Antenna

An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric currents into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter applies an oscillating radio frequency electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified. An antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio. They are used in systems such as radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way radio,communications receivers, radar, cell phones, and satellite communications, as well as other devices such as garage door openers, wireless microphones, bluetoothenabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby monitors, and RFID tags on merchandise. Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors ("elements"), electrically connected (often through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter. An oscillating current of electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an oscillating magnetic field around the antenna elements, while thecharge of the electrons also creates an oscillating electric field along the elements. These time-varying fields radiate away from the antenna into space as a moving electromagnetic field wave. Conversely, during reception, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of an incoming radio wave exert force on the electrons in the antenna elements, causing them to move back and forth, creating oscillating currents in the antenna. Antennas may also contain reflective or directive elements or surfaces not connected to the transmitter or receiver, such as parasitic elements, parabolic reflectors orhorns, which serve to direct the radio waves into a beam or other desired radiation pattern. Antennas can be designed to transmit or receive radio waves in all directions equally (omnidirectional antennas), or transmit them in a beam in a particular direction, and receive from that one direction only (directional or high gain antennas). The first antennas were built in 1888 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering experiments to prove the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of James Clerk Maxwell. Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal point of parabolic reflectors for both transmitting and receiving. The words antenna (plural: antennas) and aerial are used interchangeably; but usually a rigid metallic structure is termed an antenna and a wire format is called an aerial. In the United Kingdom and other British English speaking areas the term aerial is more common, even for rigid types. The noun aerial is occasionally written with a diaeresis markarialin recognition of the original spelling of the adjective arial from which the noun is derived. The origin of the word antenna relative to wireless apparatus is attributed to Italian radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi. In 1895, while testing early radio apparatus in the Swiss Alps at Salvan, Switzerlandin the Mont Blanc region, Marconi experimented with long wire 'aerials'. He used a 2.5 meter vertical pole, with a wire attached to the top running down to the transmitter, as a radiating and receiving aerial element. In Italian a tent pole is known as l'antenna centrale, and the pole with the wire was simply called l'antenna. Until then wireless radiating transmitting and receiving elements were known simply as aerials or terminals. Because of his prominence, Marconi's use of the word antenna (Italian for pole) spread among wireless researchers, and later to the general public. In common usage, the word antenna may refer broadly to an entire assembly including support structure, enclosure (if any), etc. in addition to the actual functional components. Especially at microwave

frequencies, a receiving antenna may include not only the actual electrical antenna but an integrated preamplifier and/or mixer.

PARAMETER OF ANTENNA
Antennas are characterized by a number of performance measures which a user would be concerned with in selecting or designing an antenna for a particular application. Chief among these relate to the directional characteristics (as depicted in the antenna's radiation pattern) and the resulting gain. Even in omnidirectional (or weakly directional) antennas, the gain can often be increased by concentrating more of its power in the horizontal directions, sacrificing power radiated toward the sky and ground. The antenna's power gain (or simply "gain") also takes into account the antenna's efficiency, and is often the primary figure of merit. Resonant antennas are expected to be used around a particular resonant frequency; an antenna must therefore be built or ordered to match the frequency range of the intended application. A particular antenna design will present a particular feedpoint impedance. While this may affect the choice of an antenna, an antenna's impedance can also be adapted to the desired impedance level of a system using an matching network while maintaining the other characteristics (except for a possible loss of efficiency). Although these parameters can be measured in principle, such measurements are difficult and require very specialized equipment. Beyond tuning a transmitting antenna using an SWR meter, the typical user will depend on theoretical predictions based on the antenna design and/or on claims of a vendor. An antenna transmits and receives radio waves with a particular polarization which can be reoriented by tilting the axis of the antenna in many (but not all) cases. The physical size of an antenna is often a practical issue, particularly at lower frequencies (longer wavelengths). Highly directional antennas need to be significantly larger than the wavelength. Resonant antennas use a conductor, or a pair of conductors, each of which is about one quarter of the wavelength in length. Antennas that are required to be very small compared to the wavelength sacrifice efficiency and cannot be very directional. Fortunately at higher frequencies (UHF, microwaves) trading off performance to obtain a smaller physical size is usually not required.

Resonant antennas
While there are broadband designs for antennas, the vast majority of antennas are based on the halfwave dipole which has a particular resonant frequency. At its resonant frequency, the wavelength (figured by dividing the speed of light by the resonant frequency) is slightly over twice the length of the half-wave dipole (thus the name). The quarter-wave vertical antenna consists of one arm of a half-wave dipole, with the other arm replaced by a connection to ground or an equivalent ground plane (or counterpoise). A Yagi-Uda array consists of a number of resonant dipole elements, only one of which is directly connected to the transmission line. The quarter-wave elements of a dipole or vertical antenna imitate a series-resonant electrical element, since if they are driven at the resonant frequency a standing wave is created with the peak current at the feed-point and the peak voltage at the far end. A common misconception is that the ability of a resonant antenna to transmit (or receive) fails at frequencies far from the resonant frequency. The reason a dipole antenna needs to be used at the resonant frequency has to do with the impedance match between the antenna and the transmitter or receiver (and its transmission line). For instance, a dipole using a fairly thin conductor will have a purely resistive feedpoint impedance of about 63 ohms at its design frequency. Feeding that antenna with a current of 1 ampere will require 63 volts of RF, and the antenna will radiate 63 watts (ignoring losses) of radio frequency power. If that antenna is driven with 1 ampere at a frequency 20% higher, it will still radiate as efficiently but in order to do that about 200 volts would be required due to the change in the antenna's impedance which is now largely reactive (voltage out of phase with the current). A typical transmitter would not find that impedance acceptable and would deliver much less than 63 watts to it; the transmission line would be operating at a high (poor) standing wave ratio. But using an appropriate matching network, that large reactive impedance could be converted to a resistive impedance satisfying the transmitter and accepting the available power of the transmitter. This principle is used to construct vertical antennas substantially shorter than the 1/4 wavelength at which the antenna is resonant. By adding an inductance in series with the vertical antenna (a socalled loading coil) the capacitative reactance of this antenna can be cancelled leaving a pure resistance which can then be matched to the transmission line. Sometimes the resulting resonant frequency of such a system (antenna plus matching network) is described using the construct of "electrical length" and the use of a shorter antenna at a lower frequency than its resonant frequency is termed "electrical lengthening". For example, at 30 MHz (wavelength = 10 meters) a true resonant monopole would be almost 2.5 meters (1/4 wavelength) long, and using an antenna only 1.5 meters tall would require the addition of a loading coil. Then it may be said that the coil has "lengthened" the antenna to achieve an "electrical length" of 2.5 meters, that is, 1/4 wavelength at 30 MHz where the combined system now resonates. However, the resulting resistive impedance achieved will be quite a bit lower than the impedance of a resonant monopole, likely requiring further impedance matching.

Current and voltage distribution

The antenna conductors have the lowest feed-point impedance at the resonant frequency where they are just under 1/4 wavelength long; two such conductors in line fed differentially thus realize the familiar "half-wave dipole". When fed with an RF current at the resonant frequency, the quarter wave element contains a standing wave with the voltage and current largely in phase quadrature, as would be obtained using a quarter wave stub of transmission line. The current reaches a minimum at the end of the element and is maximum at the feed-point. The voltage, on the other hand, is the greatest at the end of the conductor and reaches a minimum (but not zero) at the feedpoint. Making the conductor shorter or longer than 1/4 wavelength means that the voltage pattern reaches its minimum somewhere beyond the feed-point, so that the feed-point has a higher voltage and thus sees a higher impedance, as we have

noted. Since that voltage pattern is almost in phase quadrature with the current, the impedance seen at the feed-point is not only much higher but mainly reactive. It can be seen that if such an element is resonant at f0 to produce such a standing wave pattern, then feeding that element with 3f0 (whose wavelength is 1/3 that of f0) will lead to a standing wave pattern in which the voltage is likewise a minimum at the feed-point (and the current at a maximum there). Thus, an antenna element is also resonant when its length is 3/4 of a wavelength (3/2 wavelength for a complete dipole). This is true for all odd multiples of 1/4 wavelength, where the feed-point impedance is purely resistive, though larger than the resistive impedance of the 1/4 wave element. Although such an antenna is resonant and works perfectly well at the higher frequency, the antenna radiation pattern is also altered compared to the half-wave dipole. The use of a monopole or dipole at odd multiples of the fundamental resonant frequency, however, does not extend to even multiples (thus a 1/2 wavelength monopole or 1 wavelength dipole). Now the voltage standing wave is at its peak at the feed-point, while that of the current (which must be zero at the end of the conductor) is at a minimum (but not exactly zero). The antenna is anti-resonant at this frequency. Although the reactance at the feedpoint can be cancelled using such an element length, the feed-point impedance is very high, and is highly dependent on the diameter of the conductor (which makes only a small difference at the actual resonant frequency). Such an antenna does not match the much lower characteristic impedance of available transmission lines, and is generally not used. However some equipment where transmission lines are not involved which desire high driving point impedance may take advantage of this anti-resonance.

Bandwidth
Although a resonant antenna has a purely resistive feed-point impedance at a particular frequency, many (if not most) applications require using an antenna over a range of frequencies. An antenna's bandwidth specifies the range of frequencies over which its performance does not suffer due to a poor impedance match. Also in the case of a Yagi-Uda array, the use of the antenna very far away from its design frequency reduces the antenna's directivity, thus reducing the usable bandwidth regardless of impedance matching. Except for the latter concern, the resonant frequency of a resonant antenna can always be altered by adjusting a suitable matching network. To do this efficiently one would require remotely adjusting a matching network at the site of the antenna, since simply adjusting a matching network at the transmitter (or receiver) would leave the transmission line with a poor standing wave ratio. Instead, it is often desired to have an antenna whose impedance does not vary so greatly over a certain bandwidth. It turns out that the amount of reactance seen at the terminals of a resonant antenna when the frequency is shifted, say, by 5%, depends very much on the diameter of the conductor used. A long thin wire used as a half-wave dipole (or quarter wave monopole) will have a reactance significantly greater than the resistive impedance it has at resonance, leading to a poor match and generally unacceptable performance. Making the element using a tube of a diameter perhaps 1/50 of its length, however, results in a reactance at this altered frequency which is not so great, and a much less serious mismatch which will only modestly damage the antenna's net performance. Thus rather thick tubes are typically used for the solid elements of such antennas, including Yagi-Uda arrays. Rather than just using a thick tube, there are similar techniques used to the same effect such as replacing thin wire elements with cages to simulate a thicker element. This widens the bandwidth of the resonance. On the other hand, amateur radio antennas need to operate over several bands which are widely separated from each other. This can often be accomplished simply by connecting resonant elements for the different bands in parallel. Most of the transmitter's power will flow into the resonant element while the others present high (reactive) impedance and draw little current from the same voltage. A popular solution uses so-called traps consisting of parallel resonant circuits which are strategically placed in

breaks along each antenna element. When used at one particular frequency band the trap presents a very high impedance (parallel resonance) effectively truncating the element at that length, making it a proper resonant antenna. At a lower frequency the trap allows the full length of the element to be employed, albeit with a shifted resonant frequency due to the inclusion of the trap's net reactance at that lower frequency. The bandwidth characteristics of a resonant antenna element can be characterized according to its Q, just as one uses to characterize the sharpness of an L-C resonant circuit. However it is often assumed that there is an advantage in an antenna having a high Q. After all, Q is short for "quality factor" and a low Q typically signifies excessive loss (due to unwanted resistance) in a resonant L-C circuit. However this understanding does not apply to resonant antennas where the resistance involved is the radiation resistance, a desired quantity which removes energy from the resonant element in order to radiate it (the purpose of an antenna, after all!). The Q is a measure of the ratio of reactance to resistance, so with a fixed radiation resistance (an element's radiation resistance is almost independent of its diameter) a greater reactance off-resonance corresponds to the poorer bandwidth of a very thin conductor. The Q of such a narrowband antenna can be as high as 15. On the other hand a thick element presents less reactance at an off-resonant frequency, and consequently a Q as low as 5. These two antennas will perform equivalently at the resonant frequency, but the second antenna will perform over a bandwidth 3 times as wide as the "hi-Q" antenna consisting of a thin conductor.

Gain
Gain is a parameter which measures the degree of directivity of the antenna's radiation pattern. A highgain antenna will preferentially radiate in a particular direction. Specifically, the antenna gain, or power gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the intensity (power per unit surface) radiated by the antenna in the direction of its maximum output, at an arbitrary distance, divided by the intensity radiated at the same distance by a hypothetical isotropic antenna. The gain of an antenna is a passive phenomenon - power is not added by the antenna, but simply redistributed to provide more radiated power in a certain direction than would be transmitted by an isotropic antenna. An antenna designer must take into account the application for the antenna when determining the gain. High-gain antennas have the advantage of longer range and better signal quality, but must be aimed carefully in a particular direction. Low-gain antennas have shorter range, but the orientation of the antenna is relatively inconsequential. For example, a dish antenna on a spacecraft is a high-gain device that must be pointed at the planet to be effective, whereas a typical Wi-Fi antenna in a laptop computer is low-gain, and as long as the base station is within range, the antenna can be in any orientation in space. It makes sense to improve horizontal range at the expense of reception above or below the antenna. Thus most antennas labeled "omnidirectional" really have some gain. In practice, the half-wave dipole is taken as a reference instead of the isotropic radiator. The gain is then given in dBd (decibels over dipole): NOTE: 0 dBd = 2.15 dBi. It is vital in expressing gain values that the reference point be included..

Effective area or aperture

The effective area or effective aperture of a receiving antenna expresses the portion of the power of a passing electromagnetic wave which it delivers to its terminals, expressed in terms of an equivalent area. For instance, if a radio wave passing a given location has a flux of 1 pW / m2 (1012 watts per square meter) and an antenna has an effective area of 12 m2, then the antenna would deliver 12 pW of RF power to the receiver (30 microvolts rms at 75 ohms). Since the receiving antenna is not equally sensitive to signals received from all directions, the effective area is a function of the direction to the source.

Due to reciprocity the gain of an antenna used for transmitting must be proportional to its effective area when used for receiving. Consider an antenna with no loss, that is, one whose electrical efficiency is 100%. It can be shown that its effective area averaged over all directions must be equal to 2/4, the wavelength squared divided by 4. Gain is defined such that the average gain over all directions for an antenna with 100% electrical efficiency is equal to 1. Therefore the effective area Aeff in terms of the gain G in a given direction is given by:

For an antenna with an efficiency of less than 100%, both the effective area and gain are reduced by that same amount. Therefore the above relationship between gain and effective area still holds. These are thus two different ways of expressing the same quantity. Aeff is especially convenient when computing the power that would be received by an antenna of a specified gain, as illustrated by the above example.

Radiation pattern

The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the relative field strength of the radio waves emitted by the antenna at different angles. It is typically represented by a three dimensional graph, or polar plots of the horizontal and vertical cross sections. The pattern of an ideal isotropic antenna, which radiates equally in all directions, would look like a sphere. Many non-directional antennas, such as monopoles and dipoles, emit equal power in all horizontal directions, with the power dropping off at higher and lower angles; this is called an omnidirectional pattern and when plotted looks like a torus or donut. The radiation of many antennas shows a pattern of maxima or "lobes" at various angles, separated by "nulls", angles where the radiation falls to zero. This is because the radio waves emitted by different parts of the antenna typically interfere, causing maxima at angles where the radio waves arrive at distant points in phase, and zero radiation at other angles where the radio waves arrive out of phase. In a directional antenna designed to project radio waves in a particular direction, the lobe in that direction is designed larger than the others and is called the "main lobe". The other lobes usually represent unwanted radiation and are called "sidelobes". The axis through the main lobe is called the "principle axis" or "boresight axis".

Impedance

As an electro-magnetic wave travels through the different parts of the antenna system (radio, feed line, antenna, free space) it may encounter differences in impedance (E/H, V/I, etc.). At each interface, depending on the impedance match, some fraction of the wave's energy will reflect back to the source, forming a standing wave in the feed line. The ratio of maximum power to minimum power in the wave can be measured and is called the standing wave ratio (SWR). A SWR of 1:1 is ideal. A SWR of 1.5:1 is considered to be marginally acceptable in low power applications where power loss is more critical, although an SWR as high as 6:1 may still be usable with the right equipment. Minimizing impedance differences at each interface (impedance matching) will reduce SWR and maximize power transfer through each part of the antenna system. Complex impedance of an antenna is related to the electrical length of the antenna at the wavelength in use. The impedance of an antenna can be matched to the feed line and radio by adjusting the impedance of the feed line, using the feed line as an impedance transformer. More commonly, the impedance is adjusted at the load (see below) with an antenna tuner, a balun, a matching transformer, matching networks composed of inductors and capacitors, or matching sections such as the gamma match.

Efficiency
Efficiency of a transmitting antenna is the ratio of power actually radiated (in all directions) to the power absorbed by the antenna terminals. The power supplied to the antenna terminals which is not radiated is converted into heat. This is usually through loss resistance in the antenna's conductors, but can also be due to dielectric or magnetic core losses in antennas (or antenna systems) using such components. Such loss effectively robs power from the transmitter, requiring a stronger transmitter in order to transmit a signal of a given strength. For instance, if a transmitter delivers 100 W into an antenna having an efficiency of 80%, then the antenna will radiate 80 W as radio waves and produce 20 W of heat. In order to radiate 100 W of power, one would need to use a transmitter capable of supplying 125 W to the antenna. Note that antenna efficiency is a separate issue from impedance matching, which may also reduce the amount of power radiated using a given transmitter. If an SWR meter reads 150 W of incident power and 50 W of reflected power which means that 100 W have actually been absorbed by the antenna (ignoring transmission line losses). How much of that power has actually been radiated cannot be directly determined through electrical measurements at (or before) the antenna terminals, but would require (for instance) careful measurement of field strength. Fortunately the loss resistance of antenna conductors such as aluminum rods can be calculated and the efficiency of an antenna using such materials predicted. However loss resistance will generally affect the feedpoint impedance, adding to its resistive (real) component. That resistance will consist of the sum of the radiation resistance Rr and the loss resistance Rloss. If an rms current I is delivered to the terminals of an antenna, then a power of I 2Rr will be radiated and a power of I2Rloss will be lost as heat. Therefore the efficiency of an antenna is equal to R r / (Rr + Rloss). Of course only the total resistance Rr + Rloss can be directly measured.

Amount various

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atmospheric angles

noise

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frequency according CCIR 322

According to reciprocity, the efficiency of an antenna, when used as a receiving antenna, is identical to the efficiency as defined above. The power that an antenna will deliver to a receiver (with a proper impedance match) is reduced by the same amount. However often in a receiving application, inefficiency of an antenna may be of lesser consequence or even of no consequence, notably at lower frequencies or when used to receive signals in "crowded" bands. That is true in cases where the received signal competes not against receiver noise, but against atmospheric noise or interference received by the antenna itself. The loss within the antenna will affect the intended signal and the noise/interference identically, leading to no reduction in signal to noise ratio (SNR). According to the graph shown illustrating the frequency dependence of atmospheric and man-made noise, one can see that using a receiving antenna with an efficiency of only 10% at frequencies below 10 MHz will still supply a signal to the receiver which includes noise well above the thermal limit. A decent RF amplifier in the receiver will not significantly add to this noise level or reduce the resulting SNR. This is fortunate, since antennas at lower frequencies which are not rather large (a good fraction of a wavelength in size) are inevitably inefficient (due to the small radiation resistance R r of small antennas). Most AM broadcast radios (except for car radios) take advantage of this principle by including a small loop antenna for reception which has an extremely poor efficiency. Using such an inefficient antenna at this low frequency (5301650 kHz) thus has little effect on the receiver's net performance, but simply requires greater amplification by the receiver's electronics. Contrast this tiny component to the massive and very tall towers used at AM broadcast stations for transmitting at the very same frequency, where every percentage point of reduced antenna efficiency entails a substantial cost. The definition of antenna gain or power gain already includes the effect of the antenna's efficiency. Therefore if one is trying to radiate a signal toward a receiver using a transmitter of a given power, one need only compare the gain of various antennas rather than considering the efficiency as well. This is likewise true for a receiving antenna at very high (especially microwave) frequencies, where the point is to receive a signal which is strong compared to the receiver's noise temperature. However in the case of a directional antenna used for receiving signals with the intention of rejecting interference from different directions, one is no longer concerned with the antenna efficiency, as discussed above. In this case, rather than quoting the antenna gain, one would be more concerned with the directive gain which does not include the effect of antenna (in) efficiency. The directive gain of an antenna can be computed from the published gain divided by the antenna's efficiency.

Polarization
The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field (E-plane) of the radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its orientation. It has nothing in common with antenna directionality terms: "horizontal", "vertical", and "circular". Thus, a simple straight wire antenna will have one polarization when mounted vertically, and a different polarization when mounted horizontally. "Electromagnetic wave polarization filters" are structures which can be employed to act directly on the electromagnetic wave to filter out wave energy of an undesired polarization and to pass wave energy of a desired polarization. Reflections generally affect polarization. For radio waves the most important reflector is the ionosphere signals which reflect from it will have their polarization changed unpredictably. For signals which are reflected by the ionosphere, polarization cannot be relied upon. For line-of-sight communications for which polarization can be relied upon, it can make a large difference in signal quality to have the transmitter and receiver using the same polarization; many tens of dB difference is commonly seen and this is more than enough to make the difference between reasonable communication and a broken link.

Polarization is largely predictable from antenna construction but, especially in directional antennas, the polarization of side lobes can be quite different from that of the main propagation lobe. For radio antennas, polarization corresponds to the orientation of the radiating element in an antenna. A vertical omnidirectional Wi-Fi antenna will have vertical polarization (the most common type). An exception is a class of elongated waveguide antennas in which vertically placed antennas is horizontally polarized. Many commercial antennas are marked as to the polarization of their emitted signals. Polarization is the sum of the E-plane orientations over time projected onto an imaginary plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the radio wave. In the most general case, polarization is elliptical, meaning that the polarization of the radio waves varies over time. Two special cases are linear polarization (the ellipse collapses into a line) and circular polarization (in which the two axes of the ellipse are equal). In linear polarization the antenna compels the electric field of the emitted radio wave to a particular orientation. Depending on the orientation of the antenna mounting, the usual linear cases are horizontal and vertical polarization. In circular polarization, the antenna continuously varies the electric field of the radio wave through all possible values of its orientation with regard to the Earth's surface. Circular polarizations, like elliptical ones, are classified as right-hand polarized or left-hand polarized using a "thumb in the direction of the propagation" rule. Optical researchers use the same rule of thumb, but pointing it in the direction of the emitter, not in the direction of propagation, and so are opposite to radio engineers' use. In practice, regardless of confusing terminology, it is important that linearly polarized antennas be matched, lest the received signal strength be greatly reduced. So horizontal should be used with horizontal and vertical with vertical. Intermediate matching will lose some signal strength, but not as much as a complete mismatch. Transmitters mounted on vehicles with large motional freedom commonly use circularly polarized antennas so that there will never be a complete mismatch with signals from other sources.

Impedance matching
Maximum power transfer requires matching the impedance of an antenna system (as seen looking into the transmission line) to the complex conjugate of the impedance of the receiver or transmitter. In the case of a transmitter, however, the desired matching impedance might not correspond to the dynamic output impedance of the transmitter as analyzed as a source impedance but rather the design value (typically 50 ohms) required for efficient and safe operation of the transmitting circuitry. The intended impedance is normally resistive but a transmitter (and some receivers) may have additional adjustments to cancel a certain amount of reactance in order to "tweak" the match. When a transmission line is used in between the antenna and the transmitter (or receiver) one generally would like an antenna system whose impedance is resistive and near the characteristic impedance of that transmission line in order to minimize the standing wave ratio (SWR) and the increase in transmission line losses it entails, in addition to supplying a good match at the transmitter or receiver itself. Antenna tuning generally refers to cancellation of any reactance seen at the antenna terminals, leaving only a resistive impedance which might or might not be exactly the desired impedance (that of the transmission line). Although an antenna may be designed to have a purely resistive feedpoint impedance (such as a dipole 97% of a half wavelength long) this might not be exactly true at the frequency that it is eventually used at. In some cases the physical length of the antenna can be "trimmed" to obtain a pure resistance. On the other hand, the addition of a series inductance or parallel capacitance can be used to cancel a residual capacitative or inductive reactance, respectively. In some cases this is done in a more extreme manner, not simply to cancel a small amount of residual reactance, but to resonate an antenna whose resonance frequency is quite different than the intended frequency of operation. For instance, a "whip antenna" can be made significantly shorter than 1/4 wavelength long, for practical reasons, and then resonated using a so-called loading coil. This physically

large inductor at the base of the antenna has an inductive reactance which is the opposite of the capacitative reactance that such a vertical antenna has at the desired operating frequency. The result is a pure resistance seen at feedpoint of the loading coil; unfortunately that resistance is somewhat lower than would be desired to match commercial coax[citation needed]. So an additional problem beyond canceling the unwanted reactance is of matching the remaining resistive impedance to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. In principle this can always be done with a transformer, however the turns ratio of a transformer is not adjustable. A general matching network with at least two adjustments can be made to correct both components of impedance. Matching networks using discrete inductors and capacitors will have losses associated with those components, and will have power restrictions when used for transmitting. Avoiding these difficulties, commercial antennas are generally designed with fixed matching elements and/or feeding strategies to get an approximate match to standard coax, such as 50 or 75 Ohms. Antennas based on the dipole (rather than vertical antennas) should include a balun in between the transmission line and antenna element, which may be integrated into any such matching network. Another extreme case of impedance matching occurs when using a small loop antenna (usually, but not always, for receiving) at a relatively low frequency where it appears almost as a pure inductor. Resonating such an inductor with a capacitor at the frequency of operation not only cancels the reactance but greatly magnifies the very small radiation resistance of such a loop. This is implemented in most AM broadcast receivers, with a small ferrite loop antenna resonated by a capacitor which is varied along with the receiver tuning in order to maintain resonance over the AM broadcast band

SKYWAVE PROPAGATION
Propagation beyond the line of sight is possible through sky waves. Sky waves are radio waves that propagate into the atmosphere and then are returned to earth at some distance from the transmitter. We will consider two cases: ionospheric refraction tropospheric scatter

IONOSPHERIC REFRACTION
This propagation mode occurs when radio waves travel into the ionosphere, a region of charged particles 50 300 miles above the earths surface. The ionosphere is created when the sun ionizes the upper regions of the earths atmosphere. These charged regions are electrically active. The ionosphere bends and attenuates radio waves at frequencies below 30 MHz. Above 200 MHz the ionosphere becomes completely transparent. The ionosphere is responsible for most propagation phenomena observed at HF, MF, LF and VLF. The ionosphere consists of 4 highly ionized regions The D layer at a height of 38 55 mi The E layer at a height of 62 75 mi The F1 layer at a height of 125 150 mi (winter) and 160 180 mi (summer) The F2 layer at a height of 150 180 mi (winter) and 240 260 mi (summer) The density of ionization is greatest in the F layers and least in the D layer Though created by solar radiation, the ionosphere does not completely disappear shortly after sunset. The D and E layers disappear almost immediately, but the F1 and F2 layers do not disappear; rather they merge into a single F layer located at a distance of 150 250 mi above the earth. Recombination or charged particles is quite slow at that altitude, so the F layer lasts until dawn. The diagram below shows the geometry of ionospheric refraction. The maximum frequency that can be returned by the ionosphere when the radio waves are vertically incident on the ionosphere (transmitted straight up) is called the critical frequency. The critical frequency varies from place to place, and it is possible to view this variation by looking at a real-time critical frequency map The critical frequency varies from 1 to 15 MHz under normal conditions. Most communications is done using radio waves transmitted at the horizon, to get the maximum possible distance per hop. The highest frequency that can be returned when the takeoff angle is zero degrees is called the MUF, maximum usable frequency. The MUF and critical frequency are related by the following formula:

The MUF can range from 3 to 50 MHz.

The ionosphere also attenuates radio waves. The amount of attenuation is roughly inversely proportional to the square of the frequency of the wave. Thus attenuation is a severe problem at lower frequencies, making daytime global communications via sky wave impossible at frequencies much below 5 MHz. The properties of the ionosphere are variable. There are 3 periodic cycles of variation: diurnal (daily) cycle seasonal cycle sunspot cycle The daily cycle is driven by the intensity of the solar radiation ionizing the upper atmosphere. The D and E layers form immediately after sunrise, and the F layer splits into two layers, the F1 and F2. The density of the layers increases until noon and then decreases slowly throughout the afternoon. After sunset, the D and E layers disappear and the F1 and F2 merge to form the F layer. Take another look at the real-time MUF map and notice the difference between the MUF numbers in the day and night regions. If you aren't sure which region is the daytime region, it has a small yellow sun icon in its center. The thick gray lines indicate the location of the terminator - the division between day and night. Seasonal variation is linked to the tilt of the earths axis and the distance between the earth and sun. The effects are complex, but the result is that ionospheric propagation improves dramatically during the for the northern hemisphere during their winter, while seasonal variation in the southern hemisphere is much smaller.

The 11 year sunspot cycle exerts a tremendous effect on the atmosphere. Near the peak of the cycle (the last peak occurred in December 2001) the suns surface is very active, emitting copious amounts of UV radiation and charged particles, which increase the density of the ionosphere. This leads to a general increase in MUFs and attenuation at lower frequencies. When the sun becomes extremely active, or a major solar flare occurs, the ionosphere can become so dense that global ionospheric communications are disrupted. The maximum distance that can be covered by a single hop using ionospheric propagation is about 2500 miles. Greater distances can be covered using multi-hop propagation, in which radio waves are reflected by the ground back up to the ionosphere. The ionosphere is not uniform and different regions refract RF differently. Multipath propagation is the result. This leads to rapid variations in the received signal amplitude known as fading. One of the consequences of ionospheric propagation is that reception of signals on the AM broadcast band varies greatly from day to night.

SPORADIC-E PROPAGATION
For reasons that are not clearly understood, clouds of densely ionized gases appear in the E -layer of the ionosphere. The clouds are generally relatively small and can happen at any time of day. These clouds are formed throughout the year, but are most common in the summer months. Because these clouds are so densely ionized, they can support ionospheric propagation at frequencies well above the normal MUF. Sporadic E propagation has been observed at frequencies as high as 144 MHz, and is relatively common at 50 MHz. The E-layer is lower than the F-layer and as a result, the distance covered by a sporadic-E hop is approximately 1000-1300 miles, depending on the cloud's height. The sporadic-E clouds drift through the E-layer, adding to the unpredictability of sporadic-E propagation. Sporadic-E propagation is not generally useful because of its unpredictability. Its main impact is negative, causing VHF-TV and FM broadcasters in different markets to interfere with each other.

TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER

Regional over the horizon communications are possible through a sky wave technique called tropospheric scatter (troposcatter or just tropo). As shown in the diagram below, the troposphere, which is the layer of the atmosphere closest to the ground, has pockets or cells of air within it that have a different water vapor content and therefore a different refractive index for radio waves. As a result, radio waves are scattered by the cells over the horizon. This scatter occurs at frequencies of 0.3 10 GHz. Operation above 10 GHz is not possible because water vapor in the air strongly absorbs the signals This scattering process is not efficient and very little of the transmitted signal is scattered in the direction of the receiver. High power transmitters and sensitive receivers are required. The troposphere contains almost all of the earths weather patterns, which makes the tropospheres properties quite variable. This makes troposcatter communications subject to weather induced fading and communications blackouts. To improve the reliability of troposcatter links, a technique called diversity operation is used. There are three types of diversity: Frequency Diversity two frequencies simultaneously transmit the same signal Polarization Diversity radio waves of both polarizations are transmitted simultaneously Space Diversity pairs of widely separated antennas are used for transmitting and receiving Diversity operation greatly increases the reliability of troposcatter links, but it comes at a significant cost, because at least double the amount of equipment is needed at each installation.

FIBER OPTICS
In recent years it has become apparent that fiber-optics are steadily replacing copper wire as an appropriate means of communication signal transmission. They span the long distances between local phone systems as well as providing the backbone for many network systems. Other system users include cable television services, university campuses, office buildings, industrial plants, and electric utility companies. A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system that fiber-optics is replacing. The difference is that fiber-optics use light pulses to transmit information down fiber lines instead of using electronic pulses to transmit information down copper lines. Looking at the components in a fiber-optic chain will give a better understanding of how the system works in conjunction with wire based systems. At one end of the system is a transmitter. This is the place of origin for information coming on to fiberoptic lines. The transmitter accepts coded electronic pulse information coming from copper wire. It then processes and translates that information into equivalently coded light pulses. A light-emitting diode (LED) or an injection-laser diode (ILD) can be used for generating the light pulses. Using a lens, the light pulses are funneled into the fiber-optic medium where they travel down the cable. The light (near infrared) is most often 850nm for shorter distances and 1,300nm for longer distances on Multi-mode fiber and 1300nm for single-mode fiber and 1,500nm is used for longer distances. Think of a fiber cable in terms of very long cardboard roll (from the inside roll of paper towel) that is coated with a mirror on the inside. If you shine a flashlight in one end you can see light come out at the far end - even if it's been bent around a corner. Light pulses move easily down the fiber-optic line because of a principle known as total internal reflection. "This principle of total internal reflection states that when the angle of incidence exceeds a critical value, light cannot get out of the glass; instead, the light bounces back in. When this principle is applied to the construction of the fiber-optic strand, it is possible to transmit information down fiber lines in the form of light pulses. The core must a very clear and pure material for the light or in most cases near infrared light (850nm, 1300nm and 1500nm). The core can be Plastic (used for very short distances) but most are made from glass. Glass optical fibers are almost always made from pure silica, but some other materials, such as fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, andchalcogenide glasses, are used for longerwavelength infrared applications.

There are three types of fiber optic cable commonly used: single mode, multimode and plastic optical fiber (POF).

Transparent Glass
Transparent glass or plastic fibers which allow light to be guided from one end to the other with minimal loss.

Fiber optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light introduced at one end of the cable through to the other end. The light source can either be a light-emitting diode (LED)) or a laser. The light source is pulsed on and off, and a light-sensitive receiver on the other end of the cable converts the pulses back into the digital ones and zeros of the original signal. Even laser light shining through a fiber optic cable is subject to loss of strength, primarily through dispersion and scattering of the light, within the cable itself. The faster the laser fluctuates, the greater the risk of dispersion. Light strengtheners, called repeaters, may be necessary to refresh the signal in certain applications. While fiber optic cable itself has become cheaper over time - a equivalent length of copper cable cost less per foot but not in capacity. Fiber optic cable connectors and the equipment needed to install them are still more expensive than their copper counterparts.

Single Mode cable

Single Mode cable is a single stand (most applications use 2 fibers) of glass fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has one mode of transmission. Single Mode Fiber with a relatively narrow diameter, through which only one mode will propagate typically 1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than

multimode fiber, but requires a light source with a narrow spectral width. Synonyms mono-mode optical fiber, single-mode fiber, single-mode optical waveguide, uni-mode fiber. Single Modem fiber is used in many applications where data is sent at multi-frequency (WDM WaveDivision-Multiplexing) so only one cable is needed - (single-mode on one single fiber) Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more distance than multimode, but it also costs more. Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core than multimode. The small core and single light-wave virtually eliminate any distortion that could result from overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal attenuation and the highest transmission speeds of any fiber cable type. Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only the lowest order bound mode can propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to 1320nm.

Multi-Mode cable
Multi-Mode cable has a little bit bigger diameter, with a common diameters in the 50-to-100 micron range for the light carry component (in the US the most common size is 62.5um). Most applications in which Multi-mode fiber is used, 2 fibers are used (WDM is not normally used on multi-mode fiber). POF is a newer plastic-based cable which promises performance similar to glass cable on very short runs, but at a lower cost. Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds (10 to 100MBS - Gigabit to 275m to 2km) over medium distances. Light waves are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes, as they travel through the cable's core typically 850 or 1300nm. Typical multimode fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers. However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000 feet [914.4 meters), multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion at the

receiving end, resulting in an unclear and incomplete data transmission so designers now call for single mode fiber in new applications using Gigabit and beyond.

Fiber
Some 10 billion digital bits can be transmitted per second along an optical fiber link in a commercial network, enough to carry tens of thousands of telephone calls. Hair-thin fibers consist of two concentric layers of high-purity silica glass the core and the cladding, which are enclosed by a protective sheath. Light rays modulated into digital pulses with a laser or a light-emitting diode move along the core without penetrating the cladding. The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive indexa measure of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along with the development of new lasers and diodes, may one day allow commercial fiber-optic networks to carry trillions of bits of data per second. Total internal refection confines light within optical fibers (similar to looking down a mirror made in the shape of a long paper towel tube). Because the cladding has a lower refractive index, light rays reflect back into the core if they encounter the cladding at a shallow angle (red lines). A ray that exceeds a certain "critical" angle escapes from the fiber (yellow line).

STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER

STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter. As a result, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route, whereas others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. These alternative pathways cause the different groupings of light rays, referred to as modes, to arrive separately at a receiving point. The pulse, an aggregate of different modes, begins to spread out, losing its well-defined shape. The need to leave spacing between pulses to prevent overlapping limits bandwidth that is, the amount of information that can be sent. Consequently, this type of fiber is best suited for transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for instance.

GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER

GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes gradually from the center axis out toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding. Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core curves helically because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and the higher speed allow light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same time as the slow but straight rays in the core axis. The result: a digital pulse suffers less dispersion.

SINGLE-MODE FIBER

SINGLE-MODE FIBER has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of refraction between the core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibers. Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable television networks install millions of kilometers of this fiber every year.

WAVEGUIDES
Waveguides are used to transfer electromagnetic power efficiently from one point in space to another. Some common guiding structures are shown in the gure below. These include the typical coaxial cable, the two-wire and mictrostrip transmission lines, hollow conducting waveguides, and optical bers. In practice, the choice of structure is dictated by: (a) the desired operating frequency band, (b) the amount of power to be transferred, and (c) the amount of transmission losses that can be tolerated.

Coaxial cables are widely used to connect RF components. Their operation is practical for frequencies below 3 GHz. Above that the losses are too excessive. For example, the attenuation might be 3 dB per 100 m at 100 MHz, but 10 dB/100 m at 1 GHz, and 50 dB/100 m at 10 GHz. Their power rating is typically of the order of one kilowatt at 100 MHz, but only 200 W at 2 GHz, being limited primarily because of the heating of the coaxial conductors and of the dielectric between the conductors (dielectric voltage breakdown is usually a secondary factor.) However, special short-length coaxial cables do exist that operate in the 40 GHz range. Another issue is the single-mode operation of the line. At higher frequencies, in order to prevent higher modes from being launched, the diameters of the coaxial conductors must be reduced, diminishing the amount of power that can be transmitted. Two-wire lines are not used at microwave frequencies because they are not shielded and can radiate. One typical use is for connecting indoor antennas to TV sets. Microstrip lines are used widely in microwave integrated circuits.

Impedance matching
In circuit theory, the impedance is a generalization of electrical resistivity in the case of alternating current, and is measured in ohms (). A waveguide in circuit theory is described by a transmission line having a length and self impedance. In other words the impedance is the resistance of the circuit component (in this case a waveguide) to the propagation of the wave. This description of the waveguide was originally intended for alternating current, but is also suitable for electromagnetic and sound waves, once the wave and material properties (such as pressure, density, dielectric constant) are properly converted into electrical terms (current and impedance for example). Impedance matching is important when components of an electric circuit are connected (waveguide to antenna for example): The impedance ratio determines how much of the wave is transmitted forward and how much is reflected. In connecting a waveguide to an antenna a complete transmission is usually required, so that their impedances are matched.

The reflection coefficient can be calculated using:

, where is the reflection coefficient (0 denotes full transmission, 1 full reflection, and 0.5 is a reflection of half the incoming voltage), Z1 and Z2 are the impedance of the first component (from which the wave enters) and the second component, respectively. An impedance mismatch creates a reflected wave, which added to the incoming waves creates a standing wave. An impedance mismatch can be also quantified with the standing wave ratio (SWR or VSWR for voltage), which is connected to the impedance ratio and reflection coefficient by:

, where are the minimum and maximum values of the voltage absolute value, and the

VSWR is the voltage standing wave ratio, which value of 1 denotes full transmission, without reflection and thus no standing wave, while very large values mean high reflection and standing wave pattern.

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
In satellite communication, signal transferring between the sender and receiver is done with the help of satellite. In this process, the signal which is basically a beam of modulated microwaves is sent towards the satellite. Then the satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the receivers antenna present on the earths surface. So, all the signal transferring is happening in space. Thus this type of communication is known as space communication. Two satellites which are commonly used in satellite communication are Active and passive satellites. Passive satellites: It is just a plastic balloon having a metal coated over it. This sphere reflects the coming microwave signals coming from one part of the earth to other part. This is also known as passive sphere. Our earth also has a passive satellite i.e. moon. Active satellites: It basically does the work of amplifying the microwave signals coming. In active satellites an antenna system, transmitter, power supply and a receiver is used. Thesesatellites are also called as transponders. The transmitters fitted on the earth generate themicrowaves. These rays are received by the transponders attached to the satellite. Then after amplifying, these signals are transmitted back to earth. This sending can be done at the same time or after some delay. These amplified signals are stored in the memory of the satellites, when earth properly faces the satellite. Then the satellite starts sending the signals to earth. Some active satellites also have programming and recording features. Then these recording can be easily played and watched. The first active satellite was launched by Russia in 1957. The signals coming from the satellite when reach the earth, are of very low intensity. Their amplification is done by the receivers themselves. After amplification these become available for further use.

Development of satellite communication

The idea of communicating through a satellite first appeared in the short story titled The Brick Moon, written by the American clergyman and author Edward Everett Hale and published in The Atlantic Monthly in 186970. The story describes the construction and launch into Earth orbit of a satellite 200 feet (60 metres) in diameter and made of bricks. The brick moon aided mariners in navigation, as people sent Morse code signals back to Earth by jumping up and down on the satellites surface. The first practical concept of satellite communication was proposed by 27-year-old Royal Air Force officer Arthur C. Clarke in a paper titled Extra-Terrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage? published in the October 1945 issue of Wireless World. Clarke, who would later become an accomplished science fiction writer, proposed that a satellite at an altitude of 35,786 km (22,236 miles) above Earths surface would be moving at the same speed as Earths rotation. At this altitude the satellite would remain in a fixed position relative to a point on Earth. Thisorbit, now called a geostationary orbit, is ideal for satellite communications, since an antenna on the ground can be pointed to a satellite 24 hours a day without having to track its position. Clarke calculated in his paper that three satellites spaced equidistantly in geostationary orbit would be able to provide radio coverage that would be almost worldwide with the sole exception of some of thepolar regions. The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched successfully by the Soviet Union on Oct. 4, 1957. Sputnik 1 was only 58 cm (23 inches) in diameter with four antennas sending low-frequency radio signals at regular intervals. It orbited Earth in a elliptical orbit, taking 96.2 minutes to complete one revolution. It

transmitted signals for only 22 days until its battery ran out and was in orbit for only three months, but its launch sparked the beginning of the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union. The first satellite to relay voice signals was launched by the U.S. governments Project SCORE (Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment) from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on Dec. 19, 1958. It broadcast a taped message conveying peace on earth and goodwill toward men everywhere from U.S. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower. American engineers John Pierce of American Telegraph and Telephone Companys (AT&Ts) Bell Laboratories and Harold Rosen of Hughes Aircraft Company developed key technologies in the 1950s and 60s that made commercial communication satellites possible. Pierce outlined the principles of satellite communications in an article titled Orbital Radio Relays published in the April 1955 issue of Jet Propulsion. In it he calculated the precise power requirements to transmit signals to satellites in various Earth orbits. Pierces main contribution to satellite technology was the development of the traveling wave tube amplifier, which enabled a satellite to receive, amplify, and transmit radio signals. Rosen developed spin-stabilization technology that provided stability to satellites orbiting in space. When the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was established in 1958, it embarked on a program to develop satellite technology. NASAs first project was the Echo 1 satellite that was developed in coordination with AT&T s Bell Labs. Pierce led a team at Bell Labs that developed the Echo 1 satellite, which was launched on Aug. 12, 1960. Echo 1 was a 30.5-metre (100-foot) aluminumcoatedballoon that contained no instruments but was able to reflect signals from the ground. Since Echo 1 only reflected signals, it was considered a passive satellite. Echo 2, managed by NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center in Beltsville, Md., was launched on Jan. 25, 1964. After Echo 2, NASA abandoned passive communications systems in favour of active satellites. The Echo 1 and Echo 2 satellites were credited with improving the satellite tracking and ground station technology that was to prove indispensable later in the development of active satellite systems. Pierces team at Bell Labs also developed Telstar 1, the first active communications satellite capable of two-way communications. Telstar 1 was launched into low Earth orbit on July 10, 1962, by a Delta rocket. NASA provided the launch services and some tracking and telemetry support. Telstar 1 was the first satellite to transmit live television images between Europe and North America. Telstar 1 also transmitted the first phone call via satellitea brief call from AT&T chairman Frederick Kappel transmitted from the ground station in Andover, Maine, to U.S. Pres. Lyndon Johnson in Washington, D.C. Rosens team at Hughes Aircraft attempted to place the first satellite in geostationary orbit, Syncom 1, on Feb. 14, 1963. However, Syncom 1 was lost shortly after launch. Syncom 1 was followed by the successful launch of Syncom 2, the first satellite in a geosynchronous orbit (an orbit that has a period of 24 hours but is inclined to the Equator), on July 26, 1963, and Syncom 3, the first satellite in geostationary orbit, on Aug. 19, 1964. Syncom 3 broadcast the 1964 Olympic Games from Tokyo, Japan, to the United States, the first major sporting event broadcast via satellite. The successful development of satellite technology paved the way for a global communications satellite industry. The United States spearheaded the development of the satellite communications industry with the passing of the Communications Satellite Act in 1962. The act authorized the formation of the Communications Satellite Corporation(Comsat), a private company that would represent the United States in an international satellite communications consortium called Intelsat. Intelsat was formed on Aug. 20, 1964, with 11 signatories to the Intelsat Interim Agreement. The original 11 signatories were Austria, Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States, the Vatican, and West Germany.

On April 6, 1965, the first Intelsat satellite, Early Bird (also called Intelsat 1), was launched; it was designed and built byRosens team at Hughes Aircraft Company. Early Bird was the first operational commercial satellite providing regular telecommunications and broadcasting services between North America and Europe. Early Bird was followed by Intelsat 2B and 2D, launched in 1967 and covering the Pacific Ocean region, and Intelsat 3 F-3, launched in 1969 and covering the Indian Ocean region. Intelsats satellites in geostationary orbit provided nearly global coverage, as Arthur C. Clarke had envisioned 24 years earlier. Nineteen days after Intelsat 3 F-3 was placed over the Indian Ocean, the landing of the first human on the Moon on July 20, 1969, was broadcast live through the global network of Intelsat satellites to over 600 million television viewers. The Soviet Union continued its development of satellite technology with the Molniya series of satellites, which were launched in a highly elliptical orbit to enable them to reach the far northern regions of the country. The first satellite in this series, Molniya 1, was launched on April 23, 1965. By 1967 six Molniya satellites provided coverage throughout the Soviet Union. During the 50th anniversary of the Soviet Union on Oct. 1, 1967, the annual parade in Red Square was broadcast nationwide via the Molniya satellite network. In 1971 the Intersputnik International Organization of Space Communications was formed by several communist countries, led by the Soviet Union. The potential application of satellites for development and their ability to reach remote regions led other countries to build and operate their own national satellite systems. Canada was the first country after the Soviet Union and the United States to launch its own communications satellite, Anik 1, on Nov. 9, 1972. This was followed by the launch of Indonesias Palapa 1 satellite on July 8, 1976. Many other countries followed suit and launched their own satellites.

Satellite applications
Telephone
The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long distance telephony. The fixed Public Switched Telephone Networkrelays telephone calls from land line telephones to an earth station, where they are then transmitted to a geostationary satellite. The downlink follows an analogous path. Improvements in submarine communications cables, through the use of fiber-optics, caused some decline in the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century, but they still serve remote islands such as Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Diego Garcia, and Easter Island, where no submarine cables are in service. There are also regions of some continents and countries where landline telecommunications are rare to nonexistent, for example large regions of South America, Africa, Canada, China, Russia, andAustralia. Satellite communications also provide connection to the edges of Antarctica and Greenland. Satellite phones connect directly to a constellation of either geostationary or low-earth-orbit satellites. Calls are then forwarded to a satellite teleport connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network

Satellite television
As television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous delivery of relatively few signals of large bandwidth to many receivers being a more precise match for the capabilities of geosynchronous

comsats. Two satellite types are used for North American television and radio: Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), and Fixed Service Satellite (FSS) The definitions of FSS and DBS satellites outside of North America, especially in Europe, are a bit more ambiguous. Most satellites used for direct-to-home television in Europe have the same high power output as DBS-class satellites in North America, but use the same linear polarization as FSS-class satellites. Examples of these are the Astra, Eutelsat, and Hotbird spacecraft in orbit over the European continent. Because of this, the terms FSS and DBS are more so used throughout the North American continent, and are uncommon in Europe.

Fixed Service Satellite

Fixed Service Satellites use the C band, and the lower portions of the Ku bands. They are normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and local affiliate stations (such as program feeds for network and syndicated programming, live shots, and backhauls), as well as being used for distance learning by schools and universities, business television (BTV),Videoconferencing, and general commercial telecommunications. FSS satellites are also used to distribute national cable channels to cable television headends. Free-to-air satellite TV channels are also usually distributed on FSS satellites in the K u band. The Intelsat Americas 5, Galaxy 10R and AMC 3 satellites over North America provide a quite large amount of FTA channels on their Ku band transponders. The American Dish Network DBS service has also recently utilized FSS technology as well for their programming packages requiring their SuperDish antenna, due to Dish Network needing more capacity to carry local television stations per the FCC's "must-carry" regulations, and for more bandwidth to carry HDTV channels.

Direct broadcast satellite

A direct broadcast satellite is a communications satellite that transmits to small DBS satellite dishes (usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in diameter). Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of the microwave Ku band. DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV services, such as DirecTV and DISH Network in the United States, Bell TV and Shaw Direct in Canada, Freesat and Sky Digital in the UK, the Republic of Ireland, and New Zealand and DSTV in South Africa . Operating at lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a much larger dish for reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2.5m) in diameter for Ku band, and 12 feet (3.6m) or larger for C band). They use linear polarization for each of the transponders' RF input and output (as opposed to circular polarization used by DBS satellites), but this is a minor technical difference that users do not notice. FSS satellite technology was also originally used for DTH satellite TV from the late 1970s to the early 1990s in the United States in the form of TVRO (TeleVision Receive Only) receivers and dishes. It was also used in its Ku band form for the now-defunct Primestar satellite TV service. Satellites for communication have now been launched that have transponders in the Ka band, such as DirecTV's SPACEWAY-1 satellite, and Anik F2. NASA as well has launched experimental satellites using the Ka band recently.

Mobile satellite technologies

Initially available for broadcast to stationary TV receivers, by 2004 popular mobile direct broadcast applications made their appearance with the arrival of two satellite radio systems in the United States: Sirius and XM Satellite Radio Holdings. Some manufacturers have also introduced special antennas for mobile reception of DBS television. Using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology as a reference, these antennas automatically re-aim to the satellite no matter where or how the vehicle (on which the antenna is mounted) is situated. These mobile satellite antennas are popular with some recreational vehicle owners. Such mobile DBS antennas are also used by JetBlue Airways for DirecTV (supplied by Live TV, a subsidiary of JetBlue), which passengers can view on-board on LCD screens mounted in the seats.

Satellite radio
Satellite radio offers audio services in some countries, notably the United States. Mobile services allow listeners to roam a continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere. A satellite radio or subscription radio (SR) is a digital radio signal that is broadcast by a communications satellite, which covers a much wider geographical range than terrestrial radio signals. Satellite radio offers a meaningful alternative to ground-based radio services in some countries, notably the United States. Mobile services, such as Sirius, XM, and Worldspace, allow listeners to roam across an entire continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere they go. Other services, such as Music Choice or Muzak's satellite-delivered content, require a fixed-location receiver and a dish antenna. In all cases, the antenna must have a clear view to the satellites. In areas where tall buildings, bridges, or even parking garages obscure the signal, repeaters can be placed to make the signal available to listeners. Radio services are usually provided by commercial ventures and are subscription-based. The various services are proprietary signals, requiring specialized hardware for decoding and playback. Providers usually carry a variety of news, weather, sports, and music channels, with the music channels generally being commercial-free. In areas with a relatively high population density, it is easier and less expensive to reach the bulk of the population with terrestrial broadcasts. Thus in the UK and some other countries, the contemporary evolution of radio services is focused on Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) services or HD Radio, rather than satellite radio.

Amateur radio
Amateur radio operators have access to the amateur radio satellites that have been designed specifically to carry amateur radio traffic. Most such satellites operate as spaceborne repeaters, and are generally accessed by amateurs equipped with UHF or VHF radio equipment and highly directional antennas such as Yagis or dish antennas. Due to launch costs, most current amateur satellites are launched into fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited number of brief contacts at any given time. Some satellites also provide data-forwarding services using the AX.25 or similar protocols.

Satellite Internet
After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a means to connect to the Internet via broadband data connections. This can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas, and cannot access a broadband connection, or require high availability of services.

Military uses
Communications satellites are used for military communications applications, such as Global Command and Control Systems. Examples of military systems that use communication satellites are theMILSTAR, the DSCS, and the FLTSATCOM of the United States, NATO satellites, United Kingdom satellites (eg. Skynet), and satellites of the former Soviet Union. Many military satellites operate in the X-band, and some also use UHF radio links, while MILSTAR also utilizes Ka band.

REFERENCES:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio) http://www.ycars.org/EFRA/Module%20C/EMSkyWave.htmS http://www.arcelect.com/fibercable.htm http://www.ece.rutgers.edu/~orfanidi/ewa/ch09.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveguide http://www.thebigger.com/physics/principles-of-communication/what-is-satellitecommunication/ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/524891/satellite-communication http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite