HEAT TRANSFER

Content
Modes of heat transfer?
Fourier Law of heat conduction
Convective heat coefficient
Radiant heat coefficient
Overall heat transfer coefficient
Hands-on example
Temperature
A measure of energy due to level of heat
Freezing point of water is 0 C
Boiling point of water is 100 C
Common Temperature Scales
What is Heat?
Heat is the total internal kinetic energy due to
molecular motion in an object
Quantity of heat is BTU or Kilo Joule (kJ)
One BTU is the amount of heat required to raise 1
lb of water by 1 F
One calorie is required to raise 1 g of water by 1
C
1 cal = 4.187 J
1 BTU= 1.055 kJ= 1055 J
Heat Vs Temperature
Heat energy depends on mass. Temperature is
independent of mass.
2 litres of boiling water has more heat energy than
1 litre of boiling water
Temperature is not energy, but a measure of it
Heat is energy
Heat is Energy
When heat (ie energy) goes into a substance,
one of two things can happen:
1. Temperature goes up
2. Change of state
Temperature Goes Up
Heat that causes a rise in temperature e.g.
heating water before boiling
The heat energy is used to increase the kinetic
energy of the molecules in the substance
This is also known as the sensible heat
Change Of State
Heat that brings about a change in potential
energy of the molecules (temperature remains
constant). Also called the latent heat.
Specific Heat
It is the heat required to the temperature of 1
kg (lb) a substance by 1 K (F)
Example:
waters specific heat is 1 btu/ lb F (4.2 kJ/kg K)
airs specific heat is 0.24 btu/ lb F (1.0 kJ/kg K)
Sizing Heating Capacity
T heat x specific x mass required heat of Quantity A =
Example:
What is the heat required to raise air
temperature from 15 C to 25 C at a
flow rate of 2000 l/s?
Heat Transfer
If there is a temperature difference in a
system, heat will always move from higher to
lower temperatures
What is actually flowing?
Heat Transfer Modes
There are 3 modes
of heat transfer.
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
Conduction
Heat transfer through a solid medium via
direct contact
Expressed by Fouriers Law
Fouriers Law
Q
X
T2 T1
dx
dT
k q = "
k = thermal conductivity (W/ m K)
T = temperature (K)
q = heat flux (W/m
2
)
Heat flow rate = q x area (W)
Fouriers law at steady state
kA L
T T
q
k L
T T
q
L
T T
k q
dx
dT
k q
in out
in out
in out
/
flow heat of Area x " Q
rate fer Heat trans

/
"
State) (Steady "
Law) (Fourier "

=
=

=
=
T1
T2
q
R=L/k
Unit thermal resistance
Example 1
Temperature of 35 C and 22 C are maintained
on opposite sides of a steel floor of 6mm
thick. Compute the heat flux through the
floor.
Thermal conductivity for steel = 50 W/m K
Thermal Conductivity, k (W/m K)
Liquids
Water: 0.556
Ammonia: 0.54
Gases
Air : 0.024
Water vapor: 0.021
Common Metals
Copper: 385
Aluminum: 221
Steel: 50
Non-metals
Common brick: 0.6
Mineral wool: 0.04
Ceiling board: 0.06
Quiz
Suppose a human could live for 2 h unclothed
in air at 45 F. How long could she live in water
at 45 F?
Electrical- Thermal Analogy
ce sis
ce sis
tan Re
difference e Temperatur
q flux, Heat
Thermal
tan Re
Potential Voltage
I Current,
Law) s (Ohm' Electrical
=
=
T1
T2
q
R=L/kA
Composite Wall
Using the resistance concept,
T1
T2
R1 R2
Q
2
2
2
1
1
1
2 1
1 2
"
k
x
R
k
x
R
R R
T T
q
=
=
+

=
Example 2
A wall of a Switchgear room consists the
following:
Q
Q
q
2
k
2
35 C 22 C
6mm 25mm 100mm
TNF panel
k = 0.02 W/m K
Firebatt
k = 0.04 W/m K
Steel plate
k = 50 W/m K
Q
Determine Q, if the wall is 3m x 4m ?
Convection
Energy transfer by fluid
motion
Two kinds of convection
Forced convection: Fluid is
forced
Natural or free convection:
fluid is induced by
temperature difference
where:
h
c
is convection coefficient (W/m
2
C),
T
s
is surface temperature (C),
T
a
is surrounding air temperature (C)
Rc= unit convective resistance.
Convective Heat Transfer
air flow
T
a
T
s
y
q
c
c
C
a s
a s
c
h
R
h
T T
q
T T h q
1
1
(
"
) ( "
cooling of Law s Newton'
)
=

=
=
Magnitude of Convection Coefficients
Arrangement h, W/m2 K Btu/(h.ft2.F)
Air, free (indoor) 10-30 1-5
Air, forced
(outdoor)
30-300 5-50
Oil, forced 60-1800 10-300
Water, forced 300-6000 50-1000
Steam, condensing 6000-120000 1000-20000
Example 3
The same as Example 2. Consider convection of
the exposed surfaces, calculate Q.
Q
Q
q
2
k
2
35 C 22 C
6mm 25mm 100mm
TNF panel
k = 0.02 W/m K
Firebatt
k = 0.04 W/m K
Steel plate
k = 50 W/m K
Q
Radiation
Energy emitted by object that is at any
temperature above absolute zero
Energy is in the form electromagnetic waves
No medium needed and travel at speed of
light
Hot Body
Radiator
radiation olar
: Example
S
Radiation
Important mode of heat at high temperatures,
e.g. combustion furnace
At room temperature it may just be
measurable.
Intensity depends on body temperature and
surface characteristics
Solar radiation is the radiation emitted by the
sun due to nuclear fusion reaction
Solar Constant: The amount of solar energy
arriving at the top of the atmosphere
perpendicular to the suns rays.
= 1375 W m
-2
Solar Radiation
Solar Radiation Spectrum
99% of solar radiation is between 0.3 to 3 m.
Wiens Law
m
T
2900
m=
Wiens Law
The Black Body
E = AoT
4
E =The amount of energy (W )
emitted by an object
o = Stefan-Boltzmann constant =
5.67 x 10
-8
W m
-2
K
-4
T = Temperature (K)
A= area (m2)
The Grey Body
metals polished for 0.07 - 0.02
materials common for 0.9 - 0.8
ty emissitivi
where ) ( E E
body, actual an For
4
b
=
=
=
= =
c
co c T A
Net Radiant Heat
If a hot object is radiating to a cold
surrounding, the radiation loss is
) ( q
4 4
c h T T A =co
Quiz
How much energy does human body radiate?
Body temperature is 37 C
Body area is 1.5 m2
= 0.7
Radiant Heat Transfer
Unit thermal resistance for radiation is written
as
r
c
r
h
1
R
T) ( h q"
=
A =
Radiation coefficient is a function of
temperature, radiation properties and
geometrical arrangement of the enclosure
and the body in question.
Combined convection and radiant
Coefficient
The heat transfer is combination of convection
and radiation
r c h h
1
R
, resistance thermal Combined
) )( ( "
"
+
=
A + =
+ =
T h h q
q q q
r c
r c
Combined Surface Coefficients
Air velocity Emissivity, =0.9
3.5 m/s h = 22.7 W/m2 K
7 m/s h = 35 W/m2 K
Still air h = 8.5 W/ m2 K
Some practical values of surface coefficients:
(source: ASHRAE Fundamentals 1989)
k2
Combined modes
T
k1
Outside
Inside
T
hot
T
cold
T
1
T
3
R2=L1/k1 + L2/K2
R3=1/h
hot
R1=1/h
cold
T
2
T
1
T
cold
T
hot
Resistance in parallel, R= R1 + R2 +R3
T
3
Compute
2 2 1 1
2
1
2 2 1 1
2
2
1
1
3 2 1
/ / / 1
"
/ 1
"
/ / / 1 / 1
"
1
/
1
k L k L h
T T
q
h
T T
q
k L k L h h
T T
q
h k
L
k
L
h
R
R R R R
cold
cold
cold
cold
cold hot
cold hot
hot cold
+ +

=

=
+ + +

=
+ + + =
+ + =
T
hot
T
cold
T
1
T
2
R2=L1/k1 + L2/k2
R3=1/h
hot
R1=1/h
cold
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Heat transfer processes includes conduction,
convection and radiation simultaneously
The total conduction heat transfer for a wall or
roof is expressed as
Q = A x U x T where
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient (or U-
value)
R
U
R R R R
1
....... 3 2 1
=
+ + = +
Example
Find the overall heat
transfer coefficient of
a flat roof having the
construction shown in
the figure.
Solution
T
2
T
1
R3
R1
R2
R4
R5
R6
Solution
Resistance Construction Unit resistance (m2 K/ W)
R1 Outside air
R2 steel
R3 Mineral wool
R4 Air space
R5 Ceiling board
R6 Inside air
Total R
Solution
K W/m 40 . 0
48 . 2
1
R
1
U
t coefficien fer heat trans Overall
2
= = =
Heat Transfer Loop
in a DX System
Heat Exchanger Coil
Heat is exchanged between
2 fluids.
Q= UA T
For cross flow,
Q= UA (LMTD)
Heat Exchanger- Mean Temperature
Difference
LTD
GTD
Ln
LTD - GTD
x Area x U Q
LMTD x Area x U Q Transfer, Heat
=
=
Heat transfer optimization
We have the following relations for heat transfer:
Conduction: Q = k A T /d
Convection: Q = A h
c
T
Radiation: Q = A h
r
T
As a result, when equipment designers want to improve
heat transfer rates, they focus on:
Increasing the area A, e.g. by using profiled tubes and ribbed
surfaces.
Increasing AT (which is not always controllable).
For conduction, increasing k /d.
Increase h
c
by not relying on natural convection, but
introducing forced convection.
Increase h
r
, by using black surfaces.