The

endocrine system regulates: - growth/ development - response to stress - reproduction - fluid balance - other physiological processes The tissues and organs of the endocryne system secrete HORMONES, Chemicals messengers that signal other cells. The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland regulate many of these hormones The endocrine system is a Collection of cells, tissues and organs + spcialized endocrine glands, that produce and secrete hormones, Chemicals Messengers that regulate many physiological processes. Hormone (to excite) excite or stimulate changes in specific tissues. Differences glands - Exocrine glands Release their secretions into ducts e.g. sweat glands /gastric glands - Endocrine glands Have no ducts and secrete their hormones into the surrounding intersitial fluid or blood They are 10 endocrine glands + specialized cells in the digestive tract, heart, kidney and many other parts of the body.

ENDOCRINE REGULATION

 Hormones Transported by the blood and produce a characteristic response alter they reach target cells and bind with specific receptors. Target cells: cells influenced by a particular hormone May be in another endocrine gland or different organ May be far away from the endocrine gland. Endocrine system and nervous system Both of them work closely to maintain HOMEOSTASIS (steady state of the body) ENDOCRYNE SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM Signals much target cells Signals muscles /glands (endocrine glands) Responds more slowly Responds rapidly (but Langer lasting) Helps regulate many endocrine responses Produces some hormones (neurotransmitters) Sometimes both functions Blur: the same signal molecule can funcition as either neurotransmitter or a hormone e.g. Norepinephrine

 Homeostasis When a disorder or disease affects an endocrine gland, the rateo f secretion may be abnormal. Hyposecretion: abnormal reduce output and target cells are deprived of needed stimulation. Hypersecretion: abnormally increased output and the target cells may be overstimulated. All this leads in malfunction and loss of homeostasis. Negative feedback systems Regulate endocrine activity. Hormone molecules continuously move out of the circulation and bind with target cells. - Liver: removes them (inactivates) - Kidneys: excrete them Hormone production is regulated by the NS and Endocrine glands. Most endocrine action is regulated by NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS: self-regulating responses to changes experienced by a system or organism, usually due to external influences. Result in restoring the system to its previous undisturbed state, or mitigating the effects of the initial change. It is this characteristic of "negating" the impact of changes which defines such operations as "negative feedback mechanisms". e.g. parathynoid glands: regulate the calcium concentration of the blood When calcium concentration is either too high or too low, negative system restores homeostasis -calcium: parathyroid gland releases more parathyroid hormones (increases)

+calcium: parathynoid glands slow their output of hormone. Both responses are negative feedback Systems. Groups of hormones Hormones belong to one of these groups: 1. fatty acid derivatives Prostaglandins: in insects 2. steroids - adrenal cortex - testis - ovary - placenta secrete steroid hormones synthesized by cholesterol. Examples of steroid hormones: cortisol (secreted adrenal cortex) testosterone ( secreted by the testis) progesterone /estrgeno (secreted by the ovary) 3. amino acid derivatives simplest hormones thyroid hormones T1 / T4 (synthesized from the amino acid the tyrosine and Iodine) Epinephrine (adrenaline) /norepinephrine (also derived from tyrosine)

Melatonin (synthesized amino acid tryptophan) 4. peptides or proteins largest hormones /peptide hormones /water soluble Neuropeptides: large Group of signaling molecules produced by neurons oxitocina /antidiuretic hormone (ADH) are short neuropeptides Glucagon /secretin/calcitonina long peptides (30 amino acids) Insulin small protena (2 peptide chains by dissulfide Bonds)

Endocrine signaling Hormones signal their target cells by: Classical endocrine signaling Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands and are transported by the blood to target cells. - Steroid hormones - Thyroid hormones are ; both transported bound to plasma proteins - Peptide hormones (water soluble) are disolved in the plasma.. Neuroendocrine signaling Nueroendocrine cells: link bw NS-ES Neuroendocrine cells secrete neurohormones: these hormones are transported down axons and then secreted and transported by the blood.

 Autocrine signaling A hormone (or other signal molecule) is secreted into the intersitial fluid and then acts on the very cell that produce it. e. Estrogen: functions as a classsical hormone, can also exert an autocrine effect that stimulates additional estrgeno secretion. Paracrine signaling A hormone (or other signal molecule) difuses through intersitial fluid and acts on nearby target cells. Estrgeno can also act this way.

 GLAND HYPOTHALAMUS POSTERIOR PITUITARY Storage and release of hormones produced by hypothalamus HORMONE Releasing and inhibiting hormones TARGET TISSUE Anterior pituitary ACTIONS Regulate secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary Stimulate contraction Stimulate ejection of milk into ducts Stimulate reabsorption of water

Oxytocin Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) GroWth hormone (GH) Or somatotropin ANTERIOR PITUITARY (anabolic hormone) Prolactin Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

Uterus

Mammary gland Kidneys (collecting ducts) General Mammary glands Pigmento cells (skin)

Stimulates growth of skeleton/muscles Stimulates milk production Stimulates melanin production

 ANTERIOR PITUITARY

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Gonadotropic hormones FSH /LH . Thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyrionine (T3) Calcitonin Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

THYROID GLAND

Thyroid gland Adrenal cortex Gonads General Bone Bone Kidney Digestive tract

Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones, helps regulating bone remodeling Stimulates secretion of adrenal cortical hormones Stimulate gonad function and growth

PARATHYROID GLAND

Stimulate metabolic rate Regulate E metabolismo Lowers blood Ca+ level (decreases) Regulates blood Ca+ level (antagonista of Calcitonin) Stimulates Ca release from the bones ---------------------------------- Note: during pregnancy/growth period childhood Ca very important

 PARATHYROID GLAND

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Bone Kidney Digestive tract

PANCREAS ADRENAL MEDULLA ADRENAL CORTEX PINEAL GLAND

Insulin Glucagon Epinephrine Nonepirephrine Mineralcorticoids Glucocorticoids Melatonin

General Liver, adipose tissue Muscle Blood vessels Liver Adipose tissue Kidney tubules General Hypothalamus

Regulates blood Ca+ level (antagonista of Calcitonin) Stimulates Ca release from the bones ---------------------------------- Note: during pregnancy/growth period childhood Ca very important Role of vitamina 3D. Lowers blood glucose concentration Raises blood glucose concentration Help body to cope with stress Increase metabolic rate Raise blood glucose level Increase heart rate/blood pressure Maintain Na /K balance Help body cope with long terms stress Raise blood glucose level Important in biological rythms

 TESTIS

Testosterone

General Reproductive structures

Developes sex charact Promotes spermatogenesis

Position of the Endocrine glands

The hypothalamus and pituitary control a large part of the endocrine system. The thyroid is in the neck just below the larynx. The parathyroid glands are on the back of the thyroid. The thymus is anterior and superior to the heart. The adrenal glands are superior to the kidneys. The pancreas is inferior/posterior to the stomach. The ovaries are in the abdominopelvic cavity. The testies are in the scrotum, descended from the pelvic cavity.

The major human endocrine glands include: 1. the hypothalamus and pituitary gland The pituitary gland is called the master gland but it is under the control of the hypothalamus. Together, they control many other endocrine functions. They secrete a number of hormones, especially several which are important to the female menstural cycle, pregnancy, birth, and lactation (milk production). These include follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH), which stimulates development and maturation of a follicle in one of a womans ovaries, and leutinizing hormone (LH), which causes the bursting of that follicle (= ovulation) and the formation of a corpus luteum from the remains of the follicle. There are a number of other hypothalamus and pituitary hormones which affect various target organs. One non-sex hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary is antidiuretic hormone or ADH. This hormone helps prevent excess water excretion by the kidneys. Ethanol inhibits the release of ADH and can, thus, cause excessive water loss. Thats also part of the reason why a group of college students who go out for pizza and a pitcher of beer need to make frequent trips to the restrooms. Diuretics are chemicals which interfere with the production of or action of ADH so the kidneys secrete more water. Thus diuretics are often prescribed for people with high blood

pressure, in an attempt to decrease blood volume. Another group of non-sex hormones that many people have heard of is the endorphins, which belong to the category of chemicals known as opiates and serve to deaden our pain receptors. Endorphins, which are chemically related to morphine, are produced in response to pain. The natural response to rub an injured area, such as a pinched finger, helps to release endorphins in that area. People who exercise a lot and push their bodies until it hurts thereby stimulate the production of endorphins. It is thought that some people who constantly over-exercise and push themselves too much may actually be addicted to their own endorphins which that severe exercise regime releases. 2. the thyroid gland Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, therefore body temperature and weight. The thyroid hormones contain iodine, which the thyroid needs in order to manufacture these hormones. If a person lacks iodine in his/her diet, the thyroid cannot make the hormones, causing a deficiency. In response to the bodys feedback loops calling for more thyroid hormones, the thyroid gland then enlarges to attempt to compensate (The bodys plan here is if its bigger it can make more, but that doesnt help if there isnt enough iodine.). This disorder is called goiter. Dietary sources of iodine include any ocean foods because ocean-dwelling organisms tend to accumulate iodine from the seawater, and would include foods like ocean fish (tuna) and seaweeds like kelp. Because of this, people who live near the ocean do not have as much of a problem with goiter as people who live inland and dont have access to these foods. To help alleviate this problem in our country, our government began a program encouraging salt refiners to add iodine to salt, and encouraging people to choose to consume this iodized salt. 3. the pancreas This organ has two functions. It serves as a ducted gland, secreting digestive enzymes into the small intestine. The pancreas also serves as a ductless gland in that the islets of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon to regulate the blood sugar level. The -islet cells secrete glucagon, which tells the liver to take carbohydrate out of storage to raise a low blood sugar level. The -islet cells secrete insulin to tell the liver to take excess glucose out of circulation to lower a blood sugar level thats too high. If a persons body does not make enough insulin (and/or there is a reduced response of the target cells in the liver), the blood sugar rises, perhaps out of control, and we say that the person has diabetes mellitus.

4. the adrenal glands These sit on top of the kidneys. They consist of two parts, the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The medulla secretes epinephrine (= adrenaline) and other similar hormones in response to stressors such as fright, anger, caffeine, or low blood sugar. The cortex secretes corticosteroids such as cortisone. Corticosteroids are well-known as being anti-inflammatory, thus are prescribed for a number of conditions. However, these are powerful regulators that should be used with caution. Medicinal doses are typically higher than what your body would produce naturally, thus the persons normal feedback loops suppress natural secretion, and it is necessary to gradually taper off the dosage to trigger the adrenal glands to begin producing on their own again. Because the corticosteroids suppress the immune system, their use can lead to increased susceptibility to infections, yet physicians typically prescribe them for people whose immune systems are hard at work trying to fight off some pathogen. For example, back when I was in grad school, I was diagnosed with mono, and the campus doctor prescribed penicillin and cortisone. Since mono is a virus and penicillin only is effective against some bacteria, about all it did was kill off the friendly bacteria in my body, therefore causing me to develop a bad case of thrush. At the same time, the cortisone was supressing my immune system so my body could not as efficiently fight off the mono and the thrush. People with high blood pressure should be leery of taking prescription corticosteroids: they are known to raise blood pressure, thus can cause things like strokes. My mother-in-law had high blood pressure and was being treated with diuretics. Her physician also had her on large doses of cortisone for her arthritis. While he was on vacation, she started having significant back pain and was referred to an orthopedic surgeon. This man decided the back pain was just due to arthritis, and without carefully checking on what dosage she was already taking, prescribed more cortisone. Simultaneously, because of difficulty walking due to her arthritis, she decided to decrease the amount of diuretics she was taking so she didnt have to make as many long trips to the other end of the house. The combination of lowered dose of diuretics and high dose of cortisone raised her blood pressure to the point where a blood vessel in her brain burst, causing a stroke. When the EMTs took her blood pressure, as I recall the systolic was way over 200 mm Hg.

5. the gonads or sex organs In addition to producing gametes, the female ovaries and male testes (singular = testis) also secrete hormones. Therefore, these hormones are called sex hormones. The secretion of sex hormones by the gonads is controlled by pituitary gland hormones such as FSH and LH. While both sexes make some of each of the hormones, typically male testes secrete primarilyandrogens including testosterone. Female ovaries make estrogen and progesterone in varying amounts depending on where in her cycle a woman is. In a pregnant woman, the babys placenta also secretes hormones to maintain the pregnancy. 6. the pineal gland This gland is located near the center of the brain in humans, and is stimulated by nerves from the eyes. In some other animals, the pineal gland is closer to the skin and directly stimulated by light (some lizards even have a third eye). The pineal gland secreted melatonin at night when its dark, thus secretes more in winter when the nights are longer. Melatonin promotes sleep (makes you feel sleepy). It also affects reproductive functions by depressing the activity of the gonads. Additionally, it affects thyroid and adrenal cortex functions. In some animals, melatonin affects skin pigmentation. Because melatonin production is affected by the amount of light to which a person is exposed, this is tied to circadian rhythm (having an activity cycle of about 24 hours), annual cycles, and biological clock functions. SAD or seasonal affective disorder (syndrome) is a disorder in which too much melatonin is produced, especially during the long nights of winter, causing profound depression, oversleeping, weight gain, tiredness, and sadness. Treatment consists of exposure to bright lights for several hours each day to inhibit melatonin production. It has also been found that melatonin levels drop 75% suddenly just before puberty, suggesting the involvement of melatonin in the regulation of the onset of puberty. Studies have been done on blind girls (with a form of blindness in which no impulses can travel down the optic nerve and reach the brain and pineal gland), which showed that these girls tended to have higher levels of melatonin for a longer time, resulting in a delay in the onset of puberty. While some older people, who dont make very much melatonin, thus dont sleep well, might benefit from a melatonin supplement, Im skeptical of the recent melatonin craze in this country. When so many people apparently are suffering from SAD, I question the wisdom of purposly ingesting more melatonin, especially since the pineal gland is one of the least-studied, least-understood of the endocrine glands.

7.The Thymus Gland

This gland is located behind the breastbone. It produces the hormone thymosin. This hormone causes white blood cells (lymphocytes) to become mature and active. These blood cells, as previously discussed in the Blood web

7.

Local regulators are hormones with target cells nearby or adjacent to the endocrine gland in question. For example, neurotransmitters are secreted in the synapses of our nervous system and their target cells are in the same synapses.

ENDOCRINE DISORDERS Adrenal insufficiency. The adrenal gland releases too little of the hormone cortisol and sometimes, aldosterone. Symptoms include fatigue, stomach upset,dehydration, and skin changes. Addison's disease is a type of adrenal insufficiency. Cushing's disease. Overproduction of a pituitary gland hormone leads to an overactive adrenal gland. A similar condition called Cushing's syndrome may occur in people, particularly children, who take high doses of corticosteroid medications. Gigantism (acromegaly) and other growth hormone problems. If the pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone, a child's bones and body parts may grow abnormally fast. If growth hormone levels are too low, a child can stop growing in height. Hyperthyroidism. The thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone, leading to weight loss, fast heart rate, sweating, and nervousness. The most common cause for an overactive thyroid is an autoimmune disorder called Grave's disease. Hypothyroidism. The thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone, leading to fatigue, constipation, dry skin, and depression. The underactive gland can cause slowed development in children. Some types of hypothyroidism are present at birth. Hypopituitarism. The pituitary gland releases little or no hormones. It may be caused by a number of different diseases. Women with this condition may stop getting their periods. Multiple endocrine neoplasia I and II (MEN I and MEN II). These rare, genetic conditions are passed down through families. They cause tumors of the parathyroid, adrenal, and thyroid glands, leading to overproduction of hormones. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Overproduction of androgens interfere with the development of eggs and their release from the female ovaries. PCOS is a leading cause of infertility.