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Amt 113: AIRCRAFT PROPELLER

Introduction

Propeller Definition
a rotating shaft with blades which driven by either a turbine or reciprocating engine, moves an aircraft through the air. the primary purpose of a propeller is to convert engine power to thrust.

Propeller Function
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Nomenclature Propeller Theory


All modern propellers consist of at least two blades that are connected to a central hub. The portion of a propeller blade that is nearest the hub is referred to as the blade shank whereas the portion furthest from the hub is called the blade tip. The propeller hub, or hub assembly, is bored out to create a hub bore which permits a propeller to be mounted on the engine crankshaft or to a reduction gear assembly. The amount of thrust produced depends on several factors including, the angle of attack of the propeller blades, the speed the blades move through the air, and the shape of the airfoil. The angle of attack of a propeller blade is the angle formed by the chord line of the blade and the relative wind. The direction of the relative wind is determined by the speed an aircraft moves through the air and the rotational motion of the propeller.

In addition to the basic nomenclature just discussed, propeller blades share much of the same nomenclature as aircraft wings. For example, all propeller blades have a leading edge, a trailing edge, and a chord line. If you recall from your study of airfoils, a chord line is an imaginary line drawn through an airfoil from the leading edge to the trailing edge. The curved, or cambered side of a propeller blade is called the blade back and the flat side is called the blade face. A propeller's blade angle is the acute angle formed by a propeller's plane of rotation and the blade's chord line. A propeller's plane of rotation is always perpendicular to the engine crankshaft.

With no forward velocity, the relative wind is directly opposite the movement of the propeller blade. In this case, a propeller's angle of attack is the same as its blade angle.

In forward flight, the airplane moves from point A to point B while the propeller moves from point C to point D. In this case, the propeller's trailing edge follows the path from C to D which represents the resultant relative wind. This results in an angle of attack that is less than the blade angle.

If the forward velocity of the aircraft remains constant, but a propeller's rotational speed increases, the propeller's trailing edge will move a greater distance for a given amount of forward movement. This increases the angle at which the relative wind strikes the propeller blade which, in turn, increases the angle of attack.

Forces Acting on the Propeller


Centrifugal force

Can best be described as the force which tries to pull the blades out of the hub. The amount of stress created by centrifugal force can be greater than 7,500 times the weight of the propeller blade. Thrust bending force As a propeller blade rotates at a fixed rpm, each blade segment moves through the air at a different velocity.

Attempts to bend the propeller blades forward at the tips. This occurs because propeller blades are typically thinner near the tip and this allows the thrust produced at the tip to flex the blade forward. Thrust bending force opposes centrifugal force to some degree. Torque bending forces

The variation in airfoil shape and blade angle along the length of a propeller blade compensates for differences in rotational speed and allows for a more even distribution of thrust along the blade.

Occur as air resistance opposes the rotational motion of the propeller blades. This force tends to bend the blades opposite the direction of rotation.

Aerodynamic twisting force

Propeller Classification
Propellers are typically classified according to their position on the aircraft. Tractor Propellers are mounted on the front of an engine and pull an aircraft through the air. Pusher-type Propellers - are mounted on the aft end of an aircraft and push an airplane through the air.

Types of Propeller
Tends to increase a propeller's blade angle. In some cases, aerodynamic twisting force is used to help change the blade angle on a propeller. Centrifugal twisting force Fixed Propeller Ground Adjustable Propeller Controllable Pitch Propeller Constant Speed Propeller Fixed type Propeller

Opposes aerodynamic twisting force in that it attempts to decrease a propeller's blade angle. When a propeller rotates, centrifugal force tries to align the propeller's center of mass with its center of rotation. Propeller Pitch - is the theoretical distance a propeller advances longitudinally in one revolution. Geometric pitch - is defined as the distance, in inches, that a propeller will move forward in one revolution if it were moving through a solid medium and did not encounter any loss of efficiency. Effective Pitch - is the actual amount a propeller moves forward in one revolution.

Simplest type of propeller is a fixed-pitch propeller. As its name implies, the blade angle on a fixed-pitch propeller is fixed and cannot easily be changed. Because of this, fixed-pitch propellers achieve their optimum efficiency at a specific rotational and forward speed.

Ground Adjustable Propeller

This propeller is constructed in a way that allows the blade angle to be changed on the ground. This type of propeller is found mostly on aircraft built between the 1920s and 1940s.

Controllable Pitch Changing Propeller

hub providing better airflow for engine cooling. Furthermore, aluminum propellers require much less maintenance than wood propellers, thereby reducing the operating cost. STEEL Steel propellers and blades are found primarily on antique and older generation transport aircraft. Because steel is a heavy metal, steel blades are normally hollow consisting of steel sheets attached to a rib structure. The hollow area is then filled wida a foam material to help absorb vibration and maintain a rigid structure. COMPOSITE

The blade angle may be changed while the propeller is rotating. This allows the propeller to assume a blade angle that provides the best performance for a particular flight condition.

Constant Speed Propeller

Composite propeller blades are slowly gaining in popularity. Some advantages of composite propellers include the fact that they are lightweight and extremely durable. In addition, composites absorb vibration and are resilient, making them resistant to damage and corrosion.

FIXED PITCH PROPELLER


A typical fixed-pitch propeller installed on a light aircraft has a diameter between 67 and 76 inches and a pitch between 53 and 68 inches. The exact diameter and pitch required for a specific airplane is specified by the aircraft manufacturer.

Sometimes referred to as automatic propellers, are unique in that once a pilot selects an operating rpm, the propeller blades automatically adjust to maintain the selected rpm. With this type of propeller, pitch control is provided by a controlling device known as a governor.

Propeller Construction
WOOD Wood was the most reliable material for fabrication of propellers for many years. Hardwoods such as birch, maple, and several others possess the flexibility and strength required for a propeller used on low horsepower engines of small aircraft. The molecular structure of wood allows it to absorb engine vibration to a large degree and does not support resonant vibrations. However, unless wood materials are coated with a tough protective layer of resin or other material, they are susceptible to damage from gravel and debris during ground operations. ALUMINUM ALLOY Today, the vast majority of propellers used are constructed of an aluminum alloy. Aluminum is more desirable than wood because it allows thinner, more efficient airfoils to be constructed without sacrificing structural strength. In addition, the airfoil sections on an aluminum propeller typically extend close to the

Metal Tipping Metal tipping is applied to propeller blade tips and leading edges to help prevent erosion damage. Three small holes drilled in the tip of each blade release moisture and allow the wood to breathe. Monel, brass, or stainless steel tipping is applied to the leading edge and tip of most wooden propellers to prevent damage from small stones.

Aluminum Alloy Propeller Wood has given way to aluminum as the most often used material for fixed-pitch propeller fabrication. As mentioned earlier, propeller blades can be made thinner and more efficient without sacrificing structural strength when using aluminum instead of wood. In addition, aluminum has the strength and flexibility to accommodate the high horsepower engines available in today's small aircraft.

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