EGE217: Electronics 1

Lecturer: Siti Hamimah Sh. Ismail

January 2009

ELECTRONICS 1

CHAPTER 3: SPECIAL DIODES

Introduction
Zener diode is important because they are the key to voltage
regulation. This chapter also covers varactor diodes, optical diodes
and laser diodes.

3.1 The Zener Diode

Small signal and rectifier diodes can be damaged if it operates in the
breakdown region. Zener diode is a special silicon diode which has
been optimized for operation in the breakdown region. It is the
backbone of voltage regulators, circuits that hold the load voltage
almost constant despite large changes in line voltage and load
resistance.

3.1.1 I-V Graph

Figure below shows the schematic diagram of a zener diode.

Figure 1

By varying the doping level of silicon diodes, a manufacturer can

produce zener diode with breakdown voltage from about 2 to over
1000 V. These diodes can operate in any of three regions; forward,
leakage and breakdown.

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EGE217: Electronics 1
Lecturer: Siti Hamimah Sh. Ismail
January 2009
Figure below shows the I-V graph of a zener diode.

Figure 2

• In the forward region, it starts conducting around 0.7 V, just like

an ordinary silicon diode.
• In the leakage region, (between zero and breakdown), it has only a
small reverse current.
• In the breakdown region, there is a very sharp knee followed by a
vertical increase in current. Note that the voltage is almost
constant, approximately equal to Vz over most of the breakdown
region. The value of Vz at a particular test current IZT is usually
specified in the data sheet.

IZM is known as maximum reverse current. The reverse current must

be less then IZM in order for the diode to operate safely. To prevent
excessive current, a current limiting resistor must be used.

3.1.2Zener Regulator
A zener diode is sometimes called a voltage-regulator diode, because
it maintains a constant output voltage even though the current
through it changes. For normal operation, zener diode is reverse
biased to operate as shown in figure below:

Figure 3

The voltage across the series of current-limitting resistor equals the

difference between the source voltage and the zener voltage. Thus, the
current through the resistor is:

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EGE217: Electronics 1
Lecturer: Siti Hamimah Sh. Ismail
January 2009

VS − VZ
IS =
RS
Note that IS must be less than IZM.

IDEAL ZENER DIODE

For troubleshooting, we can approximate that the breakdown region

as vertical. Meaning that the voltage is constant even though the
current changes, which is equivalent to ignoring the zener resistance.
Thus, a zener diode operating in the breakdown region acts like a
battery. In a circuit, it means that you can mentally replace a zener
diode by a voltage source of Vz, provided that the zener diode is
operating in the breakdown region.

Example:

Suppose the zener diode has a breakdown voltage of 10V. What are
the maximum and minimum zener currents?

Solution:

The applied voltage may vary from 20 to 40 V. Ideally, a zener diode

acts like a battery in figure (b). Therefore the output voltage is 10V for
any source voltage between 20 and 40V.

The minimum current occurs when the source voltage is minimum.

Visualize 20V on the left end of the resistor and 10 V on the right end.
Then you can see that the voltage across the resistor is 20V –
10V.Thus,

20 − 10
IS = = 12.2mA
820

The maximum current occurs when the source voltage is 40V. In this
case the source voltage across the resistor is 30V, which gives a
current of

40 − 10
IS = = 36.6mA
820

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EGE217: Electronics 1
Lecturer: Siti Hamimah Sh. Ismail
January 2009

3.1.3The Loaded Zener Regulator

Figure below shows a loaded zener regulator:

Figure 4
In order for us to tell whether the zener diode is operating in the
breakdown region, we need to find the Thevenin Voltage facing the
diode. This Thevenin voltage has to be greater than the zener voltage
in order for breakdown to occur.

RL
VTH = VS
RS + R L

Current through series resistor is:

VS − VZ
IS =
RS

Ideally, the load voltage equals the zener voltage because they are in
parallel. Thus:

VL
IL =
RL
With Kirchoff's current law:

IS = IZ + IL
Thus, the zener current is:
IZ = IS − IL

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EGE217: Electronics 1
Lecturer: Siti Hamimah Sh. Ismail
January 2009
Example:
Is the zener diode operating in the breakdown region?

Solution:

3.1.4 Zener effect

When the breakdown voltage is greater than 6 V, the cause of the

breakdown is the avalanche effect as we have learnt before. The basic
idea is that minority carriers are accelerated to high enough speed to
dislodge other minority carriers producing a chain or avalanche effect
that results in a large reverse current .

The Zener effect is different . When a diode is highly doped, the

depletion layer becomes very narrow. Because of this, the electric field
across the depletion layer is very intense until it is enough to pull
electrons out of their valence orbits. The creation of free electrons in
this way is called the zener effect, which depends on high-speed
minority carriers dislodging valence electrons.

 When the breakdown voltage is less than 4V, only the zener effect
occurs.
 When the breakdown voltage is greater than 6V, only the avalanche
effect occurs.
 When the breakdown voltage is between 4 and 6V, both effects are
present.

3.2 Varactor Diode

The varactor (which is also called the voltage variable capacitance,
varicap, epicap and tuning diode), is widely used in television

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EGE217: Electronics 1
Lecturer: Siti Hamimah Sh. Ismail
January 2009
receivers, FM receivers and other communications equipment because
it can be used for electronic tuning.

3.2.1Basic Idea
In figure below, the depletion layer is between the p region and the n
region. The p and n regions are like the plates of capacitor, and the
depletion layer is like the dielectric. When the diode is reverse biased,
the width of the depletion layer increases with the reverse voltage.
Since the depletion layer gets wider with more reverse voltage the
capacitance becomes smaller. It's as though you moved apart the
plates of a capacitor. The key idea is that the capacitance is controlled
by the reverse voltage.

Figure 5

3.2.2Equivalent Circuit and Symbol

Figure below shows the schematic symbol for a varactor.

Figure 6

Note that as far as an ac signal is concerned, the varactor acts the

same as a variable capcitance.

3.2.3 How is a Varactor Used?

Varactor is connected parallel with an inductor to form a parallel
resonant circuit. The circuit has only one frequency at which
maximum impedance occurs. This frequency is called the resonant
frequency. If the dc reverse voltage to the varactor is changed, the
resonant frequency is also changed. This is the principle behind
electronic tuning of a radio station and a TV channel.

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EGE217: Electronics 1
Lecturer: Siti Hamimah Sh. Ismail
January 2009
3.3 Optical Diodes
There are a few examples of Optical Diodes such as Light Emitting Diode
(LED), Photodiode and Laser diode.

3.3.1Light Emitting Diode

Figure below shows a source connected to a resistor and an LED. The

outward arrows symbolize the radiated light.

Figure 7

In a forward biased LED, free electrons cross the junctions and fall
into holes. As these electrons fall from higher to a lower energy level,
they radiate energy. But in an LED, the energy is radiated as light.

By using elements like gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus, a

manufacturer can produce LEDs that radiate red, green, yellow, blue,
orange or infrared (invisible).

Think!!!!!!
What is a useful application for infrared radiation?

3.3.2Photodiode
As previously discussed, one component of reverse current in a diode
is the flow of minority carriers. These carriers exist because thermal
energy keeps dislodging valence electrons from the orbits, producing
free electrons and holes in the process.

When light energy bombards a pn junction, it can dislodge valence

electrons. The more lights striking the junction the larger the reverse
current in a diode. A photodiode has been optimized for its sensitivity
to light. In this diode, a window lets light pass through the package to
the junction. The incoming light produces free electrons and holes.
The stronger the light the greater the number of minority carriers and
the larger the reverse current.

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EGE217: Electronics 1
Lecturer: Siti Hamimah Sh. Ismail
January 2009
Figure below shows the schematic diagram of a photodiode. The arrow
represents the incoming light.

Figure 8

3.3.3 Laser Diodes

Laser diode produces coherent light. Means that all the light waves
are in phase with each other. Because of the resonance, a laser diode
produces a narrow beam of light that is very intense, focused and
pure.

Laser diodes are also known as semiconductor lasers. These diodes

can produce visible light (red, green or blue) and invisible light
(infrared). In consumer products they are used in compact disk
players and laser printers.

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EGE217: Electronics 1
Lecturer: Siti Hamimah Sh. Ismail
January 2009

Tutorial 3

1. Consider this circuit below. The supply voltage is varied from 20V to 0V. At some
point along the way, the zener diode will stop regulating. Find the supply voltage
where regulation is lost.
560Ω

20V 12V 1KΩ

to 0V

2. 330Ω

12V 1.5KΩ
20V

Calculate all three currents in figure above. What is the power dissipation in the
resistors and zener diode?

3. (a) Draw the schematic diagram of a zener regulator with a supply voltage of
25V, a series resistance of 470 Ω, a zener voltage of 15V and a load resistance of
1K.

(b) Find the zener current, and the load voltage.

4. Suppose the zener diode has a breakdown voltage of 10 V, and the supply voltage
is varied between 20 to 40 V. Find the minimum and maximum zener current.

5. Is the zener diode operating in the breakdown region?

270Ω

18V 10V 1 KΩ

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