http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2006/5-15/fungicides.

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Fungicides: Terminology

by Daren Mueller, Department of Plant Pathology First in a series. See Part 2.

Many growers have never used foliar-applied fungicide for management of field crop diseases, especially on soybean. At this time, foliar-applied fungicides are the only effective option for managing Asian soybean rust. In the following weeks, there will be a series of articles to help producers understand fungicides and how they affect their production practices. Some of the commonly used terms are defined below: Fungicide: a chemical or physical agent that kills or inhibits the growth of fungi. Fungicides have at least three names, all of which can be found on the label: Chemical name: the name of the active ingredient (a.i.) in a fungicide (e.g., methyl (E)2-{2-[6-(2-cyanophenoxy) pyrimidin-4-yloxy]phenyl}-3-methoxyacrylate). Common name: a less technical term for the active ingredient (e.g., azoxystrobin). Trade name: the patented name under which a product is commercially available (e.g., Quadris). Active ingredient (a.i.): the active component of a fungicide. A single active ingredient may be marketed under several different trade names. Fungicide resistance: the reduction in sensitivity to a fungicide by an individual fungus. Fungicides with single-site modes of action are at relatively high risk for resistance development compared to those with multi-site mode of action.

Classification of fungicides Fungicides can be classified a number of different ways, including (1) mobility in the plant, (2) role in protection of plants, (3) breadth of activity, (4) mode of action, and (5) chemical group. (1) Mobility in the plant Contact fungicide: a fungicide that remains on the surface where it is applied but does not go deeper; these fungicides have no after-infection activity. Repeated applications are needed to protect new growth of the plant and to replace material that has been washed off by rain or irrigation, or degraded by environmental factors such as sunlight. Systemic fungicide: a fungicide that is absorbed into plant tissue and may offer some afterinfection activity. Very few fungicides are truly systemic (i.e., move freely throughout the plant); however, some are upwardly systemic (i.e., move only upward in the plant through xylem tissue), and some are locally systemic (i.e., move into treated leaves and redistribute to some degree within the treated portion of the plant. (2) Role in protection (some fungicides can fall into more than one of these categories)

Preventative activity: occurs when a fungicide is present on the plant as a protective barrier before the pathogen arrives or begins to develop so that it prevents infection from occurring (also referred to as a protective activity). Early-infection activity: occurs when the active ingredient of a fungicide can penetrate the plant and stop the pathogen in the plant tissues, usually most effective 24 to 72 hours after infection occurs, depending on the fungicide. Most fungicides that have early-infection activity also have preventative activity and are most effective when applied before infection occurs. (also referred to as a curative activity, although we are going to avoid this term because many of these fungicides do not "cure" the plant). Eradication: the ability to stop disease development after symptoms have developed. Very few fungicides have this capability, and growers must not rely on this as a means of disease control. Anti-sporulant activity: the ability to prevent spores from being produced. In this case, disease continues to develop (e.g., lesions continue to expand), but spores are not produced or released, so the amount of inoculum available to infect surrounding plants is reduced. (3) Breadth of activity Single-site fungicide: fungicide active against only one point in one metabolic pathway in a fungus or against a single critical enzyme or protein needed by the fungus. These fungicides are less toxic to plants and tend to have systemic properties. Multi-site fungicide: fungicide that affects a number of different metabolic sites within the fungus. (4) Mode of action Mode of action: how a fungicide acts on a target fungus, which is the specific process in the metabolism of the target fungus that is affected by a fungicide. Examples are damaging cell membranes, inactivating critical enzymes or proteins, or interfering with key processes such as energy production or respiration. (5) Chemical group or class Chemical group or class: the name given to a group of chemicals that share a common biochemical mode of action and may or may not have similar chemical structure. Fungicides approved for use on field crops in Iowa fall into a few different groups: QoI fungicides (which include strobilurins), triazoles, and a few miscellaneous others. Trade name Quadris Alto Dithane Manzate Penncozeb mancozeb Inhibitor Multi-site contact

Active ingredient Mode of action

azoxystrobin Qo

cyproconazole

Inhibitor DeMethylation

(QoI) Chemical group or Strobilurins class Mobility in plant Role in protection Breadth of activity Locally systemic Protectant Single-site

(DMI) Triazoles Upwardly systemic Protectant Early infection Single-site

activity Dithiocarbamates Contact Protectant Multi-site

Quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) fungicides include three fungicide families, the well-known family of strobilurins and two new families, represented by fenamidone and famoxadone. QoI fungicides approved for, or in review for, use on field crops in Iowa include strobilurins azoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin and trifloxystrobin, and famoxadone. These fungicides are used on cereal grains, corn, and soybean as well as many other crops in Iowa, such as fruit trees, small fruit, vegetables, and turf. Strobilurins were derived from a naturally occurring compound found in wood-rotting fungi. Fenamidone and famoxadone are synthetic fungicides. These compounds are very effective on a broad spectrum of fungi. The anti-fungal activity of QoI fungicides is different from other fungicides on the market. How do they inhibit fungi? QoI fungicides are chemical compounds that act at the Quinol outer binding site of the cytochrome bc1 complex. In other words, these fungicides act by inhibiting fungal mitochondrial respiration that stops energy production in the fungus and results in its death. When should QoI fungicides be applied? This group of fungicides should be applied preventively or as early as possible in the disease cycle. They are effective against spore germination and early mycelium growth. Once the fungus is growing inside the leaf tissue, QoI fungicides have little or no effect. Where do QoI fungicides move in the plant and how long do they last? Most QoI fungicides are locally systemic. They are absorbed into leaf tissue. If a droplet of fungicide is applied to the top surface of a leaf, it will spread out on the surface of the leaf and even move to the cuticle on the other side of the leaf. A few of these fungicides are upwardly systemic and move up the plant in the xylem. Additionally, some may move as a gas above the leaf and readily rebind to the waxy cuticle. Most have a residual period of approximately 21 days. Do we worry about fungicide resistance? Yes, since QoI fungicides are active only at one specific site in fungal pathogens, they are prone to resistance. To date there have been 23 different plant pathogens that have some level of resistance to QoI fungicides. This resistance is a result of single gene mutations in the fungi.

Recommendations for avoiding fungicide resistance: Tank mix QoI fungicides with fungicides that have a different mode of action. The other fungicide has to provide effective disease control. Refer to label recommendations for rates. Apply a maximum of two QoI fungicide-containing sprays per season. Apply QoI fungicides according to manufacturers' recommendations for the target disease at the specific crop growth stage indicated. Apply the QoI fungicide preventively or as early as possible in the disease cycle. Do not rely on management of diseases when QoI fungicides are applied during early infection. Reduced rate programs accelerate the development of resistant populations and therefore must not be used.

The fungicide group, demethylation inhibitors (DMI), which contain the triazole fungicides, was introduced in the mid-1970s. Triazoles consist of numerous members, of which several are labeled or are in the process of being labeled for use on field crops in Iowa--cyproconazole, flusilazole, flutriafol, metconazole, myclobutanil, propiconazole, prothioconazole, tebuconazole, and tetraconazole. Triazoles are used on many different types of plants in Iowa including field crops, fruit trees, small fruit, vegetables, and turf. These fungicides are highly effective against many different fungal diseases, especially powdery mildews, rusts, and many leaf-spotting fungi. How do they inhibit fungi? The triazole fungicides inhibit one specific enzyme, C14-demethylase, which plays a role in sterol production. Sterols, such as ergosterol, are needed for membrane structure and function, making them essential for the development of functional cell walls. Therefore, these fungicides result in abnormal fungal growth and eventually death. Each triazole compound may act in a slightly different part of the biochemical sterol-producing pathway. While the results are similar in various fungi--abnormal fungal growth and death--there are great differences in the activity spectra of these fungicides. Triazoles have no effect against spore germination because spores contain enough sterol for the formation of germ tubes. Some spores even have enough sterol to produce infection structures so, in some cases, triazoles may not be effective against infection of the host tissue. When should triazole fungicides be applied? Triazoles may be applied preventively or as early-infection treatments. When applied as an earlyinfection treatment, applications must be made early in the fungal infection process. Some triazole fungicides have anti-sporulant properties, which means they inhibit spore production and therefore help to slow disease development. However, if a fungus begins to produce spores on an infected plant, triazole fungicides are then not effective. Where do triazole fungicides move in the plant and how long do they last?

Although the triazoles don't have the degree of systemic movement of many herbicides, they are locally systemic and more mobile in plant tissues than QoI fungicides. Following application, the active ingredient is readily taken up by leaves and moves within the leaf. Studies have shown that three droplets of a labeled rate of triazole fungicide applied to a soybean trifoliate leaf covered the entire leaf within one day. Note, however, that triazole fungicides are not necessarily transported from one leaf to another leaf or from one part of the plant to another part. They also do not move down plants through the phloem. Most triazoles have a residual period of approximately 14 days. Is there injury associated with triazole applications? There have been scattered reports of injury on soybean associated with triazole applications, especially tebuconazole. Of the reports of tebuconazole injury, applications were made during hot and dry conditions and with a surfactant. Do we worry about fungicide resistance? Yes, because their site of action is very specific, there are resistance concerns. Resistance has occurred on other plant pathogens, even some rusts. Some of the triazoles have disappeared from the marketplace as resistance to them developed and they no longer provided any benefit or advantage in a disease control program. Recommendations for avoiding fungicide resistance: Repeated use of triazoles alone should be avoided, especially under high disease pressure or against rapid cycling diseases such as rust. When multiple applications are required, alternate or tank mix triazole fungicides with fungicides with a different mode of action (not just different triazoles). The other fungicide has to provide effective disease control. Refer to label recommendations for rates. Apply triazole fungicides according to manufacturers' recommendations for the target disease at the specific crop growth stage indicated. Use during the critical parts of the growing season or crop growth, especially when alternative fungicides are not available or effective. If possible, apply triazole fungicides preventively or as early as possible in the disease cycle. While some triazole fungicides have early-infection activity, do not rely on management of diseases when fungicides are applied well after disease has progressed. Reduced rate programs accelerate the development of resistant populations and therefore must not be used.

An air-assist sprayer moves through a soybean field. (Tristan Mueller)

Other fungicides available for use on field crops in Iowa are in the benzimidazoles class or are contact fungicides. Benzimidazoles Benzimidazoles are widely used fungicides that first became available in the late 1960s; however, thiophanate-methyl is the only fungicide in this class labeled for use on field crops in Iowa. Benomyl also is in this fungicide class but is no longer commercially available. Benzimidazoles are effective against a broad range of fungi that cause leaf spots, root and crown rots, stem rots, and powdery mildew--but not rusts. How do benzimidazoles inhibit fungi? These compounds interfere with fungal mitosis (normal cell division), so they affect the growth of fungi. When should benzimidazoles be applied? Preventively or as early as possible in the disease cycle. Where do benzimidazoles move in the plant and how long do they last? These fungicides cannot move down the plant, so they are effective only if there is complete coverage of the entire plant. Canopy penetration is essential to good control. Do we worry about fungicide resistance? Yes, these fungicides affect fungi at a very specific site in the metabolic pathway of target fungi and, therefore, resistance to these fungicides develops very easily. This was the first group of selective fungicides for which resistance in plant pathogens was found, and benzimidazoles are now not effective for many important diseases. See recommendations from product labels and the QoI and triazole articles in previous weeks for managing fungicide resistance.

Contact fungicides Contact fungicides are applied to the leaf and stem surfaces and are considered protective or preventive fungicides. Contact fungicides have a broad spectrum of disease control activity. Contact fungicides approved for use in Iowa include inorganic compounds (copper and sulfur), dithiocarbamates (mancozeb), and chloronitriles (chlorothalonil). How do contact fungicides inhibit fungi? They inhibit the fungi on the plant surface, usually spore germination, so the fungus will not be able to infect the plant. Contact fungicides affect multiple sites in fungi; they kill fungi by overwhelming them with poisonous materials. When should contact fungicides be applied? Preventively--these fungicides do not affect fungi once they have infected the plant. Where do contact fungicides move in the plant and how long do they last? These fungicides remain on the plant surface and do not penetrate into the plant. They remain active only as long as the fungicide remains on the plant surface in sufficient concentration to inhibit fungal growth, usually 7 to 14 days. On plant surfaces, contact fungicides are sensitive to environmental conditions like rainfall and solar radiation. The strobilurin and sterol inhibitor fungicides are absorbed into the leaf after application (once the residue has dried) and are not affected by rain wash-off and solar radiation. A general rule of thumb for the effect of rain on washing off protectant fungicides follows: Less than one inch of rain since the last spray will not significantly affect residues. One to two inches of rain will reduce the residue by half. Over two inches of rain since the last spray will remove most of the spray residue.

Do we worry about fungicide resistance? No, but contact fungicides are a part of fungicide resistance programs. If multiple applications of fungicides are needed, the benefit of including a contact fungicide is not to eliminate the resistant strain of the fungus but to reduce the number of systemic applications you make in any one year. This extends the number of years you can use the systemic fungicide, but it does not prevent the eventual development of fungicide resistance. Fungicides that may become an integral part of soybean production are already used in corn and small grain production under certain situations. Since fungal pathogens are often highly variable and may be able to adapt to repeated fungicide sprays, resistance management may become an issue. It is important to protect effective groups of fungicides because resistance may lead to unexpected and costly crop losses to growers, and loss of a valuable product.

Imagine a group of old men rocking on the front porch reminiscing about days gone by and solving today's problems. One mumbles, "fungicide resistance, eh, they just don't make 'em like they used to . . . why back in my day . . ." And he's right. The first fungicides were sulfur and copper based. Mercury fungicides were developed in the early 1900s and were widely used until it was discovered that they were highly toxic to animals. In the 1940s and '50s, fungicides like Captan and Maneb were introduced. All of these fungicides are contact fungicides and only work if applied prior to infection. These older fungicides have another important characteristic: they affect a number of different metabolic sites within the fungus so fungicide resistance has never been a concern. More recently, highly effective compounds like the triazoles and QoI fungicides (e.g., strobilurins) with specific modes of action have been developed. In other words, these fungicides affect one specific site in one metabolic pathway of the fungus. The exactness of the action of these products means that fungi only have one barrier to overcome. Thus, the problem of fungicide resistance has occurred and is on the increase since growers have relied more and more on these newer fungicides. So, although QoI and triazole fungicides represent marked improvements in performance, including systemic and therapeutic properties, these compounds are prone to resistance because of their specific mode of action. The Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC) is a group of professionals whose goal is to provide fungicide resistance management guidelines to prolong the effectiveness of these "at risk" fungicides and to limit crop losses should resistance occur. When growers need to repeatedly spray fungicides to manage a fungal problem, it is best to use fungicides that have different modes of action. The FRAC code helps identify fungicides by their mode of action and informs if they should be used in consecutive sprays.

How do I use the FRAC code? The FRAC code represents the mode of action of the fungicide. For fungicide resistance management, do not tank mix or alternate fungicides with the same FRAC number in a spray program. Some fungicides are labeled "M," which means that the fungicide acts upon multiple sites and resistance risk is low. FRAC code for foliar fungicides labeled (or potentially labeled) for use on field crops in Iowa Chemical Group Benzimidazole Demethylation (triazoles) Inhibitors Common Name thiophanatemethyl cyproconazole flusilazole flutriafol metconazole myclobutanil propiconazole prothioconazole tebuconazole tetraconazole QoI fungicides (strobilurin) azoxystrobin pyraclostrobin trifloxystrobin famoxadone Multi-site contact activity chlorothalonil mancozeb copper sulfur Crop soybean soybean soybean soybean soybean soybean soybean soybean, grains soybean soybean soybean, corn soybean, small grains soybean, grains soybean soybean corn, small grains small grains small grains M corn, small 11 corn, small FRAC Code 1 3

Sometimes management of plant diseases is accomplished through the application of fungicides. Many factors prior to, during, and after application will determine the success of the fungicide. On certain occasions, fungicide applications fail to manage the targeted disease. It is important to identify the reasons for these failures to prevent them from occurring in the future.

Diagnosis and fungicide selection One thing to consider is inaccurate disease diagnosis. There are common problems that may be misidentified as fungal diseases including insect damage, chemical injury, bacterial diseases, nematodes, and environmental damage (see photos). Fungicide applications do not affect these other problems. Even if the problem is accurately diagnosed as a fungal disease, there are some fungicides that will not manage all diseases. For example, contact fungicides do not control root rot diseases caused by Phytophthora. Without proper diagnosis, a fungicide may be selected that does not manage the targeted disease. Be sure the targeted disease is specified on the fungicide label.

Similar symptoms on soybean caused by sudden death syndrome (top) and tebuconazole phytotoxicity (bottom). (Daren Mueller and Boyd Padgett, respectively)
Also, do not use dated fungicide material. The general rule is that fungicides stored over two years begin to lose their activity and may fail to work.

Loading fungicide in the sprayer Mixing fungicides with too acidic or alkaline of water can reduce fungicidal activity, especially for water with a pH greater than 8.0. Optimally, water with a pH near 7.0 should be used for mixing pesticides. If water pH is not optimal, it easily can be corrected with pH buffers that are added to the water before mixing in fungicides. For fungicides to effectively manage diseases, you must use them at recommended rates. In addition, care needs to be made when calculating treatment area and the amount of product to add to the tank. Be sure to carefully check the label before loading the sprayer and double check your calculations. Mixing multiple pesticides in a spray tank can save time, but be sure they are compatible. Incompatibility can result in the formation of insoluble precipitates in your tank. Fungicide labels often contain information on mixing compatibility. If the label does not address compatibility, test a small volume of the spray mix in a glass jar for 30 minutes, and then look for separation or settling of pesticides in the jar. The order that pesticides of different formulations are added to the tank also may affect compatibility. Add different formulations of pesticides to the tank in this order: wettable powders, flowables, solubles, powders, surfactants, and then emulsifiable concentrates. Fungicides begin to lose their activity if they sit too long in the spray tank. Fungicide activity declines within 12 hours after mixing and is accelerated by poor water quality (high or low pH). Sprayer calibration and application Perhaps the most common cause of fungicide-application failure is from incorrect sprayer calibration. If a sprayer is not properly calibrated, too much or too little fungicide can be applied, which can result in fungicide toxicity or unmanaged disease. To avoid these problems, recalibrate the sprayer after any modifications to nozzles, pressure, or speed are made. Also, the material should be applied in the recommended volume of water, at a constant speed, and at the recommended pressure. Be sure to adjust the spray pressure for the nozzles used. Excessively high sprayer pressures result in small droplets that may drift. Calibrating and adjusting a sprayer takes time, effort, and involves math, but it can save money and make fungicide applications more effective. Environmental considerations Pay attention to weather forecasts prior to a fungicide application. Avoid spraying when rain is expected. A general rule is that systemic fungicides need a minimum of 3 hours on the plant surface before a rain. Contact fungicides are always sensitive to rain but more so prior to drying on plant surfaces. Resistance Fungicide resistance is one of the first things that may come to mind when a fungicide fails to

manage disease. It is also one of the least-likely explanations. Fungicide resistance has been outlined in the past few weeks in this series. The only way to be certain if there are fungicideresistant pathogens is to have them examined in a lab. Do not immediately assume that the cause of any fungicide failure is due to fungicide resistance. If you take a look at the current distribution of soybean rust in the United States and listen carefully to the experts on the chances of rust making it to Iowa, you have to be encouraged. Despite the good news about soybean rust not spreading quickly (or hardly at all), there have been several reports of chemical reps from major fungicide manufacturers trying to convince growers to purchase fungicides and apply them to soybean to enhance plant health, leading to higher crop yields; suggested treatments involve QoI-containing fungicides, such as Headline or Quadris. During the next 30 days, many soybean acres in Iowa will move from flowering to the early pod fill, which is the targeted period for "plant health" applications of fungicides. In the absence of soybean rust and significant risk of infection by the rust pathogen, the decision to apply a "plant health" fungicide application is not as straightforward as some might believe. There is not general agreement among university and industry scientists regarding the potential for "plant health" applications to result in economical benefits to producers--economical means that dollars return per acre exceeds dollars invested in fungicide/application costs. Arguments for not spraying fungicides for "plant health" In 2005, fungicide studies were set up across the Midwest and northeastern United States. In all, 62 plots with different fungicide/timing combinations were completed. Significant yield results were encountered in 27 percent of these 62 replicated experiments. These experiments involved both large and small plot tests. In a separate fungicide study at the University of Kentucky during 20032005, plant pathologist Don Hershman looked specifically at "plant health" applications and if they led to economic benefits to producers. Over the three years of study, significant yield results were encountered in six of 24 experiments. All of the experiments referenced so far involved replication of treatments, which allowed treatments to be statistically analyzed. The only way to know with any degree of certainty if one treatment produced a different result than another treatment is to analyze results with accepted statistical procedures. If no statistics are done, anything less results in uncertainty whether or not the treatment really had an impact or if apparent differences were merely the result of chance and/or inherent experiment variability. Arguments for spraying fungicides for "plant health" In contrast to the above, results of "plant health" fungicide applications based on a large number of strip plot, side-by-side comparisons in grower fields have been much more favorable to potential yield benefits. For example, 162 side-by-side comparisons, summarized by BASF from Indiana and Ohio in 2005, showed an average yield response to "plant health" fungicide applications of 5.6 bu/acre. Comparisons summarized from 192 fields across the Midsouth in 2005 were even more favorable, with an average yield response of 8.5 bu/acre. Supposedly, Syngenta can produce

similar results from their on-farm trials over the last few years. Keep in mind that a 3 to 4 bu/acre yield increase is considered to be the economically break-even point, depending on the fungicide and application cost and the price received per bushel of soybean. There are problems with nonreplicated, side-by-side, strip-plot comparisons. One major concern is that results typically do not include detailed information on disease activity. Thus, one cannot know if a disease was the reason for any potential yield increase. In addition, treatments in a field cannot be statistically analyzed because there is no in-field treatment replication. Still, large numbers of strip trials with similar results have meaning and value, despite serious questions about the data generated. How to interpret these different results? What is one to make of the apparent discrepancy between the results of 86 replicated experiments, conducted by numerous scientists, and the results of nonreplicated, but numerous, on-farm treatment comparisons conducted by industry? The great disparity in results should be a "red flag" when considering making applications of foliar fungicides to soybean in the absence of specific fungal target diseases. Very high treatment yields in many strip-plot comparisons (and some replicated experiments) over the last few years make it clear that something significant is going on. There have been enough positive results to conclude that "plant health" applications of fungicides to soybean cannot be discarded. Yet, there also have been enough negative results to know that there are many, many scenarios where "plant health" fungicide applications simply will not pay for themselves. Side effects Applications of any pesticide in the absence of a specific target pest(s) is contrary to integrated pest management principles. There may be unintended, long-term implications (environmental, regulatory, and/or sociological) associated with applying fungicides to soybean in the absence of specific target pests. One consequence could be the suppression of native fungi that naturally keep insect populations in check. There is already some evidence that indiscriminate use of fungicides in soybean has resulted in increased insect/mite activity in some states. Another consequence could be stricter future pesticide laws and regulations. Conclusion Producers who are considering making fungicide applications for "plant health" benefits should make those applications with the awareness that a significant economic response is not assured. At this point, university and industry scientists do not have enough information to be able to recommend which fields/situations have a high probability of an economic response and which fields have a low probability of response.

Much of this article was excerpted from an article in Kentucky Pest News written by Don Hershman.
Reading through a pesticide label will give you most of the needed information concerning safety for both yourself and others while spraying field crops. Below is a synopsis of some of the dangers and restrictions for some common fungicides. For details on a specific fungicide, please follow the label's directions for mixing and application along with the instructions for safe use. Personal protective equipment Fungicides labeled for use on field crops have minimal requirements for personal protective equipment, with a few exceptions: long-sleeved shirt and pants, shoes plus socks, and chemical-resistant gloves.

Some fungicides require coveralls over regular work clothing, and some fungicides only require waterproof gloves. Also, nearly half of the available fungicides require protective eyewear. Other requirements include chemical-resistant footwear, chemical-resistant headgear for overhead exposure, and a chemical-resistant apron when cleaning, mixing, or loading (Headline, Headline SBR, and Laredo 25EC). A few fungicides may require the use of a respirator. The details about the specific type of respirator will be listed on the label. The Worker Protection Standard (WPS) The WPS is a federal regulation designed to protect agricultural workers and handlers. It covers pesticides that are used in the production of agricultural plants on farms, forests, nurseries, and in greenhouses. If the pesticide that you are using has an "Agricultural use requirement" statement in the "Directions for Use" section of the label, you must comply with the WPS. The most recent information about the Standard may be obtained by checking the September 2005 updated WPS How to Comply manual. A helpful Web site that has information about the WPS is www.epa.gov/agriculture/twor.html.

Nearly half of the available fungicides require protective eyewear. (Joyce Hornstein)

Restricted-Entry Interval (REI) All agricultural pesticides labeled after April 1994 are required to have a Restricted-Entry Interval (REI) stated on the label. REIs for fungicides, like other pesticides, are established to reduce pesticide exposure and are based on the product toxicity. REIs typically range from 12 to 24 hours for most fungicides available in Iowa for field crops. In general, workers may not enter a treated area during a Restricted-Entry Interval. Early entry that will result in contact with surfaces treated with pesticides is permitted in only three work situations: Short-term tasks that last less than one hour and do not involve hand labor. Emergency tasks that take place because of an agricultural emergency. Specific tasks approved by EPA through a formal exception process, which includes additional pesticide training for the worker.

Preharvest Interval (PHI) These intervals state the minimum amount of time that must pass between the last pesticide application and the harvesting of the crop, or the grazing or cutting of the crop for livestock feed. Typically, PHIs for fungicides applied to field crops range between 21-30 days. Chlorothalonil products have 42-day PHIs. Some triazoles and triazole + QoI fungicides have restrictions based on growth stages instead of a specific number of days--fungicides cannot be applied later than soybean growth stage R5. Stricter residue limits from other countries are being established. If a crop is harvested before the PHI has passed, there may be excessive pesticide residues on that crop. Other restrictions and precautions Listed below are additional restrictions or precautions. These do not necessarily pertain to all fungicides. Carefully read labels prior to application to get specific information for the product being used. Some fungicides cause irreversible or temporary eye damage. Quadris and Quilt are phytotoxic to certain apple varieties. Several fungicides are toxic to aquatic organisms so do not apply or rinse equipment near water bodies. Soybean forage or hay treated with several fungicides cannot be fed to livestock. For Alto, wheat and corn may be planted 180 days after last treatment and 365 days for all other crops.