively predictable; load transients are handled by a capacitor bank and fast circuit breakers.

Thermal
Internally, the structure is painted black. This equalizes temperature by radiative heat transfer. Overall, the spacecraft is thoroughly blanketed to retain heat. Unlike the Pioneers and Voyagers, the radio dish is also enclosed in blankets which extend to the body. The heat from the RTG also adds warmth to the spacecraft in the outer Solar System. In the inner Solar System, the spacecraft must prevent overheating. Electronic activity is limited, power is diverted to shunts with attached radiators, and louvers are opened to radiate excess heat. Then, when the spacecraft is cruising inactively in the cold outer Solar System, the louvers are closed, and the shunt regulator reroutes power to electric heaters.

Telecommunications
Communication with the spacecraft is via X band. At Pluto's distance, a rate of approximately 1,000 bits per second is expected. The craft had a communication rate of 38kbit/s at Jupiter. The 70m Deep Space Network (DSN) dishes will be used to relay data beyond Jupiter. Besides the low bandwidth, Pluto's distance also causes a (one way) latency of about 4.5 hours. The spacecraft uses dual redundant transmitters and Antennas of New Horizons (HGA, MGA and LGA). receivers, and either right- or left-hand circular polarization. The downlink signal is amplified by dual redundant 12-watt TWTAs (traveling-wave tube amplifiers) mounted on the body under the dish.

New Horizons The receivers are new, low-power designs. The system can be controlled to power both TWTAs at the same time, and transmit a dual-polarized downlink signal to the DSN that could almost double the downlink rate. Initial tests with the DSN in this dual-polarized mode have been successful, and an effort to make the DSN polarization-combining technique operational is underway. In addition to the high-gain antenna, there are two low-gain antennas and a medium-gain dish. The high-gain dish has a Cassegrain layout, composite construction, and a 2.1meter diameter (providing well over 40dB of gain, and a half-power beam width of about a degree). The prime-focus, medium-gain antenna, with a 0.3meter aperture and 10-degree half-power beamwidth, is mounted to the back of the high-gain antenna's secondary reflector. The forward low-gain antenna is stacked atop the feed of the medium-gain antenna. The aft low-gain antenna is mounted within the launch adapter at the rear of the spacecraft. This antenna was only used for early mission phases near Earth, just after launch and for emergencies if the spacecraft had lost attitude control. To save mission costs, the spacecraft will be in "hibernation" between Jupiter and Pluto. It will awaken once per year, for 50 days, for equipment checkout and trajectory tracking. The rest of the time, the spacecraft will be in a slow spin, sending a beacon tone which will be checked once per week. Depending on frequency, the beacon indicates normal operation, or one of seven fault modes. New Horizons is the first mission to use the DSN's beacon tone system operationally, the system having been flight-tested by the DS1 mission.

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Data handling
New Horizons will record scientific instrument data to its solid-state buffer at each encounter, then transmit the data to Earth. Data storage is done on two low-power solid-state recorders (one primary, one backup) holding up to 8 gigabytes each. Because of the extreme distance from Pluto and the Kuiper belt, only one buffer load at those encounters can be saved. This is because New Horizons will have left the vicinity of Pluto (or future target object) by the time it takes to transmit the buffer load back to Earth. Part of the reason for the delay between the gathering and transmission of data is because all of the New Horizons instrumentation is body-mounted. In order for the cameras to record data, the entire probe must turn, and the one-degree-wide beam of the high-gain antenna will almost certainly not be pointing toward Earth. Previous spacecraft, such as the Voyager program probes, had a rotatable instrumentation platform (a "scan platform") that could take measurements from virtually any angle without losing radio contact with Earth. New Horizons' elimination of excess mechanisms was implemented to save weight, shorten the schedule, and improve reliability to achieve a 15+-year lifetime. (The Voyager 2 spacecraft experienced platform jamming at Saturn; the demands of long time exposures at Uranus led to modifications of the mission such that the entire probe was rotated to achieve the time exposure photos at Uranus and Neptune, similar to how New Horizons will rotate.)

Flight computer
The spacecraft carries two computer systems, the Command and Data Handling system and the Guidance and Control processor. Each of the two systems is duplicated for redundancy, giving a total of four computers. The processor used is the Mongoose-V, a 12 MHz radiation-hardened version of the MIPS R3000 CPU. Multiple clocks and timing routines are implemented in hardware and software to help prevent faults and downtime. To conserve heat and mass, spacecraft and instrument electronics are housed together in IEMs (Integrated Electronics Modules). There are two redundant IEMs. Including other functions such as instrument and radio electronics, each IEM contains 9 boards. On March 19, 2007 the Command and Data Handling computer experienced an uncorrectable memory error and rebooted itself, causing the spacecraft to go into safe mode. The craft fully recovered within two days, with some data loss on Jupiter's magnetotail. No impact on the subsequent mission is expected.[58]

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Mission science
The spacecraft carries seven scientific instruments. Total mass is 31kg; rated power is 21 watts (though not all instruments operate simultaneously).[59] Fundamental physics-Pioneer Anomaly It was shown that New Horizons may be used to test the Pioneer Anomaly issue.[60] Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) LORRI is a long focal length imager designed for high Enhanced view of Jupiter's "Little Red Spot" by the New Horizons space probe. resolution and responsivity at visible wavelengths. The instrument is equipped with a high-resolution 10241024 monochromatic CCD imager with a 208.3mm (unknown operator: u'strong'in) aperture giving a resolution of 5 microradians (approximately one arcsecond). The CCD is chilled far below freezing by a passive radiator on the antisolar face of the spacecraft. This temperature differential requires insulation, and isolation from the rest of the structure. The Ritchey-Chretien mirrors and metering structure are made of silicon carbide, to boost stiffness, reduce weight, and prevent warping at low temperatures. The optical elements sit in a composite light shield, and mount with titanium and fibreglass for thermal isolation. Overall mass is 8.6kg, with the Optical tube assembly (OTA) weighing about 5.6kg,[61] for one of the largest silicon-carbide telescopes yet flown. Pluto Exploration Remote Sensing Investigation (PERSI) This consists of two instruments: The Ralph telescope, 6 centimeters in aperture, with two separate channels: a visible-light CCD imager (MVIC- Multispectral Visible Imaging Camera) with broadband and color channels, and a near-infrared imaging spectrometer, LEISA (Linear Etalon Imaging Spectral Array). LEISA is derived from a similar instrument on the EO-1 mission. The second instrument is an ultraviolet imaging spectrometer, Alice. Alice resolves 1,024 wavelength bands in the far and extreme ultraviolet (from 180 to 50 nanometers), over 32 view fields. Its goal is to view the atmospheric makeup of Pluto. This Alice is derived from an Alice on the Rosetta mission. Ralph, designed afterwards, was named after Alice's husband on The Honeymooners. Ralph and Alice are names, not acronyms. Plasma and high energy particle spectrometer suite (PAM) PAM consists of two instruments viz., SWAP (Solar Wind At Pluto), a toroidal electrostatic analyzer and retarding potential analyzer, and PEPSSI (Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation), a time of flight ion and electron sensor. SWAP measures particles of up to 6.5 keV, PEPSSI goes up to 1 MeV. Because of the tenuous solar wind at Pluto's distance, the SWAP instrument has the largest aperture of any such instrument ever flown. Radio Science Experiment (REX) REX will use an ultrastable crystal oscillator (essentially a calibrated crystal in a miniature oven) and some additional electronics to conduct radio science investigations using the communications channels. These are small enough to fit on a single card. Since there are two redundant communications subsystems, there are two, identical REX circuit boards.

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Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter (VBSDC) Built by students at the University of Colorado at Boulder, the Student Dust Counter will operate continuously through the trajectory to make dust measurements. It consists of a detector panel, about 18 by 12 inches (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong'mm), mounted on the antisolar face of the spacecraft (the ram direction), and an electronics box within the spacecraft. The detector contains fourteen New Horizon's image of Jupiter's Himalia PVDF panels, twelve science and two reference, which generate voltage when impacted. Effective collecting area is 0.125m. No dust counter has operated past the orbit of Uranus; models of dust in the outer Solar System, especially the Kuiper belt, are speculative. VBSDC is always turned on measuring the masses of the interplanetary and interstellar dust particles (in the range of nano and pico grams) as they collide with the PVDF panels mounted on the New Horizons spacecraft. The measured data shall greatly contribute to the understanding of the dust spectra of the Solar System. The dust spectra can then be compared with those observed via telescope of other stars, giving new clues as to where earthlike planets can be found in our universe. The dust counter is named for Venetia Burney, who first suggested the name "Pluto" at the age of 11. An interesting thirteen minute short film about VBSDC garnered an Emmy award for student achievement in 2006.[62]

Ralph

LORRI

SWAP

VBSDC

Instrument Locations

Pluto flyby
Observations of Pluto, with LORRI plus Ralph, will begin about 6 months prior to closest approach. The targets will be only a few pixels across. 70 days out, resolution will exceed the Hubble Space Telescope's resolution,[50] lasting another two weeks after the flyby. This should detect any rings or any additional moons (eventually down to 2kilometers diameter), for avoidance and targeting maneuvers, and observation scheduling. Long-range imaging will include 40km (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) mapping of Pluto and Charon 3.2 days out. This is half the rotation period of Pluto-Charon and will Computer-generated view from the spacecraft allow imaging of the side of both bodies that will be facing away from during flyby of Pluto (right) showing its moon, the spacecraft at closest approach. Coverage will repeat twice per day, Charon (left). to search for changes due to snows or cryovolcanism. Still, due to Pluto's tilt and rotation, a portion of the northern hemisphere will be in shadow at all times. During the flyby, LORRI should be able to obtain select images with resolution as high as 50m/px (if closest distance is around 10,000km), and MVIC should obtain 4-color global dayside maps at 1.6km resolution. LORRI and MVIC will attempt to overlap their respective coverage areas to form stereo pairs. LEISA will obtain hyperspectral near-infrared maps at 7km/px globally and 0.6km/pixel for selected areas. Meanwhile, Alice will characterize the atmosphere, both by emissions of atmospheric molecules (airglow), and by dimming of background stars as they pass behind Pluto (occultation).

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During and after closest approach, SWAP and PEPSSI will sample the high atmosphere and its effects on the solar wind. VBSDC will search for dust, inferring meteoroid collision rates and any invisible rings. REX will perform active and passive radio science. Ground stations on Earth will transmit a powerful radio signal as New Horizons passes behind Pluto's disk, then emerges on the other side. The communications dish will measure the disappearance and reappearance A simulated view of New Horizons passing Pluto of the signal. The results will resolve Pluto's diameter (by their timing) and Charon when it arrives in 2015. and atmospheric density and composition (by their weakening and strengthening pattern). (Alice can perform similar occultations, using sunlight instead of radio beacons.) Previous missions had the spacecraft transmit through the atmosphere, to Earth ("downlink"). Low power and extreme distance means New Horizons will be the first such "uplink" mission. Pluto's mass and mass distribution will be evaluated by their tug on the spacecraft. As the spacecraft speeds up and slows down, the radio signal will experience a Doppler shift. The Doppler shift will be measured by comparison with the ultrastable oscillator in the communications electronics. Reflected sunlight from Charon will allow some imaging observations of the nightside. Backlighting by the Sun will highlight any rings or atmospheric hazes. REX will perform radiometry of the nightside. Initial, highly-compressed images will be transmitted within days. The science team will select the best images for public release. Uncompressed images will take about nine months to transmit, depending on Deep Space Network traffic. It may turn out, however, that fewer months will be needed. The spacecraft link is proving stronger than expected, and it is possible that both downlink channels may be ganged together to nearly double the data rate. Primary objectives (required) Characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and Charon Map chemical compositions of Pluto and Charon surfaces Characterize the neutral (non-ionized) atmosphere of Pluto and its escape rate Loss of any of these objectives will constitute a failure of the mission. Secondary objectives (expected) Characterize the time variability of Pluto's surface and atmosphere Image select Pluto and Charon areas in stereo Map the terminators (day/night border) of Pluto and Charon with high resolution Map the chemical compositions of select Pluto and Charon areas with high resolution Characterize Pluto's ionosphere, and its interaction with the solar wind Search for neutral species such as H2, hydrocarbons, HCN and other nitriles in the atmosphere Search for any Charon atmosphere Determine bolometric bond albedos for Pluto and Charon Map surface temperatures of Pluto and Charon

It is expected, but not demanded, that most of these objectives will be met. Tertiary objectives (desired) Characterize the energetic particle environment at Pluto and Charon Refine bulk parameters (radii, masses) and orbits of Pluto and Charon Search for additional moons, and any rings These objectives may be attempted, though they may be skipped in favor of the above objectives. An objective to measure any magnetic field of Pluto was dropped. A magnetometer instrument could not be implemented within a reasonable mass budget and schedule, and SWAP and PEPSSI could do an indirect job detecting some magnetic

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Asteroid belt
Because of the need to conserve fuel for possible encounters with Kuiper belt objects subsequent to the Pluto flyby, intentional encounters with objects in the asteroid belt were not planned. Subsequent to launch, the New Horizons team scanned the spacecraft's trajectory to determine if any asteroids would, by chance, be close enough for observation. In May 2006 it was discovered that New Horizons would pass close to the tiny asteroid 132524 APL on June 13, 2006. Closest approach occurred at 4:05 UTC at a distance of 101,867kilometers. The asteroid was imaged by Ralph (use of LORRI at that time was not possible due to proximity to Sun), which gave the team a chance to exercise Ralph's capabilities, and make observations of the asteroid's composition as well as light and phase curves. The asteroid was estimated to be 2.5kilometers in diameter.[63][64][65]

The 2.5kilometer-wide asteroid 132524 APL, photographed by the New Horizons probe

Neptune trojans
Other possible targets are Neptune trojans. The probe's trajectory to Pluto passes near Neptune's trailing Lagrange point ("L5"), which may host hundreds of bodies in 1:1 resonance with the planet (the first one, 2008 LC18, was discovered in 2008). If any Neptune trojans are found to be close enough to be studied, observations may be planned. However, spacecraft passage near this Lagrange point comes shortly before the Pluto encounter. Depending on where the object is along the spacecraft trajectory, New Horizons may not have significant downlink bandwidth, and thus free memory, for trojan encounter data.[66]

Kuiper belt objects

New Horizons is designed to fly past one or more Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) after passing Pluto. Because the flight path is determined by the Pluto flyby, with only minimal hydrazine remaining, objects must be found within a cone, extending from Pluto, of less than a degree's width, within 55 AU. Past 55 AU, the communications link becomes too weak, and the RTG wattage will have decayed significantly enough to hinder observations. Desirable KBOs will be well over 50km in diameter, neutral in color (to compare with the reddish Pluto), and, if possible, possess a moon. Because the population of KBOs appears quite large, multiple objects may qualify. Large ground telescopes, such as Pan-STARRS[67] and later the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, will look for targets up until the Pluto flyby; the Pluto aim point, plus subsequent thruster firing, will then determine the post-Pluto trajectory. The citizen science project Ice Hunters has aided in the search for a suitable object.[68][69][70] With the completion of the Ice Hunters project, 143 KBO's of potential interest have been found.[71] An extension of the project, Ice Investigators, is being launched.[72] KBO flyby observations will be similar to those at Pluto, but reduced due to lower light, power, and bandwidth.

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Heliosphere
Provided it survives that far out, New Horizons is likely to follow the Voyager probes in exploring the outer heliosphere and mapping the heliosheath and heliopause. Even though it was launched far faster than any outward probe before it, New Horizons will never overtake Voyager 1 as the most distant man-made object from Earth. Close fly-bys of Saturn and Titan gave Voyager 1 an advantage with its extra gravity assist. When New Horizons reaches the distance of 100 AU, it will be travelling at about 13km/s, around 4km/s slower than Voyager 1 at that distance.[73]

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New Horizons
Retrieved 21 February 2012. [54] http:/ / triton. towson. edu/ ~schmitt/ gl/ index. php?topic=f07report2 Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5x3s29NWo) 9 March 2011 at WebCite [55] http:/ / www. boulder. swri. edu/ pkb/ ssr/ ssr-fountain. pdf [56] Pluto Probe Launch Scrubbed for Tuesday (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/ story/ 0,2933,181880,00. html) January 18, 2006 Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5x3s2FqQW) 9 March 2011 at WebCite [57] Friederich, Steven (December 16, 2003). "Argonne Lab is developing battery for NASA missions" (http:/ / replay. waybackmachine. org/ 20040217235315/ http:/ / www. journalnet. com/ articles/ 2003/ 12/ 16/ news/ local/ news02. txt). Idaho State Journal. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5x3s2pslg) from the original on 2011-03-09. . [58] "The PI's Perspective: Trip Report" (http:/ / www. plutotoday. com/ news/ viewpr. html?pid=22225). NASA/Johns Hopkins University/APL/New Horizons Mission. March 27, 2007. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5x3s37CmC) from the original on 2011-03-09. . Retrieved August 5, 2009. [59] Y. Guo, R. W. Farquhar (2006). "Baseline design of New Horizons mission to Pluto and the Kuiper belt". Acta Astronautica 58 (10): 550559. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.January+1,+20062. [60] M.M. Nieto (2008). "New Horizons and the onset of the Pioneer anomaly". Physics Letters B 659 (3): 483485. Bibcode2008PhLB..659..483N. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2007.11.067. [61] A. F. Cheng et al.. "Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager on New Horizons" (http:/ / replay. waybackmachine. org/ 20090709151428/ http:/ / www. boulder. swri. edu/ pkb/ ssr/ ssr-lorri. pdf). . [62] YouTube Destination: Pluto and Beyond (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=nes3cAh8_DI) Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5x3s3be1g) 9 March 2011 at WebCite [63] Stern, Alan (June 1 2006). "A Summer's Crossing of the Asteroid Belt" (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ overview/ piPerspective. php?page=piPerspective_6_1_2006). The PI's Perspective. Johns Hopkins APL. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5x3s3l3BI) from the original on 2011-03-09. . Retrieved June 20, 2010. [64] "JF56 Encounter, Encounter Date June 13, 2006 UT" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070805184931/ http:/ / smass. mit. edu/ 2002jf56. html). Pluto New Horizons Mission, Supporting Observations for 2002. International Astronomical Union. Archived from the original (http:/ / smass. mit. edu/ 2002jf56. html) on August 5, 2007. . Retrieved June 20, 2010. [65] "New Horizons Tracks an Asteroid" (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ news_center/ news/ 061506. php). Headlines: New Horizons Web site. Johns Hopkins APL. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5x3s42XaX) from the original on 2011-03-09. . Retrieved June 20, 2010. [66] Stern, Alan (May 1 2006). "Where Is the Centaur Rocket?" (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ overview/ piPerspectives/ piPerspective_5_1_2006_2. php). The PI's Perspective. Johns Hopkins APL. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5x3s46mhN) from the original on 2011-03-09. . Retrieved June 11, 2006. [67] First light for Pan-STARRS; try and catch 2004 XP14 The Planetary Society Blog | The Planetary Society (http:/ / www. planetary. org/ blog/ article/ 00000621/ ) Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5x3s4C4Hc) 9 March 2011 at WebCite [68] "Ice Hunters web site" (http:/ / www. icehunters. org). Zooniverse.Org. . Retrieved 2011-07-08. [69] "Citizen Scientists: Discover a New Horizons Flyby Target" (http:/ / solarsystem. nasa. gov/ news/ display. cfm?News_ID=37726). NASA. 21 Jun 2011. . Retrieved 23 August 2011. [70] Lakdawalla, Emily (2011-06-21). "The most exciting citizen science project ever (to me, anyway)" (http:/ / planetary. org/ blog/ article/ 00003073/ ). The Planetary Society. . Retrieved 2011-08-31. [71] http:/ / www. icehunters. org/ catalogue. php?task=6& page=1 [72] "Ice Investigators" (http:/ / cosmoquest. org/ iceinvestigators/ ). web site. CosmoQuest. 2012. . Retrieved 2012-05-23. [73] "New Horizons Salutes Voyager" (http:/ / pluto. jhuapl. edu/ news_center/ news/ 081706. php). New Horizons. August 17, 2006. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5x3s4O3KH) from the original on 2011-03-09. . Retrieved 2009-11-03.

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Further reading
Guo, Y.; Farquhar, R. W. (2005). "New Horizons Pluto-Kuiper Belt mission: design and simulation of the Pluto-Charon encounter" (http:/ / www. boulder. swri. edu/ ~tcase/ Guo_Acta56_2005. pdf). Acta Astronautica 56 (3): 421429. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2004.05.076.

External links
Official New Horizons mission website (http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/) New Horizons (PKB) Profile (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=PKB) at NASA's Solar System Exploration web site (http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/) Ice Hunters (http://www.icehunters.org/) a citizen science project searching for Kuiper belt objects that could be visited by New Horizons

New Horizons Deep Space Network @ Home (http://hireme.geek.nz/dsn-at-home.html) a proposal that could increase the data return at Pluto-Charon. New Horizons animation of visit through Jupiter's magnetic field (http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/news_center/news/ pictures/011807_pressGraphics/animations/LeavingJupiterCOMPRESS.mov) New Horizons launch APOD (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap060124.html) The New Horizons spacecraft (http://www.spaceflightnow.com/atlas/av010/060108spacecraft.html) Spaceflight Now, January 8, 2006 (from the NASA mission press kit) The New Horizons Spacecraft, Glen H. Fountain et al (http://arxiv.org/pdf/0709.4288v1) How the mission got its name (http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=16534) NSSDC page (http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=2006-001A) Johns Hopkins Magazine Mission: Pluto (http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/1105web/pluto.html) New Horizons Set To Launch With Minimum Amount of Plutonium (http://space.com/spacenews/ businessmonday_041004.html) NASA's New Horizons mission also a new horizon for INL (http://www.inl.gov/featurestories/2006-01-19. shtml) Unofficial "Where is New Horizons Now?" (http://www.yaohua2000.org/cgi-bin/New Horizons.pl) Keep tracking New Horizons on your Dashboard (Mac OS X Tiger) (http://magicnumber.sourceforge.net/) Student-Built Dust Detector Renamed Venetia, Honoring Girl Who Named Ninth Planet (http://pluto.jhuapl. edu/news_center/news/062906.html) CollectSpace article on the trinkets placed aboard New Horizons (http://www.collectspace.com/news/ news-102808a.html)

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126

Haumea
Haumea
Haumea
Keck image of Haumea and its two moons. Hiiaka is above Haumea (centre), and Namaka is directly below.
Discovery Discovered by Discovery date Brown et al.; Ortiz et al. (neither official) 2004 December 28 (Brown et al.); 2005 July (Ortiz et al.) Designations MPC designation Pronunciation Named after Alternate name(s) Minor planet category Adjective (136108) Haumea /hame./ or /hume./ Haumea 2003EL61 dwarf planet, plutoid, TNO (delistedcubewano) [4] fifth-order 12:7 resonance Haumean Orbital characteristics
[5] [2][3] [1]

Epoch 2008-11-30 (JD 2454800.5) Aphelion Perihelion Semi-major axis Eccentricity Orbital period Average orbitalspeed Mean anomaly Inclination Longitudeof ascendingnode Argument of perihelion Satellites 51.544AU 7.710Tm 34.721AU 5.194Tm 43.132AU 6.452Tm 0.19501 283.28 yr (103,468 d) 4.484 km/s 202.67 28.22 121.10 239.18 2 Proper orbital elements Physical characteristics

Haumea

127
Dimensions Mean radius
[6]

1,9601,518996km (Keck) 718 km [7] 575km (Spitzer) [8] ~650 km (Hershel) 2107 km2 (4.006 0.040)1021 kg 0.00066 Earths 2.63.3 g/cm3 0.44 m/s2 0.84 km/s 0.1631460.000004 d [10] (3.91550.0001 h) 0.70.1 [7] 0.84 [8] 0.7075 <50K
[11] [6] [6] [9]

Surface area Mass

Mean density Equatorial surfacegravity Escape velocity Sidereal rotation period Albedo

Temperature Spectral type

(Neutral) [12] B-V=0.64, V-R=0.33 [13] B0-V0=0.646 17.3 (opposition) 0.01053 0.44
[14][15]

Apparent magnitude Absolute magnitude (H)

[5]

Haumea, formal designation 136108 Haumea, is a dwarf planet[16] one-third the mass of Pluto.[17] It was discovered in 2004 by a team headed by Mike Brown of Caltech at the Palomar Observatory in the United States and, in 2005, by a team headed by J. L. Ortiz at the Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain, though the latter claim has been contested and neither is official. On September 17, 2008, it was designated a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) and named after Haumea, the Hawaiian goddess of childbirth. Haumea's extreme elongation makes it unique among known dwarf planets. Although its shape has not been directly observed, calculations from its light curve suggest it is an ellipsoid, with its major axis twice as long as its minor. Nonetheless, its gravity is believed sufficient for it to have relaxed into hydrostatic equilibrium, thereby meeting the definition of a dwarf planet. This elongation, along with its unusually rapid rotation, high density, and high albedo (from a surface of crystalline water ice), are thought to be the results of a giant collision, which left Haumea the largest member of a collisional family that includes several large trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) and its two known moons.

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128

Classification
Haumea is a plutoid,[18] a technical term used to describe dwarf planets beyond Neptune's orbit. Its status as a dwarf planet means it is presumed to be massive enough to have been rounded by its own gravity but not to have cleared its neighbourhood of similar objects. Although Haumea appears to be far from spherical, its ellipsoidal shape is thought to result from its rapid rotation, in much the same way that a water balloon stretches out when tossed with a spin, and not from a lack of sufficient gravity to overcome the compressive strength of its material.[16] Haumea was initially listed as a classical Kuiper belt object (classical KBO) in 2006 by the Minor Planet Center, but no The nominal libration of Haumea in a rotating longer.[2] The nominal trajectory suggests that it is in a fifth-order 7:12 frame, with Neptune stationary (see 2 Pallas for resonance with Neptune[19] since the perihelion distance of 35 AU is an example of non-librating) near the limit of stability with Neptune.[4] There are precovery images of Haumea dating back to March 22, 1955 from the Palomar Mountain Digitized Sky Survey (observatory code #261).[3] Further observations of the orbit will be required to verify its dynamic status.

Discovery controversy
Two teams claim credit for the discovery of Haumea. Mike Brown and his team at Caltech discovered Haumea in December 2004 on images they had taken on May 6, 2004. On July 20, 2005, they published an online abstract of a report intended to announce the discovery at a conference in September 2005.[20] At around this time, Jos Luis Ortiz Moreno and his team at the Instituto de Astrofsica de Andaluca at Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain found Haumea on images taken on March 710, 2003.[21] Ortiz emailed the Minor Planet Center with their discovery on the night of July 27, 2005.[21] Brown initially conceded discovery credit to Ortiz,[22] but came to suspect the Spanish team of fraud upon learning that his observation logs were accessed from the Spanish observatory the day before the discovery announcement. These logs included enough information to allow the Ortiz team to precover Haumea in their 2003 images, and they were accessed again just before Ortiz scheduled telescope time to obtain confirmation images for a second announcement to the MPC on July 29. Ortiz later admitted he had accessed the Caltech observation logs but denied any wrongdoing, stating he was merely verifying whether they had discovered a new object.[23] IAU protocol is that discovery credit for a minor planet goes to whoever first submits a report to the MPC (Minor Planet Center) with enough positional data for a decent determination of its orbit, and that the credited discoverer has priority in choosing a name. However, the IAU announcement on September 17, 2008, that Haumea had been accepted as a dwarf planet, did not mention a discoverer. The location of discovery was listed as the Sierra Nevada Observatory of the Spanish team,[18][24] but the chosen name, Haumea, was the Caltech proposal; Ortiz's team had proposed "Ataecina", named for the ancient Iberian goddess of Spring.[21]

Name
Until it was given a permanent name, the Caltech discovery team used the nickname "Santa" among themselves, as they had discovered Haumea on December 28, 2004, just after Christmas.[25] The Spanish team proposed a separate discovery to the Minor Planet Center (MPC) in July 2005. On July 29, 2005, Haumea was given its first official label, the temporary designation 2003EL61, with the "2003" based on the date of the Spanish discovery image. On September 7, 2006, it was numbered and admitted into the official minor planet catalogue as (136108) 2003EL61.

Haumea Following guidelines established by the IAU that classical KBOs be given names of mythological beings associated with creation,[26] in September 2006 the Caltech team submitted formal names from Hawaiian mythology to the IAU for both (136108) 2003EL61 and its moons, in order "to pay homage to the place where the satellites were discovered".[27] The names were proposed by David Rabinowitz of the Caltech team.[16] Haumea is the matron goddess of the island of Hawaii, where the Mauna Kea Observatory is located. In addition, she is identified with Pp, the goddess of the earth and wife of Wkea (space),[28] which is appropriate because 2003EL61 is thought to be composed almost entirely of solid rock, without the thick ice mantle over a small rocky core typical of other known Kuiper belt objects.[29][30] Lastly, Haumea is the goddess of fertility and childbirth, with many children who sprang from different parts of her body;[28] this corresponds to the swarm of icy bodies thought to have broken off the dwarf planet during an ancient collision.[30] The two known moons, also believed to have formed in this manner,[30] are thus named after two of Haumea's daughters, Hiiaka and Nmaka.[29]

129

Orbit and rotation

Haumea has a typical orbit for a classical Kuiper-belt object, with an orbital period of 283 Earth years, a perihelion of 35AU, and an orbital inclination of 28.[5] It passed aphelion in early 1992,[15] and is currently more than 50AU from the Sun.[14] Haumea's orbit has a slightly greater eccentricity than the other members of its collisional family. This is thought to be due to Haumea's weak fifth-order[] 12:7 orbital Orbits of Haumea (yellow) and Pluto (red), relative to that of Neptune (grey), as of May 2009 resonance with Neptune gradually modifying its initial orbit over the course of a billion years,[30][31] through the Kozai effect, which allows the exchange of an orbit's inclination for increased eccentricity.[30][32][33] With a visual magnitude of 17.3,[14] Haumea is the third-brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and Makemake, and easily observable with a large amateur telescope.[6] However, since the planets and most small Solar System bodies share a common orbital alignment from their formation in the primordial disk of the Solar System, most early surveys for distant objects focused on the projection on the sky of this common plane, called the ecliptic.[34] As the region of sky close to the ecliptic became well explored, later sky surveys began looking for objects that had been dynamically excited into orbits with higher inclinations, as well as more distant objects, with slower mean motions across the sky.[35][36] These surveys eventually covered the location of Haumea, with its high orbital inclination and current position far from the ecliptic. Haumea displays large fluctuations in brightness over a period of 3.9 hours, which can only be explained by a rotational period of this length.[37] This is faster than any other known equilibrium body in the Solar System, and indeed faster than any other known body larger than 100km in diameter.[6] This rapid rotation is thought to have been caused by the impact that created its satellites and collisional family.[30]

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Physical characteristics
Since Haumea has moons, the mass of the system can be calculated from their orbits using Kepler's third law. The result is 4.21021 kg, 28% the mass of the Plutonian system and 6% the mass of the Earth's Moon. Nearly all of this mass is in Haumea.[9][38]

Size, shape, and composition

The size of a Solar System object can be deduced from its optical magnitude, its distance, and its albedo. Objects appear bright to Earth 10}}, Quaoar, Orcus, and Earth. These eight observers either because they are large or because they are highly trans-Neptunian objects have the brightest reflective. If their reflectivity (albedo) can be ascertained, then a rough absolute magnitudes; several other TNOs have estimate can be made of their size. For most distant objects, the albedo been found to be physically larger than Orcus, and several more may yet be found to be that. is unknown, but Haumea is large and bright enough for its thermal emission to be measured, which has given an approximate value for its albedo and thus its size.[7] However, the calculation of its dimensions is complicated by its rapid rotation. The rotational physics of deformable bodies predicts that over as little as a hundred days,[6] a body rotating as rapidly as Haumea will have been distorted into the equilibrium form of a scalene ellipsoid. It is thought that most of the fluctuation in Haumea's brightness is caused not by local differences in albedo but by the alternation of the side view and end view as seen from Earth.[6] The rotation and amplitude of Haumea's light curve place strong constraints on its composition. If Haumea had a low density like Pluto, with a thick mantle of ice over a small rocky core, its rapid rotation would have elongated it to a greater extent than the fluctuations in its brightness allow. Such considerations constrain its density to a range of 2.63.3g/cm3.[6][39] This range covers the values for silicate minerals such as olivine and pyroxene, which make up many of the rocky objects in the Solar System. This suggests that the bulk of Haumea is rock covered with a relatively thin layer of ice. A thick ice mantle more typical of Kuiper belt objects may have been blasted off during the impact that formed the Haumean collisional family.[30]

The denser the object in hydrostatic equilibrium, the more spherical it must be for a given rotational period, placing constraints on Haumea's possible dimensions. Fitting its accurately known mass, its rotation, and its inferred density to an equilibrium ellipsoid predicts that Haumea is approximately the diameter of Pluto along its longest axis and about half that at its poles. Since no observations of occultations of stars by Haumea or occultations of the dwarf planet with its moons have yet been made, direct, precise measurements of its dimensions, like those that have been made for Pluto, do not yet exist. Several ellipsoid-model calculations of Haumea's dimensions have been made. The first model produced after Haumea's discovery was calculated from ground-based observations of Haumea's light curve at optical wavelengths: it provided a total length of 1,960 to 2,500km and a visual albedo (pv) greater than 0.6.[6] The most likely shape is a triaxial ellipsoid with approximate dimensions of 2,000 x 1,500 x 1,000km, with an albedo of 0.71.[6] The Spitzer Space Telescope has estimated Haumea to have a diameter of 1150 km and an albedo of 0.84 , from photometry at infrared wavelengths of 70 m.[7] Subsequent light-curve analyses have suggested an equivalent circular diameter of 1,450km.[40] In 2010 an analysis of measurements taken by Herschel Space Telescope together

The calculated ellipsoid shape of Haumea, 1,9601,518996 km (assuming an albedo of 0.73). At left are the minimum and maximum equatorial silhouettes (1,960996 and 1,518996 km); at right is the view from the pole (1,9601,518 km).

Haumea with the older Spitzer Telescope measurements yielded a new estimate of the equivalent diameter of Haumeaabout 1300km.[8] These independent size estimates overlap at an average geometric mean diameter of roughly 1,400km. This makes Haumea one of the largest trans-Neptunian objects discovered,[7] smaller than Eris, Pluto, probably Makemake, and possibly Sedna and 2007 OR10, and larger than Orcus and Quaoar.

131

Surface
In addition to the large fluctuations in Haumea's light curve due to the body's shape, which affect all colours equally, smaller independent colour variations seen in both visible and near-infrared wavelengths show a region on the surface that differs both in colour and in albedo.[10][41] More specifically, a dark red area on Haumea's bright white surface has been seen, which indicates an area rich in minerals and organic (carbon-rich) compounds, or possibly a higher proportion of crystalline ice.[37] Thus Haumea may have a mottled surface reminiscent of Pluto, if not as extreme. In 2005, the Gemini and Keck telescopes obtained spectra of Haumea which showed strong crystalline water ice features similar to the surface of Pluto's moon Charon.[11] This is peculiar, because crystalline ice forms at temperatures above 110K, while the surface temperature of Haumea is below 50K, a temperature at which amorphous ice is formed.[11] In addition, the structure of crystalline ice is unstable under the constant rain of cosmic rays and energetic particles from the Sun that strike trans-Neptunian objects.[11] The timescale for the crystalline ice to revert to amorphous ice under this bombardment is on the order of ten million years,[42] while trans-Neptunian objects have been in their present cold-temperature locations for timescales of thousands of millions of years.[31] Radiation damage should also redden and darken the surface of trans-Neptunian objects where the common surface materials of organic ices and tholin-like compounds are present, as is the case with Pluto. Therefore, the spectra and colour suggest Haumea and its family members have undergone recent resurfacing that produced fresh ice. However, no plausible resurfacing mechanism has been suggested.[13] Haumea is as bright as snow, with an albedo in the range of 0.60.8, consistent with crystalline ice.[6] Other large TNOs such as Eris appear to have albedos as high or higher.[43] Best-fit modeling of the surface spectra suggested that 66% to 80% of the Haumean surface appears to be pure crystalline water ice, with one contributor to the high albedo possibly hydrogen cyanide or phyllosilicate clays.[11] Inorganic cyanide salts such as copper potassium cyanide may also be present.[11] However, further studies of the visible and near infrared spectra suggest a homomorphous surface covered by an intimate 1:1 mixture of amorphous and crystalline ice, together with no more than 8% organics. The absence of ammonia hydrate excludes cryovolcanism and the observations confirm that the collisional event must have happened more than 100 million years ago, in agreement with the dynamic studies.[44] The absence of measurable methane in the spectra of Haumea is consistent with a warm collisional history that would have removed such volatiles,[11] in contrast to Makemake.[45] In September 2009, Haumea was discovered to have a large dark reddish spot, possibly an impact feature, and not to be uniformly bright as previously believed. While the reason for the color is unknown, possibilities include crystalline ice or higher concentrations of minerals and organic compounds than the rest of the surface.[46]

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132

Moons
Two small satellites have been discovered orbiting Haumea, (136108) Haumea I Hiiaka and (136108) Haumea II Namaka.[18] Brown's team discovered both in 2005, through observations of Haumea using the W.M. Keck Observatory. Hiiaka, at first nicknamed "Rudolph" by the Caltech team,[47] was discovered January 26, 2005.[48] It is the outer and, at roughly 310km in diameter, the larger and brighter of the two, and orbits Haumea in a nearly circular path every 49days.[49] Strong absorption features at 1.5 and 2 micrometres in the infrared spectrum are consistent with nearly pure crystalline water ice covering much of the surface.[50] The unusual spectrum, along with similar absorption lines on Haumea, led Brown and colleagues to conclude that capture was an unlikely model for the system's formation, and that the Haumean moons must be fragments of Haumea itself.[31]

Artist's conception of Haumea with its moons Hiiaka and Namaka. The moons are much more distant than depicted here.

Namaka, the smaller, inner satellite of Haumea, was discovered on June 30, 2005,[51] and nicknamed "Blitzen". It is a tenth the mass of Hiiaka, orbits Haumea in 18 days in a highly elliptical, non-Keplerian orbit, and as of 2008 is inclined 13 from the larger moon, which perturbs its orbit.[52] The relatively large eccentricities together with the mutual inclination of the orbits of the satellites are unexpected as they should have been damped by the tidal effects. A relatively recent passage by a (3:1) resonance might explain the current excited orbits of the Haumean moons.[53] At present, the orbits of the Haumean moons appear almost exactly edge-on from Earth, with Namaka periodically occulting Haumea.[54] Observation of such transits would provide precise information on the size and shape of Haumea and its moons,[55] as happened in the late 1980s with Pluto and Charon.[56] The tiny change in brightness of the system during these occultations will require at least a medium-aperture professional telescope for detection.[55][57] Hiiaka last occulted Haumea in 1999, a few years before discovery, and will not do so again for some 130 years.[58] However, in a situation unique among regular satellites, Namaka's orbit is being greatly torqued by Hiiaka, preserving the viewing angle of NamakaHaumea transits for several more years.[52][55][57]

Collisional family
Haumea is the largest member of its collisional family, a group of astronomical objects with similar physical and orbital characteristics thought to have formed when a larger progenitor was shattered by an impact.[30] This family is the first to be identified among TNOs and includesbeside Haumea and its moons(55636) 2002 TX300 (364km), (24835) 1995 SM55 (174km), (19308) 1996 TO66 (200km), (120178) 2003 OP32 (230km), and (145453) 2005 RR43 (252km).[4] Brown et al. proposed that the family were a direct product of the impact that removed Haumea's ice mantle,[30] but a second proposal suggests a more complicated origin: that the material ejected in the initial collision instead coalesced into a large moon of Haumea, which was later shattered in a second collision, dispersing its shards outwards.[59] This second scenario appears to produce a dispersion of velocities for the fragments that is more closely matched to the measured velocity dispersion of the family members.[59] The presence of the collisional family could imply that Haumea and its "offspring" might have originated in the scattered disc. In today's sparsely populated Kuiper belt, the chance of such a collision occurring over the age of the Solar System is less than 0.1 percent.[60] The family could not have formed in the denser primordial Kuiper belt because such a close-knit group would have been disrupted by Neptune's migration into the beltthe believed cause of the belt's current low density.[60] Therefore it appears likely that the dynamic scattered disc region, in which the possibility of such a collision is far higher, is the place of origin for the object that generated Haumea and its kin.[60]

Haumea Because it would have taken at least a billion years for the group to have diffused as far as it has, the collision which created the Haumea family is believed to have occurred very early in the Solar System's history.[4]

133

Notes
[1] In US dictionary transcription, USdict:howm or USdict:hm, with three syllables according to the English pronunciation in Hawaii New Dwarf Planet Named For Hawaiian Goddess (http:/ / www. wcpo. com/ news/ local/ story/ New-Dwarf-Planet-Named-For-Hawaiian-Goddess/ r7yMFg_UeUSqz7xt-JHt8w. cspx) (WCPO, 20-9-2008) and four syllables according to Brown's students.http:/ / dps08. astro. cornell. edu/ AAS_WebcastSchedule_2008. html podcast: Dwarf Planet Haumea (Darin Ragozzine) (http:/ / 365daysofastronomy. org/ 2009/ 03/ 31/ march-31st/ ) [2] "MPEC 2010-H75 : DISTANT MINOR PLANETS (2010 MAY 14.0 TT)" (http:/ / www. minorplanetcenter. org/ mpec/ K10/ K10H75. html) ( 2006 provisional Cubewano listing (http:/ / cfa-www. harvard. edu/ iau/ mpec/ K06/ K06X45. html)). Minor Planet Center. 2010-04-10. . Retrieved 2010-07-02. [3] Marc W. Buie (2008-06-25). "Orbit Fit and Astrometric record for 136108" (http:/ / www. boulder. swri. edu/ ~buie/ kbo/ astrom/ 136108. html). Southwest Research Institute (Space Science Department). . Retrieved 2008-10-02. [4] D. Ragozzine, M. E. Brown (2007). "Candidate Members and Age Estimate of the Family of Kuiper Belt Object 2003EL61". Astronomical Journal 134 (6): 21602167. arXiv:0709.0328. Bibcode2007AJ....134.2160R. doi:10.1086/522334. [5] "Jet Propulsion Laboratory Small-Body Database Browser: 136108 Haumea (2003EL61)" (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ sbdb. cgi?sstr=136108). NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 2008-05-10 last obs. . Retrieved 2008-06-11. [6] D. L. Rabinowitz, et al. (2006). "Photometric Observations Constraining the Size, Shape, and Albedo of 2003EL61, a Rapidly Rotating, Pluto-Sized Object in the Kuiper Belt". Astrophysical Journal 639 (2): 12381251. arXiv:astro-ph/0509401. Bibcode2006ApJ...639.1238R. doi:10.1086/499575. [7] J. Stansberry, W. Grundy, M. Brown, et al. (2008). "Physical Properties of Kuiper Belt and Centaur Objects: Constraints from Spitzer Space Telescope". The Solar System beyond Neptune (University of Arizona Press). arXiv:astro-ph/0702538. Bibcode2008ssbn.book..161S. [8] E. Lollouch, et al. (2010). ""TNOs are cool": A survey of the trans-Neptunian region II. The thermal lightcurve of (136108) Haumea". Astronomy and Astrophysics 518: L147. Bibcode2010A&A...518L.147L. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014648. [9] D. Ragozzine , M. E. Brown (2009). "Orbits and Masses of the Satellites of the Dwarf Planet Haumea = 2003 EL61". The Astronomical Journal 137 (6): 4766. arXiv:0903.4213. Bibcode2009AJ....137.4766R. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/6/4766. [10] P. Lacerda, D. Jewitt and N. Peixinho (2008). "High-Precision Photometry of Extreme KBO 2003 EL61". Astronomical Journal 135 (5): 17491756. Bibcode2008AJ....135.1749L. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/5/1749. [11] Chadwick A. Trujillo, Michael E. Brown, Kristina Barkume, Emily Shaller, David L. Rabinowitz (2007). "The Surface of 2003EL61 in the Near Infrared". Astrophysical Journal 655 (2): 11721178. arXiv:astro-ph/0601618. Bibcode2007ApJ...655.1172T. doi:10.1086/509861. [12] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1051. 2f0004-6361. 2f200913031_?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit) [13] D. L. Rabinowitz et al. (2008). "The Youthful Appearance of the 2003 EL61 Collisional Family". The Astronomical Journal 136 (4): 1502. arXiv:0804.2864. Bibcode2008AJ....136.1502R. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/136/4/1502. [14] "AstDys (136108) Haumea Ephemerides" (http:/ / hamilton. dm. unipi. it/ astdys/ index. php?pc=1. 1. 3. 0& n=Haumea). Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy. . Retrieved 2009-03-19. [15] "HORIZONS Web-Interface" (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ horizons. cgi?find_body=1& body_group=sb& sstr=2003EL61). NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Solar System Dynamics (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ ). . Retrieved 2008-07-02. [16] "IAU names fifth dwarf planet Haumea" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ detail/ iau0807/ ). IAU Press Release. 2008-09-17. . Retrieved 2008-09-17. [17] Haumea is 1400 times less massive than Earth (0.07% the mass of Earth). [18] "Dwarf Planets and their Systems" (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ append7. html#DwarfPlanets). US Geological Survey Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. . Retrieved 2008-09-17. [19] In principle, the strength of a resonance is inversely proportional to the difference between the numerator and denominator, which is called its 'order'. The lower the difference (order), the stronger the resonance will be. A 12:7 resonance is fifth order (127=5), which is fairly weak. [20] Michael E Brown. "The electronic trail of the discovery of 2003EL61" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ planetlila/ ortiz/ ). CalTech. . Retrieved 2006-08-16. [21] Pablo Santos Sanz (2008-09-26). "La historia de Ataecina vs Haumea" (http:/ / www. infoastro. com/ 200809/ 26ataecina-haumea. html) (in Spanish). infoastro.com. . Retrieved 2008-09-29. [22] Michael E. Brown. How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming, chapter 9: "The Tenth Planet" [23] Jeff Hecht (2005-09-21). "Astronomer denies improper use of web data" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn8033). NewScientist.com. . Retrieved 2009-01-12. [24] Rachel Courtland (2008-09-19). "Controversial dwarf planet finally named 'Haumea'" (http:/ / space. newscientist. com/ article/ dn14759-controversial-dwarf-planet-finally-named-haumea. html). NewScientistSpace. . Retrieved 2008-09-19.

Haumea
[25] "Santa et al." (http:/ / www. astrobio. net/ news/ modules. php?op=modload& name=News& file=article& sid=1707& mode=thread& order=0& thold=0). NASA Astrobiology Magazine. 2005-09-10. . Retrieved 2008-10-16. [26] "Naming of Astronomical Objects: Minor planets" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ themes/ naming/ #minorplanets). International Astronomical Union. . Retrieved 2008-11-17. [27] Mike Brown (2008-09-17). "Dwarf planets: Haumea" (http:/ / web. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ 2003EL61/ ). CalTech. . Retrieved 2008-09-18. [28] Robert D. Craig (2004). Handbook of Polynesian Mythology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=LOZuirJWXvUC& pg=PA128& dq=haumea). ABC-CLIO. p.128. ISBN978-1-57607-894-5. . [29] "News Release IAU0807: IAU names fifth dwarf planet Haumea" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0807/ ). International Astronomical Union. 2008-09-17. . Retrieved 2008-09-18. [30] M. E. Brown, K. M. Barkume; D. Ragozzine; . L. Schaller (2007). "A collisional family of icy objects in the Kuiper belt". Nature 446 (7133): 294296. Bibcode2007Natur.446..294B. doi:10.1038/nature05619. PMID17361177. [31] Michael E. Brown. "The largest Kuiper belt objects" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ papers/ ps/ kbochap. pdf) (PDF). CalTech. . Retrieved 2008-09-19. [32] Nesvorn, D; Roig, F. (2001). "Mean Motion Resonances in the Transneptunian Region Part II: The 1 : 2, 3 : 4, and Weaker Resonances". Icarus 150 (1): 104123. Bibcode2001Icar..150..104N. doi:10.1006/icar.2000.6568. [33] Kuchner, Marc J.; Brown, Michael E.; Holman, Matthew (2002). "Long-Term Dynamics and the Orbital Inclinations of the Classical Kuiper Belt Objects". The Astronomical Journal 124 (2): 12211230. arXiv:astro-ph/0206260. Bibcode2002AJ....124.1221K. doi:10.1086/341643. [34] C. A. Trujillo and M. E. Brown (June 2003). "The Caltech Wide Area Sky Survey. Earth Moon and Planets". Earth Moon and Planets 112 (14): 9299. Bibcode2003EM&P...92...99T. doi:10.1023/B:MOON.0000031929.19729.a1. [35] M. E. Brown, C. Trujillo, D. L. Rabinowitz (2004). "Discovery of a candidate inner Oort cloud planetoid". The Astrophysical Journal 617 (1): 645649. arXiv:astro-ph/0404456. Bibcode2004ApJ...617..645B. doi:10.1086/422095. [36] M. E. Schwamb, M. E. Brown, D. L. Rabinowitz (2008). "Constraints on the distant population in the region of Sedna". American Astronomical Society, DPS meeting #40, #38.07. Bibcode2008DPS....40.3807S. [37] Agence France-Presse (2009-09-16). "Astronomers get lock on diamond-shaped Haumea" (http:/ / www. news. com. au/ story/ 0,27574,26081101-23109,00. html). European Planetary Science Congress in Potsdam. News Limited. . Retrieved 2009-09-16. [38] M. E. Brown, et al. (2005). "Keck Observatory laser guide star adaptive optics discovery and characterization of a satellite to large Kuiper belt object 2003EL61" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ papers/ ps/ EL61. pdf). Astrophysical Journal Letters 632 (1): L45. Bibcode2005ApJ...632L..45B. doi:10.1086/497641. . [39] By comparison, Earth's rocky moon has a density of 3.3g/cm3, while Pluto, which is typical of icy objects in the Kuiper belt, has a density of 2.0g/cm3. [40] P. Lacerda, D. C. Jewitt (2007). "Densities of Solar System Objects from Their Rotational Light Curves". Astronomical Journal 133 (4): 1393. arXiv:astro-ph/0612237. Bibcode2007AJ....133.1393L. doi:10.1086/511772. [41] P. Lacerda (2009). "Time-Resolved Near-Infrared Photometry of Extreme Kuiper Belt Object Haumea". Astronomical Journal 137 (2): 34043413. Bibcode2009AJ....137.3404L. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/2/3404. [42] "Charon: An ice machine in the ultimate deep freeze" (http:/ / www. spaceflightnow. com/ news/ n0707/ 17charon/ ) (Press release). Gemini Observatory. 17 July 2007. . Retrieved 2007-07-18. [43] M. E. Brown et al. (2006). "Direct measurement of the size of 2003 UB313 from the [[Hubble Space Telescope (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ papers/ ps/ xsize. pdf)]"]. Astronomical Journal Letters 643 (2): L61L63. arXiv:astro-ph/0604245. Bibcode2006ApJ...643L..61B. doi:10.1086/504843. . [44] N. Pinilla-Alonso et al. (2009). "Study of the Surface of 2003 EL61, the largest carbon-depleted object in the trans-neptunian belt". Astronomy and Astrophysics 496 (2): 547. arXiv:0803.1080. Bibcode2009A&A...496..547P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200809733. [45] S. C. Tegler et al. (2007). "Optical Spectroscopy of the Large Kuiper Belt Objects 136472 (2005 FY9) and 136108 (2003 EL61)". The Astronomical Journal 133 (2): 526530. arXiv:astro-ph/0611135. Bibcode2007AJ....133..526T. doi:10.1086/510134. [46] "Strange Dwarf Planet Has Red Spot" (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 090915-Haumea-dark-spot. html). Space.com. 15 September 2009. . Retrieved 2009-11-12. [47] K. Chang (20 March 2007). "Piecing Together the Clues of an Old Collision, Iceball by Iceball" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 03/ 20/ science/ space/ 20kuip. html). New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-10-12. [48] M. E. Brown et al. (2005). "Keck Observatory Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics Discovery and Characterization of a Satellite to the Large Kuiper Belt Object 2003 EL61". Astrophysical Journal Letters 632 (1): L45L48. Bibcode2005ApJ...632L..45B. doi:10.1086/497641. [49] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1086. 2f501524_?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit) [50] K. M Barkume. M. E. Brown, and E. L. Schaller (2006). "Water Ice on the Satellite of Kuiper Belt Object 2003 EL61". Astrophysical Journal Letters 640 (1): L87L89. arXiv:astro-ph/0601534. Bibcode2006ApJ...640L..87B. doi:10.1086/503159. [51] Green, Daniel W. E. (1 December 2005). "Iauc 8636" (http:/ / cfa-www. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 08600/ 08636. html). . [52] D. Ragozzine, M. E. Brown, C. A. Trujillo, E. L. Schaller; Brown; Trujillo; Schaller (2008). "Orbits and Masses of the 2003 EL61 Satellite System". American Astronomical Society 40: 462. Bibcode2008DPS....40.3607R.

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[53] D. Ragozzine, M. E. Brown (2009). "Orbits and Masses of the Satellites of the Dwarf Planet Haumea = 2003 EL61". The Astronomical Journal 137 (6): 4766. arXiv:0903.4213. Bibcode2009AJ....137.4766R. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/6/4766. [54] "IAU Circular 8949" (http:/ / www. cfa. harvard. edu/ ~fabrycky/ EL61/ ). International Astronomical Union. 17 September 2008. . Retrieved 2008-12-06. [55] "Mutual events of Haumea and Namaka" (http:/ / web. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ 2003EL61/ mutual/ ). . Retrieved 2009-02-18. [56] L.-A. A. McFadden, P. R. Weissman, T. V. Johnson (2007). Encyclopedia of the Solar System (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=G7UtYkLQoYoC& pg=PA545& lpg=PA545& dq=mutual+ event+ pluto). Academic Press. ISBN978-0-12-088589-3. . [57] D. C. Fabrycky et al.; Holman; Ragozzine; Brown; Lister; Terndrup; Djordjevic; Young et al (2008). "Mutual Events of 2003 EL61 and its Inner Satellite". American Astronomical Society 40: 462. Bibcode2008DPS....40.3608F. [58] M. Brown (18 May 2008). "Moon shadow Monday (fixed)" (http:/ / www. mikebrownsplanets. com/ 2008/ 05/ moon-shadow-monday-fixed. html). Mike Brown's Planets. . Retrieved 2008-09-27. [59] H. E. Schlichting, R. Sari (2009). "The Creation of Haumea's Collisional Family". The Astrophysical Journal 700 (2): 1242. arXiv:0906.3893. Bibcode2009ApJ...700.1242S. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/700/2/1242. [60] H. F. Levison, A. Morbidelli, D. Vokrouhlick, W. F. Bottke (2008). "On a Scattered Disc Origin for the 2003EL61 Collisional Familyan Example of the Importance of Collisions in the Dynamics of Small Bodies". Astronomical Journal 136 (3): 10791088. Bibcode2008AJ....136.1079L. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/136/3/1079.

135

References External links

Visualization of Haumea's orbit (http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/orbits/2003el61.html) by NASA (136108) Haumea, Hiiaka, and Namaka (http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/astmoons/am-136108.html) at Johnston's Archive.com (updated September 17, 2008) International Year of Astronomy 2009 podcast: Dwarf Planet Haumea (Darin Ragozzine) (http:// 365daysofastronomy.org/2009/03/31/march-31st/) Haumea as seen on June 10, 2011 (http://twitpic.com/59rbgj) by Mike Brown using the 4.20m (unknown operator: u'strong'in) WHT / ~0:303:30 dip in the brightness of Haumea+Namaka comes when Namaka crosses Haumea (http://twitpic.com/5acp9q) (Hi'iaka, the outer moon, is blended in the images, but it rotates every 4.5 hr and adds a little variation)

Controversy over the discovery of Haumea

136

Controversy over the discovery of Haumea

Haumea was the first of all the current IAU-recognized dwarf planets to be discovered since Pluto in 1930. However, its naming and formal acceptance as a dwarf planet were delayed by several years due to controversy over who should receive credit for discovering it. A California Institute of Technology (Caltech) team headed by Michael E. Brown first noticed the object, but a Spanish team headed by Jos Luis Ortiz Moreno were the first to announce it, and so normally would receive credit. However, Brown suspects the Spanish team of fraud, of using Caltech observations to make their discovery, while the Ortiz team accuses the American team of political interference with the International Astronomical Union (IAU). IAU officially recognized the Californian team's proposed name Haumea in September 2008, although the Spanish team had proposed the name Ataecina.

Discovery and announcement

On December 28, 2004, Mike Brown and his team discovered Haumea on images they had taken with the 1.3m SMARTS Telescope at the Palomar Observatory in the United States on May 6, 2004, while looking for what he hoped would be the tenth planet. The Caltech discovery team used the nickname "Santa" among themselves, as they had discovered Haumea on December 28, 2004, just after Christmas.[1] However, it was clearly too small to be a planet as it was significantly smaller than Pluto, and Brown did not announce the discovery. Instead he kept it under wraps, along with several other large trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs), until through additional observation he could better determine their natures.[2][3][4] When his team discovered Haumea's moons, they realized that Haumea was more rocky than other TNOs, and that its moons were mostly ice.[5] They then discovered a small family of nearby icy TNOs, and concluded that these were remnants of Haumea's icy mantle, which had been blasted off by a collision.[6] On July 7, 2005, while he was finishing the paper describing the discovery, Brown's daughter Lilah was born, which delayed the announcement further.[7] On July 20,[8] the Caltech team published an online abstract of a report intended to announce the discovery at a conference the following September. In this Haumea was given the code K40506A.[9]

Michael E. Brown

At around that time, Pablo Santos Sanz, a student of Jos Luis Ortiz Moreno at the Instituto de Astrofsica de Andaluca at Sierra Nevada Observatory in southern Spain, examined the backlog of photos that the Ortiz team had started taking in December 2002. He says that he found Haumea in late July on images taken on March 7, 9, and 10, 2003. In checking whether this was a known object, the team came across Brown's internet summary, describing a bright TNO much like the one they had just found. Googling the reference number K40506A on the morning of July 26, they found the Caltech observation logs of Haumea, but according to their account, those logs contained too little information for Ortiz to tell if they were the same object.[3][10][11][12] The Ortiz team also checked with the Minor Planet Center (MPC), which had no record of this object. Wanting to establish priority, they emailed the MPC with their discovery on the night of July 27, 2005, titled "Big TNO discovery, urgent",[13] without making any mention of the Caltech logs. The next morning they again accessed the Caltech logs, including observations from several additional nights. They then asked Reiner Stoss at the amateur Astronomical Observatory of Mallorca for further observations. Stoss found

Images of Haumea were recorded as early as 1955 at the Palomar Observatory

Controversy over the discovery of Haumea precovery images of Haumea in digitized Palomar Observatory slides from 1955, and located Haumea with his own telescope that night, July 28. Within an hour,[8] the Ortiz team submitted a second report to the MPC that included this new data. Again, no mention was made of having accessed the Caltech logs.[14] The data was published by the MPC on July 29.[14] In a press release on the same day, the Ortiz team called Haumea the "tenth planet".[15] On July 29, 2005, Haumea was given its first official label, the temporary designation 2003EL61, with the "2003" based on the date of the Spanish discovery image.[16] On September 7, 2006, it was numbered and admitted into the official minor planet catalogue as (136108) 2003EL61.[17]

137

Reaction to the announcement

The same day as the MPC publication, Brown's group announced the discovery of another Kuiper belt object, Eris, more distant and larger than Pluto, as the tenth planet. The announcement was made earlier than planned to forestall the possibility of a similar events with that discovery, when the MPC told them that their observational data was publicly accessible, and they realized that not only Haumea data but by that time their Eris data had been publicly accessed.[2][18] The same day Ortiz announced the discovery of Haumea, Brown submitted his own draft with the data on the first of its moons that he had discovered on January 26, 2005 to The Astrophysical Journal.[5] Brown, though disappointed at being scooped, congratulated the Ortiz team on their discovery. He apologized for immediately overshadowing their announcement of Haumea with his announcement of Eris, and explained that someone had accessed their data and he was afraid of being scooped again. Ortiz did not volunteer to tell that it had been him. Upon learning from web server records that it was a computer at the Sierra Nevada Observatory that had accessed his observation logs the day before the discovery announcementlogs which included enough information to allow the Ortiz team to precover Haumea in their 2003 imagesBrown came to suspect fraud. He emailed Ortiz on August 9 and asked for an explanation. Ortiz did not respond, and on August 15 the Caltech team filed a formal complaint with the IAU, accusing the Ortiz team of a serious breach of scientific ethics in failing to acknowledge their use of the Caltech data, and asked the MPC to strip them of discovery status.[19] Ortiz later admitted he had accessed the Caltech observation logs but denied any wrongdoing, stating this was merely part of verifying whether they had discovered a new object.[20] Brown began to wonder if the Spanish team had actually identified Haumea at all before they saw his own abstract and telescope log.[18]

Controversy over the discovery of Haumea

138

Official naming
IAU protocol is that discovery credit for a minor planet goes to whoever first submits a report to the MPC with enough positional data for a decent orbit determination, and that the credited discoverer has priority in naming it. This was Ortiz et al., and they proposed the name Ataecina, an Iberian goddess of the underworld. She is the equivalent of Roman goddess Proserpina, which was in turn one of Pluto's loversafter whom the dwarf planet Pluto was named.[10] However, as a chthonic deity, Ataecina would only have been an appropriate name for an object in orbital resonance with Neptune.[21] Following guidelines established by the IAU that classical Kuiper belt objects be given names of mythological beings associated with creation,[22] in September 2006 the Caltech team submitted formal names from Hawaiian mythology to the IAU for both (136108) 2003EL61 and its moons, in order "to pay homage to the place where the satellites were discovered".[23] The names were proposed by David Rabinowitz of the Caltech team.[24] Haumea is the matron goddess of the island of Hawaii, where the Mauna Kea A representation of the Iberian goddess Ataecina, who Observatory is located. In addition, she is identified with Pp, the [25] had been proposed for naming the dwarf planet goddess of the earth and wife of Wkea (space), which is appropriate because 2003EL61 is thought to be composed almost entirely of solid rock, without the thick ice mantle over a small rocky core typical of other known Kuiper belt objects.[6][26] Lastly, Haumea is the goddess of fertility and childbirth, with many children who sprang from different parts of her body;[25] this corresponds to the swarm of icy bodies thought to have broken off the dwarf planet during an ancient collision.[6] The two known moons, also believed to have been born in this manner,[6] are thus were named after two of Haumea's daughters, Hiiaka and Nmaka.[26] The dispute over who had actually discovered the object delayed the acceptance of any name, or of formal classification of the object as a dwarf planet. On 17 September 2008, the IAU announced that the two bodies in charge of naming dwarf planets, the Committee on Small Body Nomenclature (CSBN) and the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN), had decided on the Caltech proposal of Haumea.[27][28] At the CSBN, the outcome of the voting was very close,[12] eventually being decided by a single vote.[10] However, the date of the discovery was listed on the announcement as March 7, 2003, the location of discovery as the Sierra Nevada Observatory, and the name of the discoverer was left blank.[21][29][30]

Aftermath
Brian Marsden, head of the MPC at Harvard, openly supported Brown's claim saying that "Sooner or later, posterity will realise what happened, and Mike Brown will get the full credit".[21] He also went on to state, in reference to the name of the discoverer, which was left blank in the IAU listing, that "It's deliberately vague about the discoverer of the object [...] We don't want to cause an international incident." He called the whole controversy the worst since the early 17th century dispute over who found the four biggest satellites of Jupiter between Galileo Galilei and Simon Marius,[11] ultimately won by Galilei.[31] The Ortiz team has objected, suggesting that if Ataecina were not accepted the IAU could at least have chosen a third name favoring neither party, and accusing the IAU of political bias. Rumors appeared that Dagda, the name of a god from Irish mythology and a "neutral" name, was indeed proposed by a member of the CSBM but was not used in the

Controversy over the discovery of Haumea end.[32] Ortiz went to say "I am not happy, I think the [IAU] decision is unfortunate and sets a bad precedent."[11] Spanish media went on to call the decision a "US conquest", asserting that politics played a major role as the US had 10 times more scientists in the IAU than Spain had.[33] Immediately after the announcement of the name, Brown noted that it is unusual to be allowed to name the object without being acknowledged as the official discoverer but declared that he is pleased with the outcome and that he "think[s] this is as good a resolution as we'll get".[11] He did get full recognition for the discovery of the two moons, Hiiaka and Namaka.[30] On the fifth anniversary of the discovery he wrote a blog with his thoughts on the importance of the discovery, but did not mention any events regarding the controversy.[34]

139

References
[1] "Santa et al." (http:/ / www. astrobio. net/ news/ modules. php?op=modload& name=News& file=article& sid=1707& mode=thread& order=0& thold=0). NASA Astrobiology Magazine. 2005-09-10. . Retrieved 2008-10-16. [2] Mike Brown (2008-09-17). "Haumea" (http:/ / www. mikebrownsplanets. com/ 2008/ 09/ haumea. html). Mike Brown's Planets. . Retrieved 2008-09-22. [3] Cressey, Daniel (2008-09-22). "The Great Beyond: Say hello to Haumea" (http:/ / blogs. nature. com/ news/ thegreatbeyond/ 2008/ 09/ say_hello_to_haumea. html). Blogs.nature.com. . Retrieved 2009-07-14. [4] Kenneth Chang (March 20, 2007). "Piecing Together the Clues of an Old Collision, Iceball by Iceball" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 03/ 20/ science/ space/ 20kuip. html?_r=1). New York Times. . Retrieved 2010-11-15. [5] M. E. Brown, A. H. Bouchez, D. Rabinowitz. R. Sari, C. A. Trujillo, M. van Dam, R. Campbell, J. Chin, S. Hardman, E. Johansson, R. Lafon, D. Le Mignant, P. Stomski, D. Summers, and P. Wizinowich (2005-09-02). "Keck Observatory Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics Discovery and Characterization of a Satellite to the Large Kuiper Belt Object 2003 EL61". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 632 (1): L45L48. Bibcode2005ApJ...632L..45B. doi:10.1086/497641. [6] Brown, Michael E.; Barkume, Kristina M.; Ragozzine, Darin; Schaller, Emily L. (2007). "A collisional family of icy objects in the Kuiper belt". Nature 446 (7133): 294296. Bibcode2007Natur.446..294B. doi:10.1038/nature05619. PMID17361177. [7] Brown, Michael. "Lilah Binney Brown" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ lilah/ ). . Retrieved 2006-08-25. [8] Michael E. Brown. "The electronic trail of the discovery of 2003 EL61" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ planetlila/ ortiz/ ). Caltech. . [9] D. Rabinowitz, S. Tourtellotte, M. Brown , C. Trujillo (Thursday, September 8, 2005, 6:00-7:15pm). "56.12 Photometric observations of a very bright TNO with an extraordinary lightcurve." (http:/ / aas. org/ archives/ BAAS/ v37n3/ dps2005/ 320. htm?q=publications/ baas/ v37n3/ dps2005/ 320. htm) (Poster). 37th DPS Meeting. . Retrieved 2010-11-15. [10] Pablo Santos Sanz (2008-09-26). "La historia de Ataecina vs Haumea" (http:/ / www. infoastro. com/ 200809/ 26ataecina-haumea. html) (in Spanish). infoastro.com. . Retrieved 2008-09-29. [11] "Controversial dwarf planet finally named 'Haumea' - space - 18 September 2008" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn14759-controversial-dwarf-planet-finally-named-haumea. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2009-07-14. [12] "News Blog - Haumea: Dwarf-Planet Name Game" (http:/ / www. skyandtelescope. com/ community/ skyblog/ newsblog/ 28646964. html). SkyandTelescope.com. . Retrieved 2009-07-14. [13] "New world found in outer solar system - space - 29 July 2005" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn7751-new-world-found-in-outer-solar-system. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2009-07-14. [14] "Minor Planet Electronic Circular 2005-O36 : 2003 EL61" (http:/ / www. minorplanetcenter. net/ mpec/ K05/ K05O36. html). Minor Planet Center (MPC). 2005-07-29. . Retrieved 2011-07-05. [15] "Estados Unidos "conquista" Haumea" (http:/ / www. abc. es/ 20080920/ nacional-sociedad/ estados-unidos-conquista-haumea-20080920. html). ABC. 2008-09-20. . Retrieved 2008-09-18. (Spanish) [16] "IAUC 8577: 2003 EL_61, 2003 UB_313,, 2005 FY_9; C/2005 N6" (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 08500/ 08577. html). IAU: Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams. . Retrieved 2011-07-05. [17] "Solar System Exploration: Planets: Dwarf Planets" (http:/ / solarsystem. nasa. gov/ planets/ profile. cfm?Object=Dwarf& Display=OverviewLong). Solarsystem.nasa.gov. . Retrieved 2010-09-21. [18] Jeff Hecht (September 21, 2005). "Astronomer denies improper use of web data" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn8033). NewScientist.com. . [19] "One Find, Two Astronomers:An Ethical Brawl" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2005/ 09/ 13/ science/ space/ 13plan. html). The New York Times. 2005-09-13. . Retrieved 2006-08-16. [20] "Astronomer denies improper use of web data" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn8033). New Scientist. 2005-09-21. . Retrieved 2006-08-16. [21] Rachel Courtland (2008-09-19). "Controversial dwarf planet finally named 'Haumea'" (http:/ / space. newscientist. com/ article/ dn14759-controversial-dwarf-planet-finally-named-haumea. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved 2008-09-19. [22] "Naming of astronomical objects: Minor planets" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ themes/ naming/ #minorplanets). International Astronomical Union. . Retrieved 2008-11-17.

Controversy over the discovery of Haumea

[23] Mike Brown (2008-09-17). "Dwarf planets: Haumea" (http:/ / web. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ 2003EL61/ ). Caltech. . Retrieved 2008-09-18. [24] "IAU names fifth dwarf planet Haumea" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0807/ ). IAU Press Release. 2008-09-17. . Retrieved 2008-09-17. [25] Robert D. Craig (2004). Handbook of Polynesian Mythology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=LOZuirJWXvUC& pg=PA128& dq=haumea). ABC-CLIO. p.128. ISBN978-1-57607-894-5. . [26] "News Release - IAU0807: IAU names fifth dwarf planet Haumea" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0807/ ). International Astronomical Union. 2008-09-17. . Retrieved 2008-09-18. [27] "Dwarf planet named after Hawaiian goddess by Chris Bailey | Hawaii Magazine: Discover Hawaii" (http:/ / www. hawaiimagazine. com/ blogs/ hawaii_today/ 2008/ 9/ 19/ Planet_named_hawaiian_goddess). Hawaiimagazine.com. 2009-06-07. . Retrieved 2009-07-14. [28] Thompson, Rod (2008-09-19). "Planet gets name from isle goddess | starbulletin.com | News | /2008/09/19/" (http:/ / archives. starbulletin. com/ 2008/ 09/ 19/ news/ story08. html). Archives.starbulletin.com. . Retrieved 2009-07-14. [29] Blue, Jennifer (2006-09-14). "2003 UB 313 named Eris" (http:/ / astrogeology. usgs. gov/ HotTopics/ index. php?/ archives/ 211-2003-UB313-named-Eris. html). USGS Astrogeology Research Program. . Retrieved 2007-01-05. [30] "Dwarf Planets and their Systems" (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ append7. html#DwarfPlanets). US Geological Survey Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. . Retrieved 2008-09-17. [31] "The Galileo Project | Science | Simon Marius" (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ sci/ marius. html). Galileo.rice.edu. 2004-01-14. . Retrieved 2010-09-21. [32] "Welcome to the solar system, Haumea, Hi'iaka, and Namaka - The Planetary Society Blog | The Planetary Society" (http:/ / www. planetary. org/ blog/ article/ 00001649/ ). Planetary.org. 2008-09-17. . Retrieved 2009-07-14. [33] "Estados Unidos "conquista" Haumea - Nacional_Sociedad - Nacional" (http:/ / www. abc. es/ 20080920/ nacional-sociedad/ estados-unidos-conquista-haumea-20080920. html). ABC.es. . Retrieved 2010-09-21. [34] "Mike Brown's Planets: A ghost of Christmas past" (http:/ / www. mikebrownsplanets. com/ 2009/ 12/ ghost-of-christmas-past. html). Mikebrownsplanets.com. 2009-12-29. . Retrieved 2010-09-21.

140

External links
Mike Brown's Planets: Haumea (http://www.mikebrownsplanets.com/2008/09/haumea.html) Mike Brown's blog on the controversy La historia de Ataecina vs Haumea (http://www.infoastro.com/200809/26ataecina-haumea.html) Pablo Sanz's account of what happened (Spanish) The electronic trail of the discovery of 2003 EL61 (http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/ortiz/) A Caltech timeline of the Spanish discovery announcements and access of the Caltech observation logs 2007 KCET interview of Mike Brown about Eris and Haumea with Julia Sweeney (http://www.pluggd.tv/ audio/channels/kcet_podcast__hammer_conversations/episodes/2h10l) Aloha, Haumea (http://blogs.nationalgeographic.com/blogs/news/breakingorbit/2008/09/aloha-haumea. html) Blog on NationalGeographic.com on the events surrounding the naming process

Moons of Haumea

141

Moons of Haumea
The outer Solar System dwarf planet Haumea has two known moons, Hiiaka and Namaka, named after Hawaiian goddesses. These small moons were discovered in 2005, from observations of Haumea made at the large telescopes of the W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii. Haumea's moons are unusual in a number of ways. They are thought to be part of its extended collisional family, which formed billions of years ago from icy debris after a large impact disrupted Haumea's ice mantle. Hiiaka, the larger, outermost moon, has large amounts of pure water ice on its surface, a feature rare among Kuiper belt objects.[1] Namaka, about one tenth the mass, has an orbit with surprising dynamics: it is unusually eccentric and appears to be greatly influenced by the larger satellite.

Discovery and naming

Two small satellites were discovered around Haumea (which was at that time still designated 2003 EL61) through observations using the W.M. Keck Observatory by a Caltech team in 2005. The outer and larger of the two satellites was discovered January 26, 2005,[2] and formally designated S/2005 (2003 EL61) 1, though nicknamed "Rudolph" by the Caltech team.[3] The smaller, inner satellite of Haumea was discovered on June 30, 2005, formally termed S/2005 (2003 EL61) 2, and nicknamed "Blitzen".[4] On September 7, 2006, both satellites were numbered and admitted into the official minor planet catalogue as (136108) 2003 EL61 I and II, respectively. The permanent names of these moons were announced, together with that of 2003 EL61, by the International Astronomical Union on September 17, 2008: (136108) Haumea I Hiiaka and (136108) Haumea II Namaka.[5] Each moon was named after a daughter of Haumea, the Hawaiian goddess of fertility and childbirth. Hiiaka is the goddess of dance and patroness of the Big Island of Hawaii, where the Mauna Kea Observatory is located.[6] Nmaka is the goddess of water and the sea; she cooled her sister Pele's lava as it flowed into the sea, turning it into new land.[7] In her legend, Haumea's many children came from different parts of her body.[7] The dwarf planet Haumea appears to be almost entirely made of rock, with only a superficial layer of ice; most of the original icy mantle is thought to have been blasted off by the impact that spun Haumea into its current high speed of rotation, where the material formed into the small Kuiper belt objects in Haumea's collisional family. There could therefore be additional outer moons, smaller than Namaka, that have not yet been detected. However, HST observations have confirmed that no other moons brighter than 0.25% of the brightness of Haumea exist within the closest tenth of the distance (0.1% of the volume) where they could be held by Haumea's gravitational influence (its Hill sphere).[8] This makes it unlikely that any more exist.

Surface properties
Hiiaka is the outer and, at roughly 350km in diameter, the larger and brighter of the two moons.[9] Strong absorption features observed at 1.5, 1.65 and 2 micrometres in its infrared spectrum are consistent with nearly pure crystalline water ice covering much of its surface.[1][10] The unusual spectrum, and its similarity to absorption lines in the spectrum of Haumea, led Brown and colleagues to conclude that it was unlikely that the system of moons was formed by the gravitational capture of passing Kuiper belt objects into orbit around the dwarf planet: instead, the Haumean moons must be fragments of Haumea itself.[11] The sizes of both moons are calculated with the assumption that they have the same infrared albedo as Haumea, which is reasonable as their spectra show them to have the same surface composition. Haumea's albedo has been measured by the Spitzer Space Telescope: from ground-based telescopes, the moons are too small and close to Haumea to be seen independently.[12] Based on this common albedo, the inner moon, Namaka, which is a tenth the mass of Hiiaka, would be about 170km in diameter.[13]

Moons of Haumea The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) has adequate angular resolution to separate the light from the moons from that of Haumea. Photometry of the Haumea triple system with HST's NICMOS camera has confirmed that the spectral line at 1.6 microns that indicates the presence of water ice is at least as strong in the moons' spectra as in Haumea's spectrum.[12] The moons of Haumea are too faint to detect with telescopes smaller than about 2 metres in aperture, though Haumea itself has a visual magnitude of 17.5, making it the third brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and Makemake, and easily observable with a large amateur telescope.

142

Orbital characteristics
Hiiaka orbits Haumea in a nearly circular path every 49days.[9] Namaka orbits Haumea in 18 days in a highly elliptical, non-Keplerian orbit, and as of 2008 is inclined 13 from the larger moon, which perturbs its orbit.[4] Since the impact that created the moons of Haumea is thought to have occurred in the early history of the Solar System,[14] over the following billions of years it should have been tidally damped into a more circular orbit. Current research suggests that Namaka's orbit has been disturbed by orbital resonances with the more massive Hiiaka, due to converging orbits as the two moons move outward from Haumea due to tidal dissipation.[4] The moons may have been caught in and then A view of the orbits of Hiiaka (blue) and Namaka (green) escaped from orbital resonance several times; they currently are in or at least close to an 8:3 resonance.[4] This resonance strongly perturbs Namaka's orbit, which has a current precession of ~20.[4] At present, the orbits of the Haumean moons appear almost exactly edge-on from Earth, with Namaka periodically occulting Haumea.[15][16] Observation of such transits would provide precise information on the size and shape of Haumea and its moons, as happened in the late 1980s with Pluto and Charon.[17] The tiny change in brightness of the system during these occultations will require at least a medium-aperture professional telescope for detection.[18] Hiiaka last occulted Haumea in 1999, a few years before discovery, and will not do so again for some 130 years.[19] However, in a situation unique among regular satellites, the great torquing of Namaka's orbit by Hiiaka will preserve the viewing angle of NamakaHaumea transits for several more years.[4][18]

Moons of Haumea

143

Order [20]

Name (pronunciation) [21] HaumeaII Namaka /nmk/

Mean diameter (km) ~170?

Mass (1021kg)

Semi-major axis (km)

Orbital period (days) 18.2783 [8][22] 0.0076

Eccentricity

Inclination ()

Discovery date

0.00179 [8] 0.00148 (~0.05% Haumea)

25657 [8] 91

0.249 [8] 0.015 <ref [23]

113.013 [8] 0.075 (13.41 0.08 from [23] Hiiaka) 126.356 [8] 0.064

June 2005

HaumeaI

Hiiaka /hiik/

~310

0.0179 [8] 0.0011 (~0.5% Haumea)

49880 [8] 198

49.462 [8][22] 0.083

0.0513 [8] 0.0078

January 2005

External links
Animation of the orbits of Haumea's moons [24] International Year of Astronomy 2009 podcast: Dwarf Planet Haumea (Darin Ragozzine) [25]

Notes
[1] Barkume, K. M.; Brown, M. E.; Schaller, E. L. (2006). "Water Ice on the Satellite of Kuiper Belt Object 2003 EL61" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ papers/ ps/ rudolph. pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 640: L87L89. arXiv:astro-ph/0601534. Bibcode2006ApJ...640L..87B. doi:10.1086/503159. . [2] M. E. Brown, A. H. Bouchez, D. Rabinowitz. R. Sari, C. A. Trujillo, M. van Dam, R. Campbell, J. Chin, S. Hardman, E. Johansson, R. Lafon, D. Le Mignant, P. Stomski, D. Summers, and P. Wizinowich (2005-09-02). "Keck Observatory Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics Discovery and Characterization of a Satellite to the Large Kuiper Belt Object 2003 EL61". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 632: L45L48. Bibcode2005ApJ...632L..45B. doi:10.1086/497641. [3] Kenneth Chang (2007-03-20). "Piecing Together the Clues of an Old Collision, Iceball by Iceball" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 03/ 20/ science/ space/ 20kuip. html). New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-10-12. [4] D. Ragozzine, M. E. Brown, C. A. Trujillo, E. L. Schaller. "Orbits and Masses of the 2003 EL61 Satellite System" (http:/ / www. abstractsonline. com/ viewer/ viewAbstract. asp?CKey={421E1C09-F75A-4ED0-916C-8C0DDB81754D}& MKey={35A8F7D5-A145-4C52-8514-0B0340308E94}& AKey={AAF9AABA-B0FF-4235-8AEC-74F22FC76386}& SKey={545CAD5F-068B-4FFC-A6E2-1F2A0C6ED978}). AAS DPS conference 2008. . Retrieved 2008-10-17. [5] "News Release - IAU0807: IAU names fifth dwarf planet Haumea" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0807/ ). International Astronomical Union. 2008-09-17. . Retrieved 2008-09-18. [6] "Dwarf Planets and their Systems" (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ append7. html#DwarfPlanets). US Geological Survey Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. . Retrieved 2008-09-17. [7] Robert D. Craig (2004). Handbook of Polynesian Mythology (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=LOZuirJWXvUC& pg=PA128& dq=haumea). ABC-CLIO. p.128. ISBN1-57607-894-9. . [8] Ragozzine, D.; Brown, M.E. (2009). "Orbits and Masses of the Satellites of the Dwarf Planet Haumea = 2003 EL61". The Astronomical Journal 137 (6): 4766. arXiv:0903.4213. Bibcode2009AJ....137.4766R. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/6/4766. [9] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1086. 2f501524_?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit) [10] Dumas, C.; Carry, B.; Hestroffer, D.; Merlin, F. (2011). "High-contrast observations of (136108) Haumea". Astronomy & Astrophysics 528: A105. Bibcode2011A&A...528A.105D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201015011. [11] Michael E. Brown. "The largest Kuiper belt objects" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ papers/ ps/ kbochap. pdf). CalTech. . Retrieved 2008-09-19. [12] Fraser, W.C.; Brown, M.E. (2009). "NICMOS Photometry of the Unusual Dwarf Planet Haumea and its Satellites". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 695: L1. arXiv:0903.0860. Bibcode2009ApJ...695L...1F. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/695/1/L1. [13] "(136108) Haumea, Hi'iaka, and Namaka" (http:/ / www. johnstonsarchive. net/ astro/ astmoons/ am-136108. html). Johnstonsarchive.net. . Retrieved 2009-02-01. [14] Michael E. Brown, Kristina M. Barkume; Darin Ragozzine; Emily L. Schaller (2007-01-19). "A collisional family of icy objects in the Kuiper belt". Nature 446 (7133): 294296. Bibcode2007Natur.446..294B. doi:10.1038/nature05619. PMID17361177.

Moons of Haumea
[15] "IAU Circular 8949" (http:/ / www. cfa. harvard. edu/ ~fabrycky/ EL61/ ). International Astronomical Union. 2008-09-17. . Retrieved 2008-12-06. [16] "Mutual events of Haumea and Namaka" (http:/ / web. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ 2003EL61/ mutual/ ). . Retrieved 2009-02-18. [17] Lucy-Ann Adams McFadden, Paul Robert Weissman, Torrence V. Johnson (2007). Encyclopedia of the Solar System (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=G7UtYkLQoYoC& pg=PA545& lpg=PA545& dq=mutual+ event+ pluto). ISBN978-0-12-088589-3. . Retrieved 2008-10-17. [18] D. C. Fabrycky, M. J. Holman, D. Ragozzine, M. E. Brown, T. A. Lister, D. M. Terndrup, J. Djordjevic, E. F. Young, L. A. Young, R. R. Howell. "Mutual Events of 2003 EL61 and its Inner Satellite" (http:/ / www. abstractsonline. com/ viewer/ viewAbstract. asp?CKey={DC1A2D7A-1E8E-4C58-A2AB-F0FA8673515C}& MKey={35A8F7D5-A145-4C52-8514-0B0340308E94}& AKey={AAF9AABA-B0FF-4235-8AEC-74F22FC76386}& SKey={545CAD5F-068B-4FFC-A6E2-1F2A0C6ED978}). AAS DPS conference 2008. . Retrieved 2008-10-17. [19] Mike Brown (2008-05-18). "Moon shadow Monday (fixed)" (http:/ / www. mikebrownsplanets. com/ 2008/ 05/ moon-shadow-monday-fixed. html). Mike Brown's Planets. . Retrieved 2008-09-27. [20] Order refers to the position with respect to their average distance from Haumea. [21] Label refers to the Roman numeral attributed to each moon in order of their discovery. [22] Using Kepler's Law. [23] As of 2008: Namaka's eccentricity and inclination are variable due to perturbation. [24] http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~darin/ haumeasatsanim. gif [25] http:/ / 365daysofastronomy. org/ 2009/ 03/ 31/ march-31st/

144

References

145

Haumea moons
Namaka
Namaka
Namaka is the faint spot near the bottom of the photo, directly below Haumea (center), in this Keck telescope image.
Discovery Discovered by Michael E. Brown, Chad Trujillo, David Rabinowitz, et al. 30 June 2005 Designations MPC designation Pronunciation Haumea II Namaka English pronunciation: /nmk/, or as in Hawaiian Nmaka Hawaiian pronunciation:[namk] (136108) 2003 EL61II, S/2005 (2003 EL61) 2 Orbital characteristics Semi-major axis Eccentricity Orbital period Inclination Satelliteof
[2] [2] [1]

Discovery date

Alternate name(s)

25657 91 km

0.249 (in 2009; variable) 18 day

[3]

13 relative to Hiiaka (in 2008; variable) Haumea Physical characteristics

Mean radius Mass

~85 km (if albedo is same as primary's 0.70.1) 1.79 1.481018 kg (0.05% the mass of Haumea) (assumed to be near 1) (unknown) (unknown) (unknown) 323 K 4.6 difference from primary's 17.3
[4] [2]

Mean density Rotation period Axial tilt Albedo Temperature Apparent magnitude

Namaka is the smaller, inner moon of the dwarf planet Haumea. It is named after Nmaka, one of the daughters of Haumea, the goddess of the sea in Hawaiian mythology.

Namaka

146

Discovery
Namaka was discovered on 30 June 2005 and announced on November 29, 2005.[1] It was nicknamed "Blitzen" by the discovery team before receiving an official name.

Physical characteristics
Namaka is only 1.5% as bright as its dwarf planet Haumea[2] and is about 0.05% its mass. If it turns out to have a similar albedo, it would be about 170km in diameter.[4] Photometric observations indicate that its surface is made of water ice.[2]

References
[1] Green, Daniel W. E. (1 December 2005). "IAUC 8636" (http:/ / cfa-www. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 08600/ 08636. html). . [2] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1086. 2f503159?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit)

Hi'iaka

147

Hi'iaka
Hiiaka
Hiiaka is above Haumea (center) in this Keck telescope image.
Discovery Discovered by Michael E. Brown, Chad Trujillo, David Rabinowitz, et al. 26 January 2005 Designations MPC designation Pronunciation Haumea I Hiiaka English pronunciation: /hiik/, or as in Hawaiian Hawaiian pronunciation:[hiijk] (136108) 2003 EL61I, S/2005 (2003 EL61) 1 Orbital characteristics Semi-major axis Eccentricity Orbital period Inclination Satelliteof
[1] []

Discovery date

Alternate name(s)

49880198km 0.05130.0078 49.120.03days 126.3560.064 Haumea Physical characteristics

Mean radius Mass Mean density Rotation period Axial tilt Albedo Temperature Apparent magnitude

170km

[2] [1]

1.790.111019kg 1g/cm3 (unknown) (unknown) (unknown) 323K

(0.45% of Haumea)

3.3 difference from primary's 17.3

Hiiaka is the larger, outer moon of the dwarf planet Haumea.

Hi'iaka

148

Discovery and naming

Hiiaka was the first satellite discovered around Haumea. It is named after one of the daughters of Haumea, Hiiaka, the patron goddess of the Big Island of Hawaii, though at first it had gone by the nickname "Rudolph" by its discovery team. It orbits once every 49.120.03days at a distance of 49880198km, with an eccentricity of 0.05130.0078 and an inclination of 126.3560.064. Mutual events expected in July 2009 should improve the knowledge of the orbits and masses of the components of the Haumean system.[1]

Physical characteristics
Size and brightness
Its measured brightness is 5.90.5, translating into the diameter about 22% of its primary, or in the range of 350km, assuming similar albedo.[1] To put this in perspective, this moon would be the fifth largest (cis-neptunian) asteroid after 1 Ceres, 2 Pallas, 4 Vesta, and 10 Hygiea if it were in the asteroid belt. Future exploration of Haumea and its moons could reveal that Hiiaka is is in hydrostatic equilibrium, i.e. rounded by its own gravity. However, it is not a dwarf-planet candidate because it is a moon.

Mass
The mass of Hiiaka is estimated to be 1.790.111019kg using precise relative astrometry from Hubble Telescope and Keck Telescope and applying 3-body, point-mass model to the Haumean system.[1]

Spectrum and composition

The near infrared spectrum of Hiiaka is dominated by water-ice absorption bands, which means that the surface of this moon is made mainly of water ice. The presence of the band centered at 1.65m indicates that the ice is primarily in the crystalline form. Currently it is unclear why water ice on the surface has not turned into amorphous form as would be expected due to its constant irradiation by cosmic rays.[2]

References External links

Brown's publication describing the discovery of Hiiaka (http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/papers/ps/ EL61.pdf) Paper describing the composition of Hiiaka (http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/papers/ps/rudolph.pdf)

149

Makemake
Makemake
Makemake

Makemake as seen by the Hubble Space Telescope

Discovery Discovered by

Michael E. Brown Chad Trujillo David Rabinowitz

Discovery date

March 31, 2005 Designations

MPC designation Pronunciation Named after Alternate name(s) Minor planet category Adjective

(136472) Makemake /mkimki/ or Makemake 2005 FY9 Dwarf planet, plutoid, TNO (cubewano) Makemakean Orbital characteristics
[3][4] [2]
i

/mkemke/

[1]

Epoch January 28, 1955 (JD 2435135.5) Aphelion Perihelion Semi-major axis Eccentricity Orbital period Average orbitalspeed 53.074 AU 7.939 Tm 38.509 AU 5.760 Tm 45.791 AU 6.850 Tm 0.159 309.88 yr (113,183 d) 4.419km/s

Makemake

150
85.13 28.96 79.382 298.41 Physical characteristics

Mean anomaly Inclination Longitudeof ascendingnode Argument of perihelion

Mean radius

750km [6] 710 30 km

[5]

Surface area Volume Mass

~6,300,000km2 ~1.5109km3 ~31021kg(assumed) 0.0005 Earths ~2g/cm3 (assumed) ~0.4m/s2 ~0.75 km/s 7.771 0.003 hours unknown 78.2 (geometric) 3035K
[9] [5] [8] [7]

Mean density Equatorial surfacegravity Escape velocity Sidereal rotation period Axial tilt Albedo Temperature Spectral type Apparent magnitude Absolute magnitude (H)

(assuming the same albedo)

[10]

B-V=0.83, V-R=0.5 16.7 (opposition) 0.44

[4]

[11][12]

Makemake, formally designated (136472)Makemake, is a dwarf planet and perhaps the largest Kuiper belt object (KBO) in the classical population,[1] with a diameter that is probably about 2/3 the size of Pluto.[2][6] Makemake has no known satellites, which makes it unique among the largest KBOs and means that its mass can only be estimated. Its extremely low average temperature, about 30K (unknown operator: u'strong'C), means its surface is covered with methane, ethane, and possibly nitrogen ices.[] Initially known as 2005 FY9 and later given the minor planet number 136472, it was discovered on March 31, 2005, by a team led by Michael Brown, and announced on July 29, 2005. Its name derives from the Rapanui god Makemake. On June 11, 2008, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) included Makemake in its list of potential candidates to be given "plutoid" status, a term for dwarf planets beyond the orbit of Neptune that would place the object alongside Pluto, Haumea and Eris. Makemake was formally classified as a plutoid in July 2008.[2][3][4][5]

Makemake

151

Discovery
Makemake was discovered on March 31, 2005, by a team at the Palomar Observatory, led by Michael Brown,[4] and was announced to the public on July 29, 2005. The discovery of Eris was made public the same day, following the announcement of Haumea two days earlier.[6] Despite its relative brightness (it is about a fifth as bright as Pluto),[7] Makemake was not discovered until well after many much fainter Kuiper belt objects. Most searches for minor planets are conducted relatively close to the ecliptic (the region of the sky that the Sun, Moon and planets appear to lie in, as seen from Earth), due to the greater likelihood of finding objects there. It probably escaped detection during the earlier surveys due to its relatively high orbital inclination, and the fact that it was at its farthest distance from the ecliptic at the time of its discovery, in the northern constellation of Coma Berenices.[12] Besides Pluto, Makemake is the only other dwarf planet that was bright enough for Clyde Tombaugh to have possibly detected during his search for trans-Neptunian planets around 1930.[8] At the time of Tombaugh's survey, Makemake was only a few degrees from the ecliptic, near the border of Taurus and Auriga,[9] at an apparent magnitude of 16.0.[12] This position, however, was also very near the Milky Way, and Makemake would have been almost impossible to find against the dense background of stars. Tombaugh continued searching for some years after the discovery of Pluto,[10] but he failed to find Makemake or any other trans-Neptunian objects.

Name
The provisional designation 2005 FY9 was given to Makemake when the discovery was made public. Before that, the discovery team used the codename "Easterbunny" for the object, because of its discovery shortly after Easter.[11] In July 2008, in accordance with IAU rules for classical Kuiper belt objects, 2005 FY9 was given the name of a creator deity. The name of Makemake, the creator of humanity and god of fertility in the mythos of the Rapanui, the native people of Easter Island,[3] was chosen in part to preserve the object's connection with Easter.[11]

Orbit and classification

As of 2009, Makemake is at a distance of 52 astronomical units (expected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operatorexpected operator109 km) from the Sun,[11][12] almost as far from the Sun as it ever reaches on its orbit.[] Makemake follows an orbit very similar to that of Haumea: highly inclined at 29 and a moderate eccentricity of about 0.16.[12] Nevertheless, Makemake's orbit is slightly farther from the Sun in terms of both the semi-major axis and perihelion. Its

Orbits of Makemake (blue), Haumea (green), contrasted with the orbit of Pluto (red) and [4] the ecliptic (grey). The perihelia (q) and the aphelia (Q) are marked with the dates of passage. The positions on April 2006 are marked with the spheres illustrating relative sizes and differences in albedo and colour.

orbital period is nearly 310years,[3] more than Pluto's 248years and Haumea's 283years. Both Makemake and Haumea are currently far from the eclipticthe angular distance is almost 29. Makemake is approaching its 2033

Makemake aphelion,[12] while Haumea passed its aphelion in early 1992.[13] Makemake is a classical Kuiper belt object,[2][1] which means its orbit lies far enough from Neptune to remain stable over the age of the Solar System.[14][15] Unlike plutinos, which can cross Neptune's orbit due to their 2:3 resonance with the planet, the classical objects have perihelia further from the Sun, free from Neptune's perturbation.[14] Such objects have relatively low eccentricities (e below 0.2) and orbit the Sun in much the same way the planets do. Makemake, however, is a member of the "dynamically hot" class of classical KBOs, meaning that it has a high inclination compared to others in its population.[16] Makemake is, probably coincidentally, near the 11:6 resonance with Neptune.[17]

152

Physical characteristics
Brightness, size, and rotation
Makemake is currently visually the second-brightest Kuiper belt object after Pluto,[8] having a March opposition apparent magnitude of 16.7[11] in the constellation Coma Berenices.[12] This is bright enough to be visible using a high-end amateur telescope. Makemake's high albedo of roughly 80percent suggests an average surface temperature of about 30K.[9][5] The size of Makemake is not precisely known, but the detection in infrared by the Spitzer space telescope and Herschel Space Telescope, combined with the similarities of spectrum with Pluto yielded an estimate of the diameter from 1,360 to 1,480km.[6] This is slightly larger than the size of Haumea, making Makemake possibly the third largest known trans-Neptunian object after Eris and Pluto.[12] Makemake was the fourth dwarf planet recognized, as it has a bright V-band absolute magnitude of 0.44[4] that practically guarantees it is large enough to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium.
Makemake (apmag 16.9)

Spectra and surface

In a letter written to the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics in 2006, Licandro et al. reported the measurements of the visible and near-infrared spectrum of Makemake. They used the William Herschel Telescope and Telescopio Nazionale Galileo and showed that the surface of Makemake resembles that of Pluto.[18] Like Pluto, Makemake appears red in the visible spectrum, and significantly redder than the surface of Eris (see colour comparison of TNOs).[18] The near-infrared spectrum is marked by the presence of the broad methane (CH4) absorption bands. Methane is observed also on Pluto and Eris, but its spectral signature is much weaker.[18] Spectral analysis of Makemake's surface revealed that methane must be present in the form of large grains at least one centimetre in size.[] In

10}}, Quaoar, Orcus, and Earth. These eight trans-Neptunian objects have the brightest absolute magnitudes; several other TNOs have been found to be physically larger than Orcus, and several more may yet be found to be that.

addition, large amounts of ethane and tholins may be present as well, most likely created by photolysis of methane by solar radiation.[] The tholins are probably responsible for the red color of the visible spectrum. Although evidence

Makemake exists for the presence of nitrogen ice on its surface, at least mixed with other ices, there is nowhere near the same level of nitrogen as on Pluto and Triton, where it composes more than 98percent of the crust. The relative lack of nitrogen ice suggests that its supply of nitrogen has somehow been depleted over the age of the Solar System.[][19][20] The far-infrared (2470m) and submillimeter (70500m) photometry performed by Spitzer and Herschel telescopes revealed that the surface of Makemake is not homogeneous. While the majority of it is covered by nitrogen and methane ices, where the albedo ranges from 78 to 90%, there are small patches of dark terrain whose albedo is only 2 to 12%, and which make up 37% of the surface.[6]

153

Atmosphere
The presence of methane and possibly nitrogen suggests that Makemake could have a transient atmosphere similar to that of Pluto near its perihelion.[18] Nitrogen, if present, will be the dominant component of it.[] The existence of an atmosphere also provides a natural explanation for the nitrogen depletion: since the gravity of Makemake is weaker than that of Pluto, Eris and Triton, a large amount of nitrogen was probably lost via atmospheric escape; methane is lighter than nitrogen, but has significantly lower vapor pressure at temperatures prevalent at the surface of Makemake (3035K),[9] which hinders its escape; the result of this process is a higher relative abundance of methane.[21]

Lack of satellites
No satellites have been detected around Makemake so far. A satellite having a brightness 1% of that of the primary would have been detected if it had been at the distance 0.4 arcseconds or further from Makemake.[8] This contrasts with the other largest trans-Neptunian objects, which all possess at least one satellite: Eris has one, Haumea has two and Pluto has four. 10% to 20% of all trans-Neptunian objects are expected to have one or more satellites.[8] Since satellites offer a simple method to measure an object's mass, lack of a satellite makes obtaining an accurate figure for Makemake's mass more difficult.[8]

Notes
[1] Astronomers Mike Brown, David Jewitt and Marc Buie classify Makemake as a near scattered object but the Minor Planet Center, from which Wikipedia draws most of its definitions for the trans-Neptunian population, places it among the main Kuiper belt population.Mike Brown, K. M. Barksume, G. L. Blake, E. L. Schaller, D. L. Rabinowitz, H. G. Roe and C. A. Trujillo (2007). "Methane and Ethane on the Bright Kuiper Belt Object 2005 FY9". The Astronomical Journal 133 (1): 284289. Bibcode2007AJ....133..284B. doi:10.1086/509734.Audrey Delsanti, David Jewitt. "The Solar System Beyond The Planets" (http:/ / www. ifa. hawaii. edu/ publications/ preprints/ 06preprints/ Delsanti_06-009. pdf). University of Hawaii. . Retrieved 2008-08-03. "List Of Transneptunian Objects" (http:/ / www. minorplanetcenter. org/ iau/ lists/ TNOs. html). Minor Planet Center. Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. . Retrieved 2008-08-03. Haumea is comparable in size, but may be a resonant object. [2] International Astronomical Union (2008-07-19). "Fourth dwarf planet named Makemake" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ news/ release/ iau0806/ ) (Press release). International Astronomical Union (News Release IAU0806). . Retrieved 2008-07-20. [3] "Dwarf Planets and their Systems" (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ append7. html#DwarfPlanets). Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN). U.S. Geological Survey. 2008-11-07. . Retrieved 2008-07-13. [4] Michael E. Brown. "The Dwarf Planets" (http:/ / web. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ dwarfplanets/ ). California Institute of Technology, Department of Geological Sciences. . Retrieved 2008-01-26. [5] Gonzalo Tancredi, Sofia Favre (June 2008). "Which are the dwarfs in the Solar System?" (http:/ / www. lpi. usra. edu/ meetings/ acm2008/ pdf/ 8261. pdf). Icarus 195 (2): 851862. Bibcode2008Icar..195..851T. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.12.020. . Retrieved 2008-08-03. [6] Thomas H. Maugh II and John Johnson Jr. (2005-10-16). "His Stellar Discovery Is Eclipsed" (http:/ / articles. latimes. com/ 2005/ oct/ 16/ local/ me-planet16). Los Angeles Times. . Retrieved 2008-07-14. [7] It has an apparent magnitude in opposition of 16.7 vs. 15 for Pluto.David L. Rabinowitz, Bradley E. Schaefer, Suzanne W. Tourtellotte (2007). "The Diverse Solar Phase Curves of Distant Icy Bodies. I. Photometric Observations of 18 Trans-Neptunian Objects, 7 Centaurs, and Nereid". The Astronomical Journal 133 (1): 2643. arXiv:astro-ph/0605745. Bibcode2007AJ....133...26R. doi:10.1086/508931. [8] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1086. 2f501524_?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit) [9] Based on Minor Planet Center online Minor Planet Ephemeris Service: March 1, 1930: RA: 05h51m, Dec: +29.0.

Makemake
[10] "Clyde W. Tombaugh" (http:/ / www. nmspacemuseum. org/ halloffame/ detail. php?id=51). New Mexico Museum of Space History. . Retrieved 2008-06-29. [11] Brown, Mike (2008). "Mike Brown's Planets: What's in a name? (part 2)" (http:/ / www. mikebrownsplanets. com/ 2008/ 07/ whats-in-name-part-2. html). California Institute of Technology. . Retrieved 2008-07-14. [12] S. C. Tegler, W. M. Grundy, W. Romanishin, G. J. Consolmagno, K. Mogren, F. Vilas (2007-01-08). "Optical Spectroscopy of the Large Kuiper Belt Objects 136472 (2005 FY9) and 136108 (2003 EL61)". The Astronomical Journal 133 (2): 526530. arXiv:astro-ph/0611135. Bibcode2007AJ....133..526T. doi:10.1086/510134. [13] "Asteroid 136108 (2003 EL61)" (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ horizons. cgi?find_body=1& body_group=sb& sstr=2003EL61). HORIZONS Web-Interface. JPL Solar System Dynamics. . Retrieved 2008-08-04. [14] David Jewitt (February 2000). "Classical Kuiper Belt Objects (CKBOs)" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080805020742/ http:/ / www. ifa. hawaii. edu/ ~jewitt/ kb/ kb-classical. html). University of Hawaii. Archived from the original (http:/ / www2. ess. ucla. edu/ ~jewitt/ kb/ kb-classical. html) on August 5, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-08-04. [15] Jane X. Luu and David C. Jewitt (2002). "Kuiper Belt Objects: Relics from the Accretion Disk of the Sun" (http:/ / www. gsmt. noao. edu/ gsmt_swg/ SWG_Apr03/ The_Kuiper_Belt. pdf). Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 40 (1): 63101. Bibcode2002ARA&A..40...63L. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.40.060401.093818. . Retrieved 2008-08-04. [16] Harold F. Levison, Alessandro Morbidelli (2003). "The formation of the Kuiper belt by the outward transport of bodies during Neptune's migration" (http:/ / www. obs-nice. fr/ morby/ stuff/ NATURE. pdf). Nature 426 (6965): 419421. doi:10.1038/nature02120. PMID14647375. . Retrieved 2007-06-25. [17] Preliminary simulation of Makemake (2005 FY9)'s orbit (http:/ / www. orbitsimulator. com/ gravity/ articles/ newtno. html) and the 2009-02-04 nominal (non-librating) rotating frame for Makemake. (http:/ / www. orbitsimulator. com/ yabbfiles/ Attachments/ Makemake40000y_13to7. gif) See (182294) 2001 KU76 for a proper 11:6 resonance libration. [18] J. Licandro, N. Pinilla-Alonso, M. Pedani, E. Oliva, G. P. Tozzi, W. M. Grundy (2006). "The methane ice rich surface of large TNO 2005 FY9: a Pluto-twin in the trans-neptunian belt?". Astronomy and Astrophysics 445 (3): L35L38. Bibcode2006A&A...445L..35L. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200500219. [19] S.C. Tegler, W.M. Grundy, F. Vilas, W. Romanishin, D.M. Cornelison and G.J. Consolmagno (June 2008). "Evidence of N2-ice on the surface of the icy dwarf Planet 136472 (2005 FY9)". Icarus 195 (2): 844850. Bibcode2008Icar..195..844T. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.12.015. [20] Tobias C. Owen, Ted L. Roush et al (1993-08-06). "Surface Ices and the Atmospheric Composition of Pluto". Science 261 (5122): 745748. Bibcode1993Sci...261..745O. doi:10.1126/science.261.5122.745. PMID17757212. [21] E.L. Schaller, M.E. Brown (2007-04-10). "Volatile Loss and Retention on Kuiper Belt Objects". The Astrophysical Journal 659 (1): L61L64. Bibcode2007ApJ...659L..61S. doi:10.1086/516709.

154

References External links

MPEC listing for Makemake (http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/mpec/K05/K05O42.html) AstDys (http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/astdys/astibo?objects:Makemake;main) orbital elements Orbital simulation (http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=136472;orb=1;view=Far) from JPL (Java) / Ephemeris (http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi?find_body=1&body_group=sb&sstr=136472) Press release (http://www.ing.iac.es:8080/PR/press/2005FY9.html) from WHT and TNG on Makemake's similarity to Pluto. Makemake chart and Orbit Viewer (http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/blobrana/database/2005FY9. htm) Precovery image (http://www.klet.org/klenot/html/k05f09y.html) with the 1.06 m Kle Observatory telescope on April 20, 2003 Makemake as seen on 2010-02-18 UT (http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/makemake.gif) with the Keck 1 Makemake of the Outer Solar System (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap080716.html) APOD July 15, 2008 Simulation of Makemake (2005 FY9)'s orbit (http://www.orbitsimulator.com/gravity/articles/newtno.html)

155

Eris
Eris
Eris

Eris (centre) and Dysnomia (left of centre). Hubble Space Telescope

Discovery Discovered by M. E. Brown, C. A. Trujillo, [1] D. L. Rabinowitz January 5, 2005 Designations MPC designation Pronunciation Named after Alternate name(s) Minor planet category 136199 Eris /rs/, or /rs/ as in Greek Eris 2003 UB313
[3]
[a]

Discovery date

[2][g]

dwarf planet, TNO, plutoid, [4][5] and SDO Eridian Orbital characteristics
[3]

Adjective

Epoch March 6, 2006 [6] (JD 2453800.5) Aphelion 97.56AU 14.60109 km 37.77AU 5.65109 km

Perihelion

Eris

156
Semi-major axis

67.67AU 10.12109 km 0.44177 203,600days 557years 3.436km/s 197.63427 44.187

Eccentricity Orbital period Average orbitalspeed Mean anomaly Inclination

Longitudeof ascendingnode 35.8696 Argument of perihelion Satellites 151.4305 Dysnomia Physical characteristics Mean radius Surface area Mass 1163 6 km
[7][8]

17,000,000 sq km (6,560,000 sq mi) (1.67 0.02)1022 kg 0.0028 Earths 0.23 Moons 2.52 0.05 g/cm3 0.827 m/s2 1.384 km/s 25.98 hr 0.96
[7] [3] [9]

Mean density Equatorial surfacegravity Escape velocity Sidereal rotation period Albedo Surface temp. (approx)

[7][10]

min mean

max

30K 42.5K 55K Spectral type Apparent magnitude Absolute magnitude (H) Angular diameter
[11]

B-V=0.78, V-R=0.45 18.7

[12] [3] [13]

1.190.3

40 milli-arcsec

Eris, formal designation 136199 Eris, is the most massive known dwarf planet[i] in the Solar System and the ninth most massive body known to orbit the Sun directly. It is estimated to be approximately 23002400km in diameter,[14] and 27% more massive than Pluto or about 0.27% of the Earth's mass.[9][15] Eris was discovered in January 2005 by a Palomar Observatory-based team led by Mike Brown, and its identity was verified later that year. It is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO) and a member of a high-eccentricity population known as the scattered disc. It has one known moon, Dysnomia. As of 2011, its distance from the Sun is 96.6AU,[12] roughly three times that of Pluto. With the exception of some comets, Eris and Dysnomia are currently the most distant known natural objects in the Solar System.[2][h]

Eris Because Eris appeared to be larger than Pluto, its discoverers[16] and NASA initially described it as the Solar Systems tenth planet. This, along with the prospect of other similarly sized objects being discovered in the future, motivated the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to define the term planet for the first time. Under the IAU definition approved on August24, 2006, Eris is a "dwarf planet", along with objects such as Pluto, Ceres, Haumea and Makemake.[17] In 2010, preliminary results from observations of a stellar occultation by Eris on November6 suggested that its diameter may be only 2,326km, which would make it essentially the same size as Pluto.[18] Given the error bars in the different size estimates, it is currently uncertain whether Eris or Pluto has the larger diameter.[19] Both Pluto and Eris are estimated to have solid-body diameters of about 2330km.[19]

157

Discovery
Eris was discovered by the team of Mike Brown, Chad Trujillo, and David Rabinowitz[2] on January5, 2005, from images taken on October21, 2003. The discovery was announced on July29, 2005, the same day as Makemake and two days after Haumea.[20] The search team had been systematically scanning for large outer Solar System bodies for several years, and had been involved in the discovery of several other large TNOs, including 50000 Quaoar, 90482 Orcus, and 90377 Sedna. Routine observations were taken by the team on October21, 2003, using the 1200mm Samuel Oschin Schmidt telescope at Mount Palomar Observatory, California, but the image of Eris was not discovered at that point due to its very slow motion across the sky: The team's automatic image-searching software excluded all objects moving at less than 1.5arcseconds per hour to reduce the number of false positives returned. When Sedna was discovered, it was moving at 1.75arcsec/h, and in light of that the team reanalyzed their old data with a lower limit on the angular motion, sorting through the previously excluded images by eye. In January 2005, the re-analysis revealed Eris' slow motion against the background stars. Follow-up observations were then carried out to make a preliminary determination of Eris' orbit, which allowed the object's distance to be estimated. The team had planned to delay announcing their discovery until further observations allowed more accurate calculations of Eris' orbit, but brought their announcement forward when the discovery of another large TNO they had been tracking, Haumea, was announced by a different team in Spain.[2] More observations released in October 2005 revealed that Eris had a moon, later named Dysnomia. Observations of Dysnomia's orbit permitted scientists to determine the mass of Eris, which in June 2007 they calculated to be 1.660.021022kg, 27% greater than Pluto's.
Animation showing the movement of Eris on the images used to discover it. Eris is indicated by the arrow. The three frames were taken over a period of three hours.

Classification

Eris is classified as a plutoid, that is, a trans-Neptunian object that is also a dwarf planet.[21] Its orbital characteristics more specifically categorize it a scattered disk object (SDO), or a TNO that is believed to have been "scattered" from the Kuiper belt into more distant and unusual orbits following gravitational interactions with Neptune as the Solar System was forming. Although its high orbital inclination is unusual among the known SDOs, theoretical models suggest that

Eris

158 objects that were originally near the inner edge of the Kuiper belt were scattered into orbits with higher inclinations than objects from the outer belt.[22] Inner-belt objects are expected to be generally more massive than outer-belt objects, and so astronomers expect to discover more large objects like Eris in high-inclination orbits, which have traditionally been neglected.
Distribution of trans-Neptunian objects

Because Eris may be larger than Pluto, it was initially described as the "tenth planet" by NASA and in media reports of its discovery.[23] In response to the uncertainty over its status, and because of ongoing debate over whether Pluto should be classified as a planet, the IAU delegated a group of astronomers to develop a sufficiently precise definition of the term planet to decide the issue. This was announced as the IAU's Definition of a Planet in the Solar System, adopted on August 24, 2006. At this time, both Eris and Pluto were classified as dwarf planets, a category distinct from the new definition of planet.[] Brown has since stated his approval of Pluto losing its status as a planet.[24] The IAU subsequently added Eris to its Minor Planet Catalogue, designating it (136199) Eris.[25]

Name
Eris is named after the goddess Eris (Greek ), a personification of strife and discord.[26] The name was assigned on September13, 2006, following an unusually long period in which the object was known by the provisional designation 2003 UB313, which was granted automatically by the IAU under their naming protocols for minor planets. The regular adjectival form of Eris is Eridian.

Xena
Due to uncertainty over whether the object would be classified as a planet or a minor planet, as different nomenclature procedures apply to these different classes of objects,[27] the decision on what to name the object had to wait until after the August24, 2006, IAU ruling.[25] As a result, for a time the object became known to the wider public as Xena.

Athenian painting of Eris, circa 550BC

"Xena" was an informal name used internally by the discovery team. It was inspired by the eponymous heroine of the television series Xena: Warrior Princess. The discovery team had reportedly saved the nickname "Xena" for the first body they discovered that was larger than Pluto. According to Brown, We chose it since it started with an X (planet "X"), it sounds mythological (OK, so its TVmythology, but Pluto is named after a cartoon, right?),[b] and (this part is actually true) we've been working to get more female deities out there (i.e. Sedna). Also, at the time, the TVshow was still on TV, which shows you how long we've been searching![28] "We assumed [that] a real name would come out fairly quickly, [but] the process got stalled," Mike Brown said in interview, One reporter called me up from the New York Times who happened to have been a friend of mine from college, [and] I was a little less guarded with him than I am with the normal press. He asked me, "What's the name you guys proposed?" and I said, "Well, I'm not going to tell." And he said, "Well, what do you guys call it when you're just talking amongst yourselves?"... As far as I remember this was the only time I told anybody this in the press, and then it got everywhere, which I only sorta felt bad aboutI kinda like the name.[29]

Eris

159

Choosing an official name

According to science writer Govert Schilling, Brown initially wanted to call the object "Lila", after a concept in Hindu mythology that described the cosmos as the outcome of a game played by Brahma. The name was very similar to "Lilah", the name of Brown's newborn daughter. Brown was mindful of not making his name public before it had been officially accepted. He had done so with Sedna a year previously, and had been heavily criticised. However, he listed the address of his personal web page announcing the discovery as /~mbrown/planetlila and in the chaos following the controversy over the discovery of Haumea, forgot to change it. Rather than needlessly anger more of his fellow astronomers, he simply said that the webpage had been named for his daughter and dropped "Lila" from consideration.[31]

Artist's impression of the dwarf planet Eris. This artistic representation is based on observations [30] made at ESO's La Silla Observatory.

Brown had also speculated that Persephone, the wife of the god Pluto, would be a good name for the object.[2] The name had been used several times in science fiction,[32] and was popular with the public, having handily won a poll conducted by New Scientist magazine ("Xena", despite only being a nickname, came fourth).[33] However, this was not possible once the object was classified as a dwarf planet, because there is already an asteroid with that name, 399 Persephone.[2] Because IAU regulations require a name from creation mythology for objects with orbital stability beyond Neptunes orbit, the team had also been considering such possibilities.[34] With the dispute resolved, the discovery team proposed Eris on September6, 2006. On September13, 2006 this name was accepted as the official name by the IAU.[34][35] Brown decided that, as the object had been considered a planet for so long, it deserved a name from Greek or Roman mythology, like the other planets. However, the asteroids had taken the vast majority of Graeco-Roman names. Eris, whom Brown described as his favourite goddess, had fortunately escaped inclusion.[29] The name in part reflects the discord in the astronomical community caused by the debate over the objects (and Plutos) nature.

Orbit
Eris has an orbital period of 557years, and as of 2011 lies at 96.6astronomical units from the Sun,[12] almost its maximum possible distance (its aphelion is 97.5AU). It came to perihelion between 1698[5] and 1699,[36] to aphelion around 1977,[36] and will return to perihelion around 2256[36] to 2258.[37] Eris and its moon are currently the most distant known objects in the Solar System apart from long-period comets and space probes.[38] However, approximately forty known TNOs, most notably 2006 SQ372, 2000 OO67 and Sedna, while currently closer to the Sun than Eris, have greater average orbital distances than Eris' semimajor axis of 67.7AU.[4] The Eridian orbit is highly eccentric, and brings Eris to within 37.9AU of the Sun, a typical perihelion for scattered objects. This is within the orbit of Pluto, but still safe from direct interaction with Neptune (29.830.4AU). Pluto, on the other hand, like other plutinos, follows a eccentric orbit and, protected by orbital

The orbit of Eris (blue) compared to those of Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto (white/grey). The arcs below the ecliptic are plotted in darker colours, and the red dot is the Sun. The diagram on the left is a polar view while the diagrams on the right are different views from the ecliptic.

less

inclined

and

less

Eris

160 resonance, can cross Neptunes orbit. It is possible that Eris is in a 17:5resonance with Neptune, though further observations will be required to check that hypothesis.[39] Unlike the eight planets, whose orbits all lie roughly in the same plane as the Earth's, Eris' orbit is highly inclined: It is tilted at an angle of about 44degrees to the ecliptic. In about 800years, Eris will be closer to the Sun than Pluto for some time (see the graph at the right). Eris currently has an apparent magnitude of 18.7, making it bright the next 1,000 years enough to be detectable to some amateur telescopes. A 200mm telescope with a CCD can detect Eris under favourable conditions.[c] The reason it had not been noticed until now is its steep orbital inclination; most searches for large outer Solar System objects concentrate on the ecliptic plane, where most bodies are found. Eris is now in the constellation Cetus. It was in Sculptor from 1876 until 1929 and Phoenix from roughly 1840 until 1875. In 2036 it will enter Pisces and stay there until 2065, when it will enter Aries.[36] It will then move into the northern sky, entering Perseus in 2128 and Camelopardalis (where it will reach its northernmost declination) in 2173. Also, because of the high inclination of its orbit, Eris only passes through a few constellations of the traditional Zodiac.
The distances of Eris and Pluto from the Sun in

Size, mass and density

10}}, Quaoar, Orcus, and Earth. These eight trans-Neptunian objects have the brightest absolute magnitudes; several other TNOs have been found to be physically larger than Orcus, and several more may yet be found to be that.

Size estimates:
Year Radius (Diameter) Source

2005 1199(2397)km[40] Hubble 2007 1300(2600)km[41] Spitzer 2011 1163(2326)km[7] Occultation

In 2005, the diameter of Eris was measured to be 2,397km, give or take 100km, using images from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST).[14][40] The size of an object is determined from its absolute magnitude (H) and the albedo (the amount of light it reflects). At a distance of 97AU, an object with a diameter of 3,000km would have an angular size of 40milliarcseconds,[13] which is directly measurable with the Hubble Space Telescope. Although resolving such small objects is at the very limit of the telescope's capabilities,[d] sophisticated image processing

Eris techniques such as deconvolution can be used to measure such angular sizes fairly accurately.[e] This makes Eris around the same size as Pluto, which is about 2,330km across. It also indicates an albedo of 0.96, higher than that of any other large body in the Solar System except Enceladus.[7] It is speculated that the high albedo is due to the surface ices being replenished because of temperature fluctuations as Eris's eccentric orbit takes it closer and farther from the Sun.[42] In 2007, a series of observations of the largest trans-Neptunian objects with the Spitzer Space Telescope gave an estimate of Eris's diameter of 2600 km.[41] The Spitzer and Hubble estimates overlap in the range of 2,4002,500km, 48% larger than Pluto. However, astronomers now suspect that Eris's spin axis is pointing toward the sun, at the momenta possibility that would keep the sunlit hemisphere warmer than average and skew any infrared measurements toward higher values.[8] So the outcome from the 2010 Chile occultation is actually more in line with the Hubble result from 2005.[8] In November 2010, Eris was the subject of one of the most distant stellar occultations yet achieved from Earth.[8] [8] Preliminary data from this event cast doubt on previous size estimates. The teams announced their final results from the occultation in October 2011, with an estimated diameter of 2326 km.[7] However, when using data from this event for comparison to Pluto, there is a range of figures available for Pluto's radius/diameter that can be selected.[43] This is due in part to Pluto's atmosphere which interferes with making measurements of its solid surface (as opposed to gaseous haze).[43] The mass of Eris can be calculated with much greater precision. Based on the currently accepted value for Dysnomia's period15.774 days[9][44] Eris is 27percent more massive than Pluto. If the 2011 occultation results are used, then Eris has a density of 2.520.05 g cm3; substantially denser than Pluto, and thus must be composed largely of rocky materials.[7]

161

Surface and atmosphere

The discovery team followed up their initial identification of Eris with spectroscopic observations made at the 8m Gemini North Telescope in Hawaii on January25, 2005. Infrared light from the object revealed the presence of methane ice, indicating that the surface may be similar to that of Pluto, which at the time was the only TNO known to have surface methane, and of Neptune's moon Triton, which also has methane on its surface.[45] Note that no surface details can be resolved from Earth or its orbit with any instrument currently available. Due to Eris's distant eccentric orbit, Eridian surface temperature is estimated to vary between about 30 and 56 kelvin (243 and 217degrees Celsius).[2] Unlike the somewhat reddish Pluto and Triton, however, Eris appears The infrared spectrum of Eris, compared to that almost grey.[2] Pluto's reddish colour is believed to be due to deposits of Pluto, shows the marked similarities between the two bodies. Arrows denote methane of tholins on its surface, and where these deposits darken the surface, absorption lines. the lower albedo leads to higher temperatures and the evaporation of methane deposits. In contrast, Eris is far enough away from the Sun that methane can condense onto its surface even where the albedo is low. The condensation of methane uniformly over the surface reduces any albedo contrasts and would cover up any deposits of red tholins.[46]

Eris

162 Even though Eris can be up to three times further from the Sun than Pluto, it approaches close enough that some of the ices on the surface might warm enough to sublime. As methane is highly volatile, its presence shows either that Eris has always resided in the distant reaches of the Solar System where it is cold enough for methane ice to persist, or that the celestial body has an internal source of methane to replenish gas that escapes from its atmosphere. This contrasts with observations of another discovered TNO, Haumea, which reveal the presence of water ice but not methane.[47]
Artist's impression of Eris and Dysnomia. Eris is the main object, Dysnomia the small grey disk just above it. The flaring object top-left is the Sun.

Moon
In 2005, the adaptive optics team at the Keck telescopes in Hawaii carried out observations of the four brightest TNOs (Pluto, Makemake, Haumea, and Eris), using the newly commissioned laser guide star adaptive optics system.[48] Images taken on September10 revealed a moon in orbit around Eris. In keeping with the "Xena" nickname already in use for Eris, Brown's team nicknamed the moon "Gabrielle", after the television warrior princess's sidekick. When Eris received its official name from the IAU, the moon received the name Dysnomia, after the Greek goddess of lawlessness who was Eris's daughter. Brown says he picked it for similarity to his wife's name, Diane. The name also retains an oblique reference to Eris's old informal name Xena, portrayed on TV by Lucy Lawless.[49]

Notes
a. In US dictionary transcription, USdict:rs or USdict:rs.[50] Both are common, but Brown and his students use the latter.[51] b. Brown is joking on this point. It was in fact the Disney character Pluto that was named after the newly discovered "planet", though Venetia Phair, Pluto's christener, had to counter accusations her whole life that she named the planet after a cartoon dog.[52] c. For an example of an amateur image of Eris, see Fred Bruenjes' Astronomy [53] d. The Resolution of the High Resolution Channel of the ACS is 40marcsec (milliarcseconds) and the size of 1 pixel is ~25marcsec i.e. ~1875km at the distance of Eris. e. The reference to 'direct' measure by HST should not mislead into thinking that this method is as 'direct' and model-independent as measuring say Neptunes size. Basically, the method consists in finding the statistically best fit to a smeared image of the size of less than 2 pixels by comparing it with smeared images of the background stars, using a given computer model of the optics (PSF). A non technical description of the method is given on Browns page [54], a detailed description of this approach and its limitations are discussed in a paper on Quaoar[55] f. If the object is in pole-on position, the side facing the Sun (and the observer) gets hotter producing stronger emissions thus resulting in overestimation of the diameter using the thermal method. g. Images were taken on October 21, 2003, however the object was not detected and identified until 2005. h. As of 2011, Sedna is 87.3AU from the Sun,[56] whereas Eris is 96.6AU from the Sun.[12] Eris is near its aphelion (furthest distance from the Sun), while Sedna is nearing its 2076 perihelion (closest approach to the Sun).[57] Sedna will overtake Eris as the farthest presently known spherical minor planet in 2114.[57]

Eris i. According to most recent estimates, Eris is ~1% larger[7] and 25% more massive than Pluto.[9] Given the error bars in the different diameter estimates, it is currently unknown whether Eris or Pluto has the larger diameter.[19] Both Pluto and Eris are estimated to have solid-body diameters of about 2330km.[19]

163

References
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L.; Assafin, M.; Jehin, E.; Maury, A.; Lellouch, E.; Gil-Hutton, R.; Braga-Ribas, F. et al (2011). "Size, density, albedo and atmosphere limit of dwarf planet Eris from a stellar occultation" (http:/ / meetingorganizer. copernicus. org/ EPSC-DPS2011/ EPSC-DPS2011-137-8. pdf). European Planetary Science Congress Abstracts 6: 137. Bibcode2011epsc.conf..137S. . Retrieved 2011-09-14. [8] Beatty, Kelly (November 2010). "Former 'tenth planet' may be smaller than Pluto" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn19697-former-tenth-planet-may-be-smaller-than-pluto. html). NewScientist.com. Sky and Telescope. . Retrieved 2011-10-17. [9] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1126. 2fscience. 1139415_?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit) [10] Beatty, Kelly (2010-11-07). "Eris Gets Dwarfed (Is Pluto Bigger?)" (http:/ / www. skyandtelescope. com/ community/ skyblog/ newsblog/ 106861063. html). Sky & Telescope (News Blog). . Retrieved 2011-10-17. [11] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1051. 2f0004-6361. 2f200913031_?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit) [12] "AstDys (136199) Eris Ephemerides" (http:/ / hamilton. dm. unipi. it/ astdys/ index. php?pc=1. 1. 3. 0& n=Eris). Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy. . Retrieved 2009-03-16. [13] Bertoldi F., Altenhoff W., Weiss A., Menten K. M., Thum C. (2006). "The trans-Neptunian object UB313 is larger than Pluto". Nature 439 (7076): 563564. Bibcode2006Natur.439..563B. doi:10.1038/nature04494. PMID16452973. [14] "Comment on the recent Hubble Space Telescope size measurement of 2003 UB313 by Brown et al." 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"Pluto Demoted: No Longer a Planet in Highly Controversial Definition" (http:/ / space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 060824_planet_definition. html). space.com. . Retrieved 2007-05-03.

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[25] Green, Daniel W. E. (September 13, 2006). "(134340) Pluto, (136199) Eris, and (136199) Eris I (Dysnomia)" (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 08700/ 08747. html). IAU Circular 8747. . Retrieved 2012-01-12. [26] Blue, Jennifer (2006-09-14). "2003 UB 313 named Eris" (http:/ / astrogeology. usgs. gov/ HotTopics/ index. php?/ archives/ 211-2003-UB313-named-Eris. html). USGS Astrogeology Research Program. . Retrieved 2007-01-03. [27] "International Astronomical Association homepage" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070930155414/ http:/ / www. iau. org/ IAU/ FAQ/ 2003_UB313. html/ ). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. iau. org/ IAU/ FAQ/ 2003_UB313. html/ ) on September 30, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-01-05. [28] "Xena and Gabrielle" (http:/ / www. aas. org/ cswa/ status/ Status_Jan06. pdf) (PDF). Status. January 2006. . Retrieved 2007-05-03. [29] Brown, Mike (2007). "Lowell Lectures in Astronomy" (http:/ / forum. wgbh. org/ content/ forum/ 3710-2007_04_11. mp3). WGBH. . Retrieved 2008-07-13. [30] "Faraway Eris is Pluto's Twin" (http:/ / www. eso. org/ public/ news/ eso1142/ ). ESO Science Release. 26 October 2011. . Retrieved 28 October 2011. [31] Schilling, Govert (2008). The Hunt For Planet X. Springer. p.214. ISBN978-0-387-77804-4. [32] "Planet X Marks the Spot" (http:/ / www. sunflower-astronomy. com/ KCKCC_Docs/ NewsArticles/ Geek_Trivia_Planet_X_marks_the_spot. pdf) (PDF). TechRepublic. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-07-13. [33] O'Neill, Sean (2005). "Your top 10 names for the tenth planet" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article. ns?id=dn7811). NewScientist. . Retrieved 2008-06-28. [34] "The Discovery of Eris, the Largest Known Dwarf Planet" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ planetlila/ ). California Institute of Technology, Department of Geological Sciences. . Retrieved 2007-01-05. [35] "IAU0605: IAU Names Dwarf Planet Eris" (http:/ / www. iau. org/ iau0605_Eris. 409. 0. html). International Astronomical Union News. 2006-09-14. . Retrieved 2007-01-05. [36] Yeomans, Donald K.. "Horizons Online Ephemeris System" (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ horizons. cgi?find_body=1& body_group=sb& sstr=Eris). California Institute of Technology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory. . Retrieved 2007-01-05. [37] Johnston, Wm. Robert (2007-08-21). "(136199) Eris and Dysnomia" (http:/ / www. johnstonsarchive. net/ astro/ astmoons/ am-136199. html). Johnston's Archive. . Retrieved 2007-07-27. [38] Peat, Chris. "Spacecraft escaping the Solar System" (http:/ / www. heavens-above. com/ solar-escape. asp). Heavens-Above. . Retrieved 2008-01-25. [39] Simulation of Eris (2003 UB313)'s orbit predicting a 17:5resonance (http:/ / www. orbitsimulator. com/ gravity/ articles/ newtno. html) [40] "Hubble Finds 'Tenth Planet' Slightly Larger Than Pluto" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ hubble/ hst_xena_20060410. html). NASA. 2006-04-11. . Retrieved 2008-08-29. [41] John Stansberry, Will Grundy, Mike Brown, John Spencer, David Trilling, Dale Cruikshank, Jean-Luc Margot (2007). "Physical Properties of Kuiper Belt and Centaur Objects: Constraints from Spitzer Space Telescope". arXiv:astro-ph/0702538[astro-ph]. [42] M. E. Brown, E.L. Schaller, H.G. Roe, D. L. Rabinowitz, C. A. Trujillo (2006). "Direct measurement of the size of 2003 UB313 from the [[Hubble Space Telescope (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ papers/ ps/ xsize. pdf)]"] (PDF). The Astronomical Journal 643 (2): L61L63. arXiv:astro-ph/0604245. Bibcode2006ApJ...643L..61B. doi:10.1086/504843. . [43] Young, Eliot F.; Young, L. A.; Buie, M. (2007). "Pluto's Radius". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 39: 541. Bibcode2007DPS....39.6205Y. [44] Brown, Mike (2007). "Dysnomia, the moon of Eris" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ planetlila/ moon/ index. html). CalTech. . Retrieved 2007-06-14. [45] "Gemini Observatory Shows That "10th Planet" Has a Pluto-Like Surface" (http:/ / www. gemini. edu/ index. php?option=content& task=view& id=142). Gemini Observatory. 2005. . Retrieved 2007-05-03. [46] M. E. Brown, C. A. Trujillo, D. L. Rabinowitz (2005). "Discovery of a Planetary-sized Object in the Scattered Kuiper Belt". The Astrophysical Journal 635 (1): L97L100. arXiv:astro-ph/0508633. Bibcode2005ApJ...635L..97B. doi:10.1086/499336. [47] J. Licandro, W. M. Grundy, N. Pinilla-Alonso, P. Leisy (2006). "Visible spectroscopy of 2003 UB313: evidence for N2 ice on the surface of the largest TNO" (http:/ / www. aanda. org/ articles/ aa/ pdf/ 2006/ 40/ aa6028-06. pdf). Astronomy and Astrophysics 458 (1): L5L8. arXiv:astro-ph/0608044. Bibcode2006A&A...458L...5L. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20066028. . [48] This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes. You can jump the queue or expand by hand (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:cite_doi/ _10. 1086. 2f501524_?preload=Template:Cite_doi/ preload& editintro=Template:Cite_doi/ editintro& action=edit) [49] Tytell, David (2006). "All Hail Eris and Dysnomia" (http:/ / www. skyandtelescope. com/ news/ home/ 3916126. html). Sky and Telescope. . Retrieved 2010-01-05. [50] Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ eris (accessed: November 12, 2007). [51] "Julia Sweeney and Michael E. Brown" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081006182705/ http:/ / www. pluggd. tv/ audio/ channels/ kcet_podcast__hammer_conversations/ episodes/ 2h10l). Hammer Conversations: KCET podcast. 2007. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. pluggd. tv/ audio/ channels/ kcet_podcast__hammer_conversations/ episodes/ 2h10l) on 2008-10-06. . Retrieved 2008-10-01. [52] "The girl who named a planet" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 4596246. stm). BBC News. 2006-01-13. . Retrieved 2007-06-21. [53] http:/ / www. moonglow. net/ ccd/ pictures/ pc/ index. html#tnos [54] http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ planetlila/ index. html#size

164

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[55] M. E. Brown and C. A. Trujillo (2004). "Direct Measurement of the Size of the Large Kuiper Belt Object (50000) Quaoar" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ papers/ ps/ qu. pdf) (PDF). The Astronomical Journal 127 (7076): 24132417. Bibcode2004AJ....127.2413B. doi:10.1086/382513. . Describing in detail the method applied to the recent measure of 2003 UB313. [56] "AstDys (90377) Sedna Ephemerides" (http:/ / hamilton. dm. unipi. it/ astdys/ index. php?pc=1. 1. 3. 0& n=Sedna). Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy. . Retrieved 2009-03-16. [57] JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System (2010-07-18). "Horizons Output for Sedna 2076/2114" (http:/ / home. surewest. net/ kheider/ astro/ Sedna2076. txt). . Retrieved 2010-07-18. Horizons (http:/ / ssd. jpl. nasa. gov/ horizons. cgi?find_body=1& body_group=sb& sstr=Sedna)

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External links
MPC Database entry for (136199) Eris (http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/ show_object?object_id=Eris&commit=Show) Michael Brown's webpage about Eris (http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/) Brown's webpage about Dysnomia (http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/planetlila/moon/) 2007 KCET interview of Mike Brown about Eris and Haumea with Julia Sweeney (http://www.pluggd.tv/ audio/channels/kcet_podcast__hammer_conversations/episodes/2h10l) compiled list of data (http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/astmoons/am2003ub313.html) MPEC listing for 2003 UB313 (http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpec/K05/K05O41.html) Java 3D orbit visualization (http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/orbits/2003ub313.html) Spaceflight Now article about 2003 UB313 (Eris), 2003 EL61, and 2005 FY9 (Makemake) (http://www. spaceflightnow.com/news/n0509/09solarssytem/) Slacker Astronomy Interview With Co-Discoverer Trujillo (http://www.slackerastronomy.org/wordpress/ index.php/archive/10th-planet/#comments) Trans-Neptunian Object 2003 UB313 (http://www.iau.org/TRANS-NEPTUNIAN_OBJECT_2003_UB.324.0. html)IAU statement regarding the planetary status of Eris Simulation of 2003 UB313's orbit (http://www.orbitsimulator.com/gravity/articles/newtno.html) Keck observatory page about the discovery of Dysnomia (http://www2.keck.hawaii.edu/optics/staff/ mvandam/gabrielle) Caltech Press Release, 7/29/2005 (http://pr.caltech.edu/media/Press_Releases/PR12724.html) "Planetary Scientists Discover Tenth Planet". Press release on the Spitzer Space Telescope trying to image 2003 UB313 again (http://www.spitzer.caltech. edu/Media/happenings/20050807/)

166

Eris moons
Dysnomia
Dysnomia

Dysnomia (to the left) and Eris (center) taken by the Hubble Space Telescope.
Discovery Discovered by Discovery date
[1][2]

September 10, 2005

[2]

Designations MPC designation Pronunciation Alternate name(s) Adjective (136199) Eris I Dysnomia English pronunciation: /dsnomi/; English pronunciation: /dasnomi/ S/2005 (2003 UB313) 1 Dysnomian Orbital characteristics Semi-major axis Eccentricity Orbital period Inclination Satelliteof 37350140km <0.013 15.7740.002d 1423 Eris Physical characteristics Equatorial radius 34225km (albedo five times lower than Eris's) [6] 175245 km [7][8] 50125 km ~23.1
[9] [5] [4] [3]

Apparent magnitude

Absolute magnitude (H) ~3.2[10][9][6]

Dysnomia Dysnomia, officially (136199) Eris I Dysnomia (Greek: ), is the only known moon of the dwarf planet Eris (the most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System). It was discovered in 2005 by Mike Brown and the laser guide star adaptive optics team at the W. M. Keck Observatory, and carried the provisional designation of S/2005 (2003 UB313) 1 until officially named Dysnomia[11] (from the Ancient Greek word meaning "lawlessness") after the daughter of the Greek goddess Eris.

167

Discovery
During 2005, the adaptive optics team at the Keck telescopes in Hawaii carried out observations of the four brightest Kuiper belt objects (Pluto, Makemake, Haumea, and Eris), using the newly commissioned laser guide star adaptive optics system. Observations taken on 10 September revealed a moon in orbit around Eris, provisionally designated S/2005 (2003 UB313) 1. In keeping with the Xena nickname that was already in use for Eris, the moon was nicknamed "Gabrielle" by its discoverers, after Xena's sidekick.[12][13]

Properties
Dysnomia was found 4.43 magnitudes fainter than Eris,[9][6] and its diameter is estimated to be between 350 and 490km,[6] though Mike Brown claims that it is 500 times fainter and between 100 and 250 km in diameter.[8] It is 60 times fainter than Eris in the K' band and 480 times fainter in the V band, which means a very different, and quite redder, spectrum, indicating a significantly darker surface.[14] Assuming its albedo is five times lower than Eris's, its diameter would be 68550km.[5] Combining Keck and Hubble observations, the satellite was used to determine the mass of Eris, and orbital parameters were estimated. Its orbital period is calculated to be 15.7740.002d.[4] These observations indicate that Dysnomia has a circular orbit around Eris, with a radius of 37350140km.[4] This suggests that the mass of Eris is approximately 1.27 times that of Pluto.[4]

Formation
Astronomers now know that three of the four brightest Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) have satellites. Among the fainter members of the belt only about 10% are known to have satellites. This is believed to imply that collisions between large KBOs have been frequent in the past. Impacts between bodies of the order of 1000km across would throw off large amounts of material which would coalesce into a moon. A similar mechanism is believed to have led to the formation of Earth's own Moon when the Earth was struck by a giant impactor early in the history of the Solar System.

Name
Mike Brown, the moon's discoverer, chose the name Dysnomia (Greek: ) due to a number of resonances it possessed for him. Dysnomia, the daughter of Eris, fits the general historically established pattern of naming moons after lesser gods associated with the primary (hence, Jupiter's largest moons are named after lovers of Jupiter, while Saturn's are named after his fellow Titans). Also, the English translation of "Dysnomia", "lawlessness", echoes Lucy Lawless, the actress famous for starring in Xena: Warrior Princess on television. Before receiving their official names, Eris and Dysnomia were known informally as "Xena" and "Gabrielle", and Brown decided to retain that connection. Brown also notes that Pluto owes its name in part to its first two letters, which form the initials of Percival Lowell, the founder of the observatory where its discoverer, Clyde Tombaugh, was working, and the person who inspired the search for "Planet X". James Christy, who discovered Charon, followed the principle established with Pluto by choosing a name which shared its first four letters with his wife's name, Charlene. "Dysnomia", similarly, has the same first letter as Brown's wife, Diane,[15] and Brown uses the nickname "Dy" /da/ for the moon, which he

Dysnomia pronounces the same as his wife's nickname, Di. Because of this, Brown pronounces the full name English pronunciation: /dasnomi/, with a long "y".[16] In addition, both Eris and Dysnomia, representing aspects of chaos, reflect the effect their existence had in the disputation on the definition of a planet (and specifically on the status of Pluto and Ceres), and the debate that followed.

168

Notes
[1] Michael E. Brown, M. A. van Dam, A. H. Bouchez, D. Le Mignant, R. D. Campbell, J. C. Y. Chin, A. Conrad, S. K. Hartman, E. M. Johansson, R. E. Lafon, D. L. Rabinowitz, P. J. Stomski Jr., D. M. Summers, C. A. Trujillo, and P. L. Wizinowich [2] Brown, M. E.; et al. (2006). "Satellites of the Largest Kuiper Belt Objects" (http:/ / web. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ papers/ ps/ gab. pdf). Astrophysical Journal Letters 639 (1): L43. arXiv:astro-ph/0510029. Bibcode2006ApJ...639L..43B. doi:10.1086/501524. . Retrieved 2011-10-19. [3] In US dictionary transcription, USdict:dsnm, dsnm, or as in Greek . The first is the normal mythological pronunciation; the latter is the one used by Brown. [4] Brown, M. E.; Schaller, E. L. (2007). "The Mass of Dwarf Planet Eris". Science 316 (5831): 1585. Bibcode2007Sci...316.1585B. doi:10.1126/science.1139415. PMID17569855. [5] Santos-Sanz, P.; et al. (2012). ""TNOs are Cool": A Survey of the Transneptunian Region IV. Size/albedo characterization of 15 scattered disk and detached objects observed with Herschel Space Observatory-PACS". arXiv:1202.1481[astro-ph.EP]. [6] Johnston, W. R. (30 December 2008). "(136199) Eris and Dysnomia" (http:/ / www. johnstonsarchive. net/ astro/ astmoons/ am-136199. html). Johnston's Archive. . Retrieved 2012-04-12. [7] According to Michael E. Brown, it is 500 times fainter. [8] Brown, M. E. (14 June 2007). "Dysnomia, the moon of Eris" (http:/ / www. gps. caltech. edu/ ~mbrown/ planetlila/ moon). Caltech. . Retrieved 2011-07-03. [9] Green, D. W. E. (4 October 2005). "S/2005 (2003 UB313) 1" (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 08600/ 08610. html). IAU Circular 8610. . Retrieved 2012-01-12. [10] Dysnomia was found 4.430.05 mag fainter than Eris. With H = 1.19 for Eris, this gives H 3.2 for Dysnomia. [11] Green, D. W. E. (13 September 2006). "(134340) Pluto, (136199) Eris, and (136199) Eris I (Dysnomia)" (http:/ / www. cbat. eps. harvard. edu/ iauc/ 08700/ 08747. html). IAU Circular 8747. . Retrieved 2012-01-12. [12] Zabarenko, D. (3 October 2005). "Planet Xena has moon called Gabrielle" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ news/ stories/ s1473136. htm). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. . Retrieved 2008-03-09. [13] Ingham, R. (2 February 2006). "'Tenth planet' Xena bigger than Pluto" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ news/ stories/ s1560563. htm). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. . Retrieved 2008-03-09. [14] Sicardy, B.; et al. (2011). "A Pluto-like radius and a high albedo for the dwarf planet Eris from an occultation" (http:/ / hal. upmc. fr/ docs/ 00/ 63/ 77/ 20/ PDF/ Eris_SI. pdf). Nature 478 (7370): 493496. Bibcode2011Natur.478..493S. doi:10.1038/nature10550. PMID22031441. . [15] Tytell, D. (14 September 2006). "All Hail Eris and Dysnomia" (http:/ / skytonight. com/ news/ home/ 3916126. html). Sky & Telescope. . Retrieved 2006-12-30. [16] "Julia Sweeney and Michael E. Brown" (http:/ / www. pluggd. tv/ audio/ channels/ kcet_podcast__hammer_conversations/ episodes/ 2h10l). Hammer Conversations: KCET podcast. 2007. 42min 12sec. . Retrieved 2008-06-28.

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Feild (Space Telescope Science Institute) File:2005FY9art.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2005FY9art.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ann Feild (Space Telescope Science Institute) File:Eris and dysnomia2.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eris_and_dysnomia2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jan.Kamenicek, John800104, Kalki, Krinkle, Ruslik0, 2 anonymous edits File:Masses of dwarf planets vs Luna.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Masses_of_dwarf_planets_vs_Luna.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: kwami (talk) Original uploader was Kwamikagami at en.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by Ckatz at en.wikipedia. File:Ceres symbol.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ceres_symbol.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aquantrum, Crei0, Galphi, Lexicon, Ramiy, Ruslik0, Sarang, Sarilho1, Urhixidur, 4 anonymous edits File:Pluto symbol.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto_symbol.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lexicon File:TheTransneptunians Size Albedo Color.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TheTransneptunians_Size_Albedo_Color.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Chesnok, Eurocommuter, Poulpy, 9 anonymous edits File:Voyager 2 Neptune and Triton.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Voyager_2_Neptune_and_Triton.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA / Jet Propulsion Lab File:Platon-2.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Platon-2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Carlomorino, G.dallorto, Skeezix1000, Tomisti File:Cellarius ptolemaic system c2.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cellarius_ptolemaic_system_c2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Loon, J. van (Johannes), ca. 1611-1686. File:John Gower world Vox Clamantis.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Gower_world_Vox_Clamantis.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Andreagrossmann, Bkwillwm, Leinad-Z, Mattes, Mdd, Mechamind90, SteveMcCluskey File:Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ArsniureDeGallium, ArtMechanic, Ausir, Craigboy, Editor at Large, J.delanoy, Kyro, Manuelt15, Matthead, Mikkalai, Pko, Samuel Grant, TarmoK, ThomasPusch, 6 anonymous edits File:William Herschel01.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_Herschel01.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ArtMechanic, Dcoetzee, EMStephens, Madmedea, Materialscientist, Peppe83, Victuallers, WeHaKa, Yann, File:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ABF, Alefisico, Alno, Aushulz, David J Wilson, Deadstar, Dirk Hnniger, G.dallorto, Gary King, Herbythyme, Kam Solusar, Liberal Freemason, Michael Bednarek, Phrood, Prez, Quadell, Ragesoss, Schaengel89, Semnoz, Shakko, Trelio, Yonatanh, 24 anonymous edits File:Giuseppe Piazzi.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giuseppe_Piazzi.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Howcheng, Lalupa, Lotse, Papa November, Rentier, Rootology, Ruslik0 File:Clyde Tombaugh image.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clyde_Tombaugh_image.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Acom at en.wikipedia File:Michael E Brown 1.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Michael_E_Brown_1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: GDK, Kheider, Lotse, Vssun File:EightTNOs.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EightTNOs.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Lexicon File:Outersolarsystem objectpositions labels comp.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Outersolarsystem_objectpositions_labels_comp.png License: Free Art License Contributors: 84user, Bassem, Kaldari, Peteforsyth, Poppy, Venkat.athma, Wikibob, WilyD, 5 anonymous edits File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Mdf at en.wikipedia File:Proteus (Voyager 2).jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Proteus_(Voyager_2).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Voyager 2, NASA File:pluto and charon.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto_and_charon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Dr. R. Albrecht, ESA/ESO Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility; NASA File:Moon trajectory1.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moon_trajectory1.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Antnio Miguel de Campos - en:User:T campos File:Brown Dwarf Gliese 229B.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brown_Dwarf_Gliese_229B.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Brallan, Juiced lemon, Kheider, Tom File:Sol Cha-110913-773444 Jupiter.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sol_Cha-110913-773444_Jupiter.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Wikipedia:en:User:Chaos syndrome File:hubbledwarf.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hubbledwarf.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA/ESA/K. Luhman (Penn State University, USA) Original uploader was Serendipodous at en.wikipedia File:ThePlanetDefinition.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ThePlanetDefinition.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Eurocommuter, User:The Kid File:Three proposed planets.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Three_proposed_planets.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: KillOrDie, Metrnomo, Zeimusu, 3 anonymous edits File:0planet-candidates.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:0planet-candidates.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Petros000 at en.wikipedia File:Pluto Protest and Counter Protest.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto_Protest_and_Counter_Protest.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fanboy File:The Planets Definition 2.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Planets_Definition_2.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Elishatbrown File:ThePlanetDefinition3.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ThePlanetDefinition3.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Eurocommuter File:Piazzi Cerere.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Piazzi_Cerere.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: KillOrDie, Mo-Slimy, Ruslik0, Vesta, 1 anonymous edits File:Ceres2.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ceres2.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Varun Kumar File:Ceres Earth Moon Comparison.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ceres_Earth_Moon_Comparison.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:CWitte File:Moon and Asteroids 1 to 10.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moon_and_Asteroids_1_to_10.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Vystrix Nexoth File:Ceres Rotation.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ceres_Rotation.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA, ESA, J. Parker (Southwest Research Institute), P. Thomas (Cornell University), and L. McFadden (University of Maryland, College Park) File:Ceres Cutaway.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ceres_Cutaway.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA, ESA, and A. Feild (STScI) File:Ceres Orbit.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ceres_Orbit.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User: Orionist File:Dawn Flight Configuration 2.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dawn_Flight_Configuration_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: GDK File:NASA DAWN 07pd1504.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NASA_DAWN_07pd1504.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Georgewilliamherbert File:Dawn at Launch Pad.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dawn_at_Launch_Pad.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/Amanda Diller File:Vesta from Dawn, July 17.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vesta_from_Dawn,_July_17.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Little Mountain 5, Masur

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Dawn trajectory as of September 2009.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dawn_trajectory_as_of_September_2009.png License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA / JPL / courtesy Marc Rayman File:Dawn_solar_panel.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dawn_solar_panel.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/George Shelton, Image ID: KSC-07PD-1246 File:Dawn launch.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dawn_launch.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Photo File:Mars image by Dawn probe.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mars_image_by_Dawn_probe.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA File:Vesta image by Dawn probe.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vesta_image_by_Dawn_probe.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA / JPL-Caltech / UCLA / MPS / DLR / IDA File:Dawn-image-062411.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dawn-image-062411.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: JorisvS, Kokorik, Philadelphia 2009 File:Vesta 20110701 cropped.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vesta_20110701_cropped.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Craigboy, JorisvS File:Dawn-image-070911.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dawn-image-070911.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA File:Vesta from Dawn, July 18.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vesta_from_Dawn,_July_18.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Little Mountain 5 File:Vesta darkside.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vesta_darkside.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA File:Vesta Full-Frame.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vesta_Full-Frame.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA File:Dawn logo.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dawn_logo.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Antonsusi, TheDJ, Uwe W. File:Pluto animiert.gif Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto_animiert.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Aineias, NASA, ESA, and M. Buie (Southwest Research Institute) derivative work: Aineias (talk) Image:Speakerlink.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speakerlink.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Woodstone. Original uploader was Woodstone at en.wikipedia File:Neptune symbol.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Neptune_symbol.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amit6 File:Pluto's astrological symbol.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto's_astrological_symbol.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lexicon File:ClydeTombaugh2.gif Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ClydeTombaugh2.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: anonymous File:Pluto Orbit.gif Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto_Orbit.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Lookang File:Plutoorbit1.5sideview.gif Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plutoorbit1.5sideview.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Lookang File:TheKuiperBelt Orbits Pluto Neptune2.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TheKuiperBelt_Orbits_Pluto_Neptune2.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Eurocommuter File:TheKuiperBelt Orbits Pluto Polar.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TheKuiperBelt_Orbits_Pluto_Polar.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Eurocommuter File:PlutoColorMap HST2002-2003.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PlutoColorMap_HST2002-2003.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Marc Buie (Lowell Observatory)/NASA/ESA File:Pluto map.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto_map.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA/ESA/M. Buie (Southwest Research Institute) File:Pluto-map-hs-2010-06-a-faces.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto-map-hs-2010-06-a-faces.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA, ESA, and Marc W. Buie (Southwest Research Institute) File:Pluto-picture.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto-picture.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ComputerHotline, Laurentius, Linuxerist, Ruslik0, Wikiborg4711, 1 anonymous edits File:Pluto-cutaway.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto-cutaway.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: RP88 Original uploader was RP88 at en.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by Dream out loud at en.wikipedia. File:Pluto, Earth size comparison.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto,_Earth_size_comparison.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Brian0918 at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Ephemeronium, Dream out loud at en.wikipedia. File:ESO-L. Calada - Pluto (by).jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ESO-L._Calada_-_Pluto_(by).jpg License: unknown Contributors: ESO/L. Calada File:Pluto and charon.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto_and_charon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Dr. R. Albrecht, ESA/ESO Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility; NASA File:Pluto-Charon double planet.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto-Charon_double_planet.png License: Public domain Contributors: Lanthanum-138 at en.wikipedia File:Charon.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charon.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Double sharp, Huntster, Jan.Kamenicek, Ruslik0, XBrain130 File:Pluto system 2006.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto_system_2006.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: H. Weaver (JHU/APL), A. Stern (SwRI), and the HST Pluto Companion Search Team File:Orbit of Pluto's moon P4.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit_of_Pluto's_moon_P4.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kheider, Rehman File:P4.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Hubble File:New Horizons Jan19 06.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_Horizons_Jan19_06.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Latitude0116 at en.wikipedia File:112806 pluto animation.gif Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:112806_pluto_animation.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Brallan, Perhelion, TheDJ File:Plutonian system size.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plutonian_system_size.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: A. Stern (SwRI) and Z. Levay (STScI), vectors by User:Mysid File:Masses of Plutonian moons.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Masses_of_Plutonian_moons.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Kwamikagami File:Creation of the moons of Pluto.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Creation_of_the_moons_of_Pluto.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Acom File:Pluto Moons Orbit Distance.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto_Moons_Orbit_Distance.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Nbound File:Charon Discovery.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charon_Discovery.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Naval Observatory File:Charonsinre.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charonsinre.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Brallan at sv.wikipedia File:Charon 2.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charon_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bastique, Brallan, ComputerHotline, Kameraad Pjotr, NGerda, Ruslik0, Supportstorm, 1 anonymous edits File:Discovery Charon.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Discovery_Charon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Acom, 1 anonymous edits File:Pluto system 2005 discovery images.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto_system_2005_discovery_images.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA, ESA, H. Weaver (JHU/APL), A. Stern (SwRI), and the Hubble Space Telescope Pluto Companion Search Team File:Pluto P4.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pluto_P4.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Rehman File:New horizons Pluto.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_horizons_Pluto.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Dream out loud, Kukanotas, Ruslik0, SchuminWeb, ShakataGaNai, 2 anonymous edits File:New Horizons - Logo2 big.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_Horizons_-_Logo2_big.png License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA/JPL/APL/SwRI File:NewHorizons Rocket Bly.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NewHorizons_Rocket_Bly.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Vince Bly, 4 anonymous edits File:Atlas V 551 roars into blue sky.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atlas_V_551_roars_into_blue_sky.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: GDK, Huntster, Schlurcher, Supportstorm, TheDJ, Uwe W. File:D6-17018ML.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:D6-17018ML.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: John J Rice

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File:New horizon jupiter flyby.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_horizon_jupiter_flyby.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Martinw89 Image:NhJupiterIo010807.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NhJupiterIo010807.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Image:NewHorizonsIo.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NewHorizonsIo.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Image:NewHorizonsEuropa.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NewHorizonsEuropa.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Image:NewHorizonsGanymede.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NewHorizonsGanymede.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA Image:NewHorizonsCallisto.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NewHorizonsCallisto.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA File:NH Jupiter IR.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NH_Jupiter_IR.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: New Horizons probe, uploaded to en.wikipedia by Tablizer; and commons by ~~~~es. File:Tvashtarvideo.gif Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tvashtarvideo.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Serendipodous at en.wikipedia File:Fairytale right.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fairytale_right.png License: GNU Lesser General Public License Contributors: Bennylin, Dake, Loyna, Rocket000 File:New Horizons 1.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_Horizons_1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA File:New Horizons - REX.jpeg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_Horizons_-_REX.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bricktop, LinuxChristian, Supportstorm File:Jupiter little red spot NH.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jupiter_little_red_spot_NH.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Clarkcj12, Magog the Ogre, Monkeybait, Nergaal, Sfan00 IMG, Supportstorm, Tablizer File:Himalia from New Horizons.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Himalia_from_New_Horizons.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA. 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