Training and development is vital part of the human resource development.

It is assuming ever important role in wake of the advancement of technology which has resulted in ever increasing competition, rise in customers expectation of quality and service and a subsequent need to lower costs. It is also become more important globally in order to prepare workers for new jobs. In the current write up, we will focus more on the emerging need of training and development, its implications upon individuals and the employers.

Noted management author Peter Drucker said that the fastest growing industry would be training and development as a result of replacement of industrial workers with knowledge workers. In United States, for example, according to one estimate technology is deskilling 75 % of the population. This is true for the developing nations and for those who are on the threshold of development. In Japan fo example, with increasing number of women joining traditionally male jobs, training is required not only to impart necessary job skills but also for preparing them for the physically demanding jobs. They are trained in everything from sexual harassment policies to the necessary job skills.

The need for Training and Development

Before we say that technology is responsible for increased need of training inputs to employees, it is important to understand that there are other factors too that contribute to the latter. Training is also necessary for the individual development and progress of the employee, which motivates him to work for a certain organisation apart from just money. We also require training update employees of the market trends, the change in the employment policies and other things. The following are the two biggest factors that contribute to the increased need to training and development in organisations:

1. Change: The word change encapsulates almost everything. It is one of the biggest factors that contribute to
the need of training and development. There is in fact a direct relationship between the two. Change leads to the need for training and development and training and development leads to individual and organisational change, and the cycle goes on and on. More specifically it is the technology that is driving the need; changing the way how businesses function, compete and deliver. Development: It is again one the strong reasons for training and development becoming all the more important. Money is not the sole motivator at work and this is especially very true for the 21st century. People who work with organisations seek more than just employment out of their work; they look at holistic development of self. Spirituality and self awareness for example are gaining momentum world over. People seek happiness at jobs which may not be possible unless an individual is aware of the self. At ford, for example, an individual can enrol himself / herself in a course on self awareness, which apparently seems inconsequential to ones performance at work but contributes to the spiritual well being of an individual which is all the more important.

2.

The critical question however remains the implications and the contribution of training and development to the bottom line of organisations performance. To assume a leadership position in the market space, an organisation will need to emphasise on the kind of programs they use to improvise performance and productivity and not just how much they simply spend on learning!

Source: http://www.managementstudyguide.com/training-and-development.htm

TRAINING

DEFINED

It is a learning process that involves the acquisition of knowledge, sharpening of skills, concepts, rules, or changing of attitudes and behaviours to enhance the performance of employees. Training is activity leading to skilled behavior.

Its not what you want in life, but its knowing how to reach it

Its not where you want to go, but its knowing how to get there Its not how high you want to rise, but its knowing how to take off It may not be quite the outcome you were aiming for, but it will be an outcome Its not what you dream of doing, but its having the knowledge to do it It's not a set of goals, but its more like a vision Its not the goal you set, but its what you need to achieve it

Training is about knowing where you stand (no matter how good or bad the current situation looks) at present, and where you will be after some point of time. Training is about the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) through professional development.

ROLE OF TRAINING

Source: http://traininganddevelopment.naukrihub.com/training.html

Development
The act of developing or disclosing that which is unknown; a gradual unfolding process by which anything is developed, as a plan or method, or an image upon a photographic plate; gradual advancement or growth through a series of progressive changes; also, the result of developing, or a developed state. The series of changes which animal and vegetable organisms undergo in their passage from the embryonic state to maturity, from a lower to a higher state of organization. The act or process of changing or expanding an expression into another of equivalent value or meaning. The equivalent expression into which another has been developed. The elaboration of a theme or subject; the unfolding of a musical idea; the evolution of a whole piece or movement from a leading theme or motive.

http://www.brainyquote.com/words/de/development153653.html

TYPES OF TRAINING
Induction training is important as it enables a new recruit to become productive as quickly as possible. It can avoid costly mistakes by recruits not knowing the procedures or techniques of their new jobs. The length of induction training will vary from job to job and will depend on the complexity of the job, the size of the business and the level or position of the job within the business. The following areas may be included in induction training: Learning about the duties of the job Meeting new colleagues Seeing the layout of the premises Learning the values and aims of the business Learning about the internal workings and policies of the business

On-the-job training
With on the job training, employees receive training whilst remaining in the workplace. The main methods of one-the-job training include: Demonstration / instruction - showing the trainee how to do the job Coaching - a more intensive method of training that involves a close working relationship between an experienced employee and the trainee Job rotation - where the trainee is given several jobs in succession, to gain experience of a wide range of activities (e.g. a graduate management trainee might spend periods in several different departments) Projects - employees join a project team - which gives them exposure to other parts of the business and allow them to take part in new activities. Most successful project teams are "multidisciplinary"

The advantages and disadvantages of this form of training can be summarised as follows:

Advantages Generally most cost-effective Employees are actually productive Opportunity to learn whilst doing Training alongside real colleagues

Disadvantages Quality depends on ability of trainer and time available Bad habits might be passed on Learning environment may not be conducive Potential disruption to production

Off-the-job training
This occurs when employees are taken away from their place of work to be trained. Common methods of off-the-job training include: Day release (employee takes time off work to attend a local college or training centre) Distance learning / evening classes Block release courses - which may involve several weeks at a local college Sandwich courses - where the employee spends a longer period of time at college (e.g. six months) before returning to work Sponsored courses in higher education Self-study, computer-based training

The main advantages and disadvantages of this form of training can be summarised as follows: Advantages A wider range of skills or qualifications can be obtained Can learn from outside specialists or experts Employees can be more confident when starting job Disadvantages More expensive e.g. transport and accommodation Lost working time and potential output from employee New employees may still need some induction training Employees now have new skills/qualifications and may leave for better jobs

Trainings link to motivation

An important part of managing people is to let them know how they are performing. Various methods of performance appraisal can be used and an important output from this process should be an assessment of an employees training needs. Training programmes should be focused on meeting those needs. Assuming training is effective: then: Employees feel more loyal to the business Shows that business is taking an interest in its workers Employees should benefit from better promotion opportunities Employees to achieve more at work and perhaps gaining financially from this (depending on the remuneration structure)

http://tutor2u.net/business/gcse/people_training_types.htm

Types of training?
TRAINING METHODS :All training methods can be grouped into two categories :a] Training methods for operatives and b] Training methods for managers a] Training Methods for Operatives :Under these methods the new employee is assigned to a specific job at a machine or workshop or laboratory. He is instructed by an experienced employee or by a special supervisor who explains to him the method of handling tools, operating the machines etc. Vestibule Training :- This method involves the creation of a separate training centre within the plant itself for the purpose of providing training to the new employees. An experienced instructor is put incharge of this training. Machines and tools are also managed in the training centre, so as to create working conditions similar to those in the workshop. Advantage :- No interference with regular production. Disadvantage - Costly, adds nothing to productions during training period. Apprenticeship Training :-This method of training is meant to give the trainee sufficient knowledge and skill in those trades and crafts in which a long period of training is required for gaining complete proficiency. Generally, the trainees work as apprentices under the direct supervision of experts for long periods of say, two to seven years. This programme consists of providing actual work experience in the actual job as well as imparting theoretical knowledge through class room lectures which may be arranged either in the plant or in the institution attached to the concern. This method of training enables the trainees to become all-round craftsmen. But this method is very expensive and also there is no guarantee that a trained worker will continue to work in the same concern after the training is completed. Internship Training :- This method of training is generally provided to the skilled and technical personnel. The object of this type of training is to bring about a balance between theoretical and practical knowledge, under this method, students from a technical institution possessing only theoretical knowledge are sent to some business enterprise to gain practical work experience. Simultaneously, the employees of business enterprises are sent to technical institutions to gain the latest theoretical knowledge on a subject. Ex. B.E. (Prod.) - 6 months in plant training B.E. (Mech.)- 2 days in a week during final year b] Training Methods for Managers :Executive talent is the most important asset which a company can posses. Although, it does not appear on the company's balance sheet, but it produces more important effects on the company's progress, its profit and the price of its stock than any other asset in its possession. The following are the various training methods for managers. 1] Observation Assignment :Under this method, the newly recruited executive called "understudy" is made an assistant to the current job holder. He learns by experience, observation and imitation. If decisions are discussed with him, he is informed on the policies and theories involved. 2] Position Rotation :Under this method, the trainee executive is rotated among different managerial jobs. This not only broaden and enriches his experience as a manager but also enables him to understand inter departmental relations and the need for co-ordination and co-operation among various departments. 3] Serving on Committees :Another important method of training on an executive is to make him serve on a committee. While serving on a committee, the executive comes to learn not only the various organizational problems, views of senior and experienced members, but also learns how a manger should adjust himself to the overall needs of the enterprise. 4] Assignment of special Projects :Sometimes, as a method of training some special project is assigned to a trainee executive. for

example, he may be ask to develop a system of cost allocation in the production of certain goods for which an order has been received by the company. While working on such project, the trainee not only acquires knowledge about them, but also learns how to work with and relate to other people holding different views. 5] Conference and Seminars :Often an executive is deputed to attend a conference, seminar or workshop to receive a quick orientation in various areas of Management with which he might be unfamiliar. One advantage of this type of training is that all the participants coming from different organizations get an opportunity to pool their ideas and experience in attempting to solve mutual problems. The attitude is one of joint exploration. This encourages cross fertilization of ideas. 6] Case Study :A case is a written account seeking to describe an actual situation. A good case is the vehicle by which a chunk of realty is brought into the class room to be discussed over by the class and the instructor. Discussion on a case requires a capable instructor, who can evoke and guide intelligent discussion analysis, so that meaningful learning experiences occur. There is no "right" answer or simple explanation in the comprehensive case. The advantages of this method are more depth of thinking, more perception in a situation, greater respect for and consideration for the opinion of others. 7] Incident Method :This method was developed at M.I.T. by Paul and Pigors, as an outgrowth of dissatisfaction felt with the case method. In the usual case method the entire problem is presented to the students, whereas in the incident method only a brief incident is presented to provoke discussion in the class. The group then puts questions to the instructor to draw out of him the salient facts and additional information, needed to arrive at a reasonable solution or resolution of the case. This method draws the participants into discussion with greater emotional involvement. A unique advantage of this method over the case method is the procedure of obtaining information by questions, one that often must take place in actual business situations. 8] Role Playing :In this method, the instructor assigns parts taken from case materials to group members. The situation is usually one involving conflict between people. The role players attempt to act the parts as they would behave in a real life situation, working without a script or memorized lines and improvising as they play the parts. The development of empathy and sensitivity is one of the primary objectives of role playing. 9] Laboratory Training (or Sensitivity Training) (T group Training): This type of training is designed to increase the managers understanding of himself and of his own impact on others. The training takes the form of a group discussion, and through a leader trained in the technique is present, the group may decide on the subject of discussion or suggest changes in procedure. In the course of discussion, conflict, hostility, stress and frustration may be purposely generated for they later on become motivations for growth as well as food for learning. The laboratory training aims at achieving behavioural, effectiveness in transactions with ones environment,

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Types_of_training

Chapter 15 - Training and professional development

Abdul Halim and Md. Mozahar Ali Abdul Halim is a Professor in the Department of Agricultural Extension Education and Director of the Extension Centre, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh,

Bangladesh. Md. Mozahar Ali is an Assistant Professor (Agricultural Extension) in the Graduate Training Institute, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Learning theories and training Training approach Extension personnel around the world in need of training Types of training Phases of training Implementation phase Evaluation phase References Training is the process of acquiring specific skills to perform a job better (Jucious, 1963). It helps people to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979). Usually an organization facilitates the employees' learning through training so that their modified behaviour contributes to the attainment of the organization's goals and objectives. Van Dersal (1962) defined training as the process of teaching, informing, or educating people so that (1) they may become as well qualified as possible to do their job, and (2) they become qualified to perform in positions of greater difficulty and responsibility. Flippo (1961) differentiated between education and training, locating these at the two ends of a continuum of personnel development ranging from a general education to specific training. While training is concerned with those activities which are designed to improve human performance on the job that employees are at present doing or are being hired to do, education is concerned with increasing general knowledge and understanding of the total environment. Education is the development of the human mind, and it increases the powers of observation, analysis, integration, understanding, decision making, and adjustment to new situations.

Learning theories and training

Learning theories are the basic materials which are usually applied in all educational and training activities. The more one understands learning theories, the better he or she will be able to make decisions and apply them to achieving the objectives. The behaviourists, the cognitivists, and the humanists emphasize different aspects of the teaching-learning process in their approaches. While the behaviourists stress external conditions (environment) resulting in observations and measurable changes in behaviour, the cognitivists are more concerned with how the mind works (mental processes such as coding, categorizing, and representing information in memory). The humanists, on the other hand, emphasize the affective aspects (e.g., emotions, attitudes) of human behaviour that influence learning (IRRI, 1990). In extension systems, effective training must be able to take care of all the theories of learning in order to change the action, belief, and knowledge components of a trainee simultaneously. Andragogy (a theory of adult learning) is usually used rather than pedagogy (a theory of child learning) in extension training.

Training approach
There are three approaches to training: (1) the traditional approach, (2) the experiential approach, and (3) the performance-based approach (Rama, Etling, & Bowen, 1993). In the traditional approach, the training staff designs the objectives, contents, teaching techniques, assignments, lesson plans, motivation, tests, and evaluation. The focus in this model is intervention by the training staff. In the experiential approach, the trainer incorporates experiences where in the learner becomes active and influences the training process. Unlike the academic approach inherent in the traditional model, experiential training emphasizes real or simulated situations in which the trainees will eventually operate. In this model, the objectives and other elements of training are jointly determined by the trainers and trainees. Trainers primarily serve as facilitators, catalysts, or resource persons. In the performance-based approach to training, goals are measured through attainment of a given level of proficiency instead of passing grades of the trainees. Emphasis is given to acquiring specific observable skills for a task. This performance-based teacher education (PBTE) model, developed by Elam (1971), is mostly task or skill centred and is also applicable to nonformal educational organizations such as extension.

Extension personnel around the world in need of training

Worldwide, there are currently more than 600,000 extension workers comprised of administrative staff, subject-matter specialists (SMS), fieldworkers, and some multipurpose unidentified people; the Asian and Pacific countries have absorbed more than 70 per cent of them (Bahal, Swanson, & Earner, 1992). The percentage of extension personnel by position, as reported by Swanson, Earner, and Bahal (1990), was 7 per cent administrative, 14 per cent SMS, and 79 per cent field staff, with regional differences. Almost 13 per cent of extension workers are women, with significant regional differences (Bahal et al., 1992). The ratio of SMS to field staff is also low in Asia, Africa, the Near East, and Latin American countries, varying from about 1:11 to 1:14. The ratio for countries of Europe and North America varies from 1:1.5 to 1:1.6. The worldwide ratio of SMS to field staff is 1:11.5 (Swanson et al., 1990). Deficiencies in knowledge, skills, and ability among extension personnel, particularly those of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, are remarkable. About 39 per cent of the extension personnel worldwide have a secondary-level and 33 per cent an intermediate-level education (Bahal et al., 1992). Moreover, within each region, there is a lot of variation in basic academic qualifications of the frontline extension workers, SMS, and administrators. Differences in training received are also wide. In Africa, most frontline extension workers still have only a secondary school diploma (Bahal et al., 1992). The poor educational background of extension personnel necessitates regular training.

Types of training
Training may broadly be categorized into two types: preservice training and inservice training. Preservice training is more academic in nature and is offered by formal institutions following definite curricula and syllabuses for a certain duration to offer a formal degree or

diploma. Inservice training, on the other hand, is offered by the organization from time to time for the development of skills and knowledge of the incumbents. Preservice Training Preservice training is a process through which individuals are made ready to enter a certain kind of professional job such as agriculture, medicine, or engineering. They have to attend regular classes in a formal institution and need to complete a definite curriculum and courses successfully to receive a formal degree or diploma. They are not entitled to get a professional job unless they can earn a certificate, diploma, or degree from the appropriate institution. Preservice training contents emphasize mostly technical subject matter such as crops, animal husbandry, and fisheries as well as pedagogical skills to prepare the students to work in agriculture. In general two types of preservice training are available for agricultural staff. These are (1) degree level (at least a bachelor's degree in agriculture or related field), which is usually offered for four years by a university or agricultural college; and (2) diploma level, which is mostly offered by the schools of agriculture for a period of two to three years. The entry point for the former is normally twelve years of schooling and for the latter ten years of schooling. Inservice Training and Staff Development Inservice training is a process of staff development for the purpose of improving the performance of an incumbent holding a position with assigned job responsibilities. It promotes the professional growth of individuals. "It is a program designed to strengthen the competencies of extension workers while they are on the job" (Malone, 1984, p. 209). Inservice training is a problem-centred, learner-oriented, and time-bound series of activities which provide the opportunity to develop a sense of purpose, broaden perception of the clientele, and increase capacity to gain knowledge and mastery of techniques. Inservice training may broadly be categorized into five different types: (1) induction or orientation training, (2) foundation training, (3) on-the-job training, (4) refresher or maintenance training, and (5) career development training. All of these types of training are needed for the proper development of extension staff throughout their service life. Induction or Orientation Training. Induction training is given immediately after employment to introduce the new extension staff members to their positions. It begins on the first day the new employee is on the job (Rogers & Olmsted, 1957). This type of training is aimed at acquainting the new employee with the organization and its personnel. Induction training for all new personnel should develop an attitude of personal dedication to the service of people and the organization. This kind of training supplements whatever preservice training the new personnel might have had (Halim and Ali, 1988). Concerning the characteristics of a new employee. Van Dersal (1962) said that when people start to work in an organization for the first time, they are eager to know what sort of outfit they are getting into, what they are supposed to do, and whom they will work with. They are likely to be more attentive and open-minded than experienced employees. In fact, the most favourable time for gaining

employees' attention and for moulding good habits among them is when they are new to the job. Foundation Training. Foundation training is inservice training which is also appropriate for newly recruited personnel. Besides technical competence and routine instruction about the organization, every staff member needs some professional knowledge about various rules and regulations of the government, financial transactions, administrative capability, communication skills, leadership ability, coordination and cooperation among institutions and their linkage mechanism, report writing, and so on. Foundation training is made available to employees to strengthen the foundation of their service career. This training is usually provided at an early stage of service life. Maintenance or Refresher Training. This training is offered to update and maintain the specialized subject-matter knowledge of the incumbents. Refresher training keeps the specialists, administrators, subject-matter officers, extension supervisors, and frontline workers updated and enables them to add to the knowledge and skills they have already. Maintenance or refresher training usually deals with new information and new methods, as well as review of older materials. This type of training is needed both to keep employees at the peak of their possible production and to prevent them from getting into a rut (Van Dersal, 1962). On-the-Job Training. This is ad hoc or regularly scheduled training, such as fortnightly training under the training and visit (T&V) system of extension, and is provided by the superior officer or the subject-matter specialists to the subordinate field staff. This training is generally problem or technology oriented and may include formal presentations, informal discussion, and opportunities to try out new skills and knowledge in the field. The superior officer, administrator, or subject-matter specialist of each extension department must play a role in providing on-the-job training to the staff while conducting day-to-day normal activities. Career or Development Training. This type of in-service training is designed to upgrade the knowledge, skills, and ability of employees to help them assume greater responsibility in higher positions. The training is arranged departmentally for successful extension workers, at all levels, for their own continuing education and professional development. Malone (1984) opined that extension services that provide the opportunity for all staff to prepare a plan for career training will receive the benefits of having longer tenured and more satisfied employees, which increases both the effectiveness and efficiency of an extension service. Malone stated that "career development is the act of acquiring information and resources that enables one to plan a program of lifelong learning related to his or her worklife" (p. 216). Although extension workers are responsible for designing their own career development education, the extension organization sometimes sets some criteria and provides opportunities for the staff by offering options.

Phases of training
Training is a circular process that begins with needs identification and after a number of steps ends with evaluation of the training activity. A change or deficiency in any step of the training process affects the whole system, and therefore it is important for a trainer to have

a clear understanding about all phases and steps of the training process. In the broadest view, there are three phases of a training process: planning, implementation, and evaluation. Planning Phase The planning phase encompasses several activities, two of which - training needs identification and curriculum development - are very important. Training Needs Identification. Training need is a condition where there is a gap between "what is" and "what should be" in terms of incumbents' knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviour for a particular situation at one point in time. This gap is called "a problem," which usually occurs when a difference exists between "desired performance" and "actual performance." The needs identification process assists trainers in making sure that they have matched a training programme to a training problem. For example, agricultural extension officers (AEOs) have been giving training to village extension workers (VEWs), but performance of the VEWs is not improving. The reasons may be: 1. The AEOs lack subject-matter knowledge. 2. The AEOs do not conduct training well. 3. The training centre lacks training facilities. 4. The VEWs are organized not to work properly until their demands are satisfied by the government. The first two problems are related to knowledge and skills and can be solved effectively by a training programme, but the third and fourth problems need government attention to solve. Training needs identification is possible through different analytical procedures. The major procedures used in determining training needs are the following: Organizational analysis determines where training emphasis should be placed within the organization and is based on the objectives of an organization. Concerning what one should do in analysing an organization, McGhee and Thayer (1961) suggest four steps: 1. Stating the goals and objectives of an organization 2. Analysing the human resources 3. Analysing efficiency indices 4. Analysing the organizational climate The results of these analyses are then compared with the objectives of the organization. These comparisons point to specific areas in which training is needed. Individual analysis aims at identifying specific training needs for an individual or group of employees so that training can be tailored to their needs. This analysis centres on individuals and their specific needs concerning the skills, knowledge, or attitudes they must develop to perform their assigned tasks. The possible methods or techniques for individual

analysis include performance appraisal, interviews, questionnaires, tests, analysis of behaviour, informal talks, checklist, counseling, critical incidents, recording, surveys, and observations. Group analysis includes a number of techniques in which a group of well-informed employees discuss different aspects of the organization, the employees, and the tasks to identify the major discrepancies in achieving predetermined targets for each of them with a view to assessing training needs as distinguished from other necessary changes for removing these discrepancies. The major techniques which are used in this approach are brainstorming, buzzing, cardsorts, advisory committee, conferences, problem clinic, role playing, simulation, task forces, workshops, and so forth. Many problems exist in an organization, but some problems cannot be solved by training. After a preliminary needs analysis, which gives probable causes and solutions, the results should be verified with the concerned personnel of the organization to determine whether training is an appropriate action to solve that problem. Curriculum Development. This is the most important part in a training programme after a need for training has been identified. The curriculum specifies what will be taught and how it will be taught. It provides the framework and foundation of training. The first phase of curriculum development determines what will be taught, that is, the training content. Once training needs have been identified and training activities have been decided as part of the solution, a needs analysisshould be done to determine knowledge, skills, and attitude requirements and performance deficiencies. The needs analysis procedure involves breaking down the "training problem" into its basic parts in different successive phases to identify and understand the important components in each phase. Ultimately it leads to identifying and understanding the training content. The training needs analysis process can be divided into three distinct analytical phases: job analysis, task analysis, and knowledge and skill-gap analysis. A. Job analysis. Job analysis is a method of determining major areas of tasks where training may be needed (see JA Worksheet). It involves the dissecting of a job into its component events or parts. This analysis allows a trainer to better understand what an employee does in an organization. Job analysis involves the "task identification" of a particular job (Wentling, 1992). The techniques used in task identification include job questionnaire, interview, participant observation, work sampling, job audit, and small-group discussion. The following steps may provide a guide for completion of job analysis: 1. Identify the job that is to be the subject of the analysis. This involves defining the focal point for the job analysis. It may include the entire job of a group of employees or only a specific segment of their job. 2. Prepare a list of tasks which can be done following different approaches and methods. Four approaches can be used to identify job tasks: (1) expertsidentify and list critical tasks, (2) observations and interviews are conducted with employees, (3) meetings are held with group representatives, and (4) a tentative list of task is reviewed by employees and their supervisors.

3. Verify the tasks. The draft list of tasks should be verified by experts, workers, and supervisors in the analysis process. This can be done through expert review, small-group discussions, and inter views. When the tasks are verified, a final list of job tasks is prepared. 4. Determine the frequency. The workers and super visors can fill in a form indicating how frequently each task in a job is performed. Different scales such as "seldom," "occasionally," "weekly to monthly," "daily to weekly," and "daily" can be used to quantify the intensity of a task accomplished. 5. Determine the importance. Not all tasks are equally important to a job. An occasionally performed task may be very important. Therefore, a relative importance rating is useful along with frequency rating. A scale such as "marginally important," "moderately important," and "extremely important" may be used to determine the relative importance of the job tasks. 6. Estimate the learning difficulty. An estimate of learning difficulty is another dimension of the job-task analysis. It shows the trainer the employees' perception of difficulty, which may be different from the trainer's own perception. A scale such as "easy," "moderately difficult," "very difficult," and "extremely difficult" may be used to determine the difficulty indices of job tasks. 7. Calculate the total score. This can be done by simply adding the scores for frequency, importance, and learning difficulty for each task. The column for total score in a worksheet indicates the priority tasks for training if these are training problems. 8. Review the findings. The results of the job-task analysis should be discussed with significant people in the training system, including government leaders, programme directors, and others interested in related training. B. Task analysis. The output of the job analysis is a list of broad job tasks, based on importance, learning difficulty, and frequency of doing the task. Each task is a complex set of procedures in itself, and therefore it needs further analysis to find out which specific segment of the of the task is critical in designing a training programme (see Task Analysis Worksheet). To do this, it is necessary to follow a method called task analysis, which is similar to job analysis. Task analysis procedures include preparing a blank task analysis worksheet, writing down the name of the job at the top of each sheet, and then making copies. Each of these forms will be used for breaking down and analysing each of the most important job tasks. Therefore, it is necessary to write one important task identified for training on each of the task analysis worksheets and to list all component parts of each task on its respective task analysis worksheet. This is followed by the steps used for job analysis to find out the frequency, importance, and learning difficulty for each step of the tasks. Then the score for each component part is put in the "total score" column, and the results are discussed with concerned personnel in the organization. The job analysis and task analysis processes are similar to each other, so the model for both worksheets is the same.

The important difference between these two steps of analysis is that "the job analysis helps us identify major blocks of content to include in training; the task analysis helps us understand what comprises an individual block" (Wentling, 1992). Both are very important to the curriculum development process. What needs to be taught and what steps are involved in the process are completed by these analyses and comprise the major steps in curriculum development. C. Knowledge and skill-gap analysis. The knowledge or skill-gap analysis is a process of determining the training needs of individual employees in relation to the important taskssteps or components of tasks identified for training (see Skill-Gap Analysis Worksheet). The skill-gap analysis determines how skilled or proficient individual employees are on these tasks-steps or components, how much individuals differ from desired performance, and whether or not they need training. It would be a waste of resources and frustrating to the trainer and trainees to design and deliver training on topics and skills where the trainees are already able and proficient. A priority list of the tasks identified for training according to the total score in the job analysis is made. Then, the steps or components that were identified on each task analysis worksheet are listed on the skill-gap analysis worksheet. This is followed by rating each step-component in terms of the trainee's current proficiency on a scale of 1 to 5, as shown in the legend of the worksheet. Identifying the steps-components that appear to have low proficiency is required because there is a gap between what is desired and the current situation. After this, a review is done to ponder whether the gap can be decreased or removed through training or whether training is the most appropriate method. There may be some steps-components for which measures other than training are more appropriate. At this stage, key personnel such as subject-matter specialists, supervisors, and extension-training experts should discuss the findings before finalizing the curriculum. This helps to identify different perspectives and to avoid unnoticed mistakes or biases in curriculum development. The training needs analyses provide many things to a trainer. The analyses determine the training contents and how deficient the trainees are in these contents, and the sequence of tasks provides the sequence of training activity.
Job Analysis Worksheet Job: Agriculture Extension Officer Tasks: Frequency performeda Importanceb Learning difficultyb Total score Focus 1. Supervision 4 3 1 8 ... 2. Conducting training 4 3 3 10 yes 3. Planning programmes 2 3 2 7 ... 4. Research trial 2 2 1 5 ... ......... ... ... ... ... ... ......... ... ... ... ... ... ......... ... ... ... ... ... a b 1 = Seldom 1 = Marginally important c 1 = Easy 2 = Occasionally 2 = Moderately important 2 = Moderately difficult 3 = Weekly to monthly 3 = Extremely important 3 = Very difficult 4 = Daily to weekly 4 = Extremely difficult 5 = Daily Task Analysis Worksheet Job: Agriculture Extension Officer

Task: Conducting training Components/steps Frequency Performeda Importanceb Learning Score Total Focus Difficultyc Establishing rapport 5 3 1 9 Introducing the topic Presenting the subject 5 3 1 9 Maintaining sequence Maintaining eye contact Using A/V aids in time 5 3 4 12 yes Summarizing the lecture 5 3 3 11 yes a b 1 = Seldom 1 = Marginally important c1 = Easy 2 = Moderately important 2 = Moderately important 2 = Moderately difficult 3 = Weekly to monthly 3 = Extremely important 3 = Very difficult 4 = Daily to weekly 4 = Extremely difficult 5 = Daily Skill-Gap Analysis Worksheet Job: Agriculture Extension Officer Task: Delivering lecture in VEWs training Steps-components Level of Is proficiency a Can problem be solved by proficiency problem? training? Establishing rapport 1 2 3 (4) 5 [] [] Introducing the topic 1 2 (3) 4 5 [Y] [Y] Presenting the subject 1 2 3 (4) 5 [] [] Maintaining sequence 1 2 (3) 4 5 [] [] Maintaining eye contact 1 (2) 3 4 5 [Y] [Y] Using A/V aids in time 1 (2) 3 4 5 [] [] Supplying handouts 1 2 (3) 4 5 [Y] [N] ......... 12345 [] [] Summarizing the (1) 2 3 4 5 [Y] [Y] lecture

1 = Cannot do at all 2 = Can do less than half of the task 3 = Can do more than half but less than total 4 = Can do total but cannot maintain time schedule 5 = Can do within time schedule Selecting a Training Method A training programme has a better chance of success when its training methods are carefully selected. A training method is a strategy or tactic that a trainer uses to deliver the content so that the trainees achieve the objective (Wentling, 1992). Selecting an appropriate training method is perhaps the most important step in training activity once the training contents are identified. There are many training methods, but not all of these are equally suitable for all topics and in all situations. To achieve the training objective, a trainer should select the most appropriate training method for the content to involve the trainees in the learning process. Four major factors are considered when selecting a training method: the learning objective, the content, the trainees, and the practical requirements (Wentling,

1992). According to Bass and Vaughan (1966), training methods should be selected on the basis of the degree to which they do the following: 1. Allow active participation of the learners. 2. Help the learners transfer learning experiences from training to the job situation. 3. Provide the learners with knowledge of results about their attempts to improve. 4. Provide some means for the learners to be reinforced for the appropriate behaviour. 5. Provide the learners with an opportunity to practise and to repeat when needed. 6. Motivate the learners to improve their own performance. 7. Help learners increase their willingness to change. These criteria indicate that a single training method will not satisfy the objectives of a training programme. A variety of training methods are available to a trainer. The most commonly used methods include: 1. Instructor presentation. The trainer orally presents new information to the trainees, usually through lecture. Instructor presentation may include classroom lecture, seminar, workshop, and the like. 2. Group discussion. The trainer leads the group of trainees in discussing a topic. 3. Demonstration. The trainer shows the correct steps for completing a task, or shows an example of a correctly completed task. 4. Assigned reading. The trainer gives the trainees reading assignments that provide new information. 5. Exercise. The trainer assigns problems to be solved either on paper or in real situations related to the topic of the training activity. 6. Case study. The trainer gives the trainees information about a situation and directs them to come to a decision or solve a problem concerning the situation. 7. Role play. Trainees act out a real-life situation in an instructional setting. 8. Field visit and study tour. Trainees are given the opportunity to observe and interact with the problem being solved or skill being learned.

Implementation phase
Once the planning phase of a training programme is complete, then it is time to implement the course. Implementation is the point where a trainer activates the training plan, or it is the process of putting a training programme into operation.

The first step towards implementing a training programme is publicity. Most of the wellestablished training centres develop training brochures which contain course descriptions, prepare an annual calendar of training opportunities, and inform concerned organizations, agencies, or departments well ahead of time about their training plans. Once the training centre and concerned organizations agree to implement training, the next step is to arrange available resources such as sufficient funds for the course and facilities for food, lodging, transportation, and recreation. All these resources need to be well managed and coordinated to run the programme smoothly.

Evaluation phase
Evaluation is a process to determine the relevance, effectiveness, and impact of activities in light of their objectives. In evaluating an extension training programme, one needs to consider that most training activities exist in a larger context of projects, programmes, and plans. Thus Raab et al. (1987, p. 5) define training evaluation as "a systematic process of collecting information for and about a training activity which can then be used for guiding decision making and for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various training components." Kirkpatrick (1976) suggested four criteria to evaluate training programmes: (1) reaction, (2) learning, (3) behaviour, and (4) results. Each criterion is used to measure the different aspects of a training programme. Reaction measures how the trainees liked the programme in terms of content, methods, duration, trainers, facilities, and management. Learningmeasures the trainees' skills and knowledge which they were able to absorb at the time of training. Behaviour is concerned with the extent to which the trainees were able to apply their knowledge to real field situations. Results are concerned with the tangible impact of the training programme on individuals, their job environment, or the organization as a whole. Types of Evaluation On the basis of the time dimension, evaluation may be classified as (1) formative evaluation and (2) summative evaluation.Formative evaluation involves the collection of relevant and useful data while the training programme is being conducted. This information can identify the drawbacks and unintended outcomes and is helpful in revising the plan and structure of training programmes to suit the needs of the situation. Summative evaluation is done at the end of the programme and makes an overall assessment of its effectiveness in relation to achieving the objectives and goals. Raab et al. (1987), however, classified evaluation into four major types: (1) evaluation for planning, (2) process evaluation, (3) terminal evaluation, and (4) impact evaluation. Evaluation for planning provides information with which planning decisions are made. Training contents and procedures (methods and materials) are usually planned at this stage in order to choose or guide the development of instructional aids and strategies. Process evaluation is conducted to detect or predict defects in the procedural design of a training activity during the implementation phase (Raab et al., 1987). Through this process the key elements of the training activities are systematically monitored, problems are identified, and

attempts are made to rectify the mistakes before they become serious. Process evaluation is periodically conducted throughout the entire period of the programme. Terminal evaluation is conducted to find out the effectiveness of a training programme after it is completed. The objectives of terminal evaluation are to determine the degree to which desired benefits and goals have been achieved, along with the causes of failure, if any. Impact evaluation assesses changes in on-the-job behaviour as a result of training efforts. It provides feedback from the trainees and supervisors about the outcomes of training. It measures how appropriate the training was in changing the behaviour of participants in real-life situations.

References
Bahal, R., Swanson, B. E., & Farner, B. J. (1992). Human resources in agricultural extension: A worldwide analysis. Indian Journal of Extension Education, 28 (3, 4), 1-9. Bass, B. M., & Vaughan, J. A. (1966). Training in industry: The management of learning. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. Dahama, O. P. (1979). Extension and rural welfare. New Delhi: Ram Parsad and Sons. Elam, S. (1971). Performance based teacher education: What is the state of the art. Washington, DC: AACTE. Flippo, E. B. (1961). Principles of personnel management. New York: McGraw Hill. Halim, A., & Ali, M. M. (1988). Administration and management of training programmes. Bangladesh Journal of Training and Development, 1 (2), 1-19. IRRI. (1990). Training and technology transfer course performance objectives manual. Manila: International Rice Research Institute. Jucious, M. J. (1963). Personnel management (5th ed.). Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin. Kirkpatrick, D. (1976). Evaluation of training. In R. L. Craig (Ed.), Training and development handbook. New York: McGraw Hill. Lynton, R. P., & Pareek, U. (1990). Training for development. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press. Malone, V. M. (1984). Inservice training and staff development. In B. E. Swanson (Ed.), Agricultural extension: A reference manual. Rome: FAO. McGhee, W., & Thayer, P. W. (1961). Training in business and industry. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Raab, R. T., Swanson, B. E., Wentling, T. L., & dark, C. D. (Eds.). (1987). A trainer's guide to evaluation. Rome: FAO. Rama, B. R., Etling, A. W. W., & Bowen, B. E. (1993). Training of farmers and extension personnel. In R. K. Samanta (Ed.),Extension strategy for agricultural development in 21st century. New Delhi: Mittal Publications. Rogers, F. E., & Olmsted, A. G. (1957). Supervision in the cooperative extension service. Madison, WI: National Agricultural Extension Center for Advanced Study. Swanson, B. E., Farner, B. J., & Bahal, R. (1990). The current status of agricultural extension worldwide. In B. E. Swanson (Ed.), Report of the Global Consultation on Agricultural Extension. Rome: FAO. Van Dorsal, W. R. (1962). The successful supervisor. New York: Harper and Row. Wentling, T. L. (1992). Planning for effective training: A guide to curriculum development. Rome: FAO.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/W5830E/w5830e0h.htm

THE FOUR BASIC STEPS IN THE TRAINING PROCESS

Training is one of the most profitable investments an organization can make. No matter what business or industry you are in the steps for an effective training process are the same and may be adapted anywhere. If you have ever thought about developing a training program within your organization consider the following four basic training steps. You will find that all four of these steps are mutually necessary for any training program to be effective and efficient. STEP 1: ESTABLISHING A NEEDS ANALYSIS. This step identifies activities to justify an investment for training. The techniques necessary for the data collection are surveys, observations, interviews, and customer comment cards. Several examples of an analysis outlining specific training needs are customer dissatisfaction, low morale, low productivity, and high turnover. The objective in establishing a needs analysis is to find out the answers to the following questions: - Why is training needed? - What type of training is needed? - When is the training needed? - Where is the training needed? - Who needs the training? and "Who" will conduct the training? - How will the training be performed? By determining training needs, an organization can decide what specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes are needed to improve the employees performance in accordance with the companys standards. The needs analysis is the starting point for all training. The primary objective of all training is to improve individual and organizational performance. Establishing a needs analysis is, and should always be the first step of the training process.

STEP 2: DEVELOPING TRAINING PROGRAMS AND MANUALS. This step establishes the development of current job descriptions and standards and procedures. Job descriptions should be clear and concise and may serve as a major training tool for the identification of guidelines. Once the job description is completed, a complete list of standards and procedures should be established from each responsibility outlined in the job description. This will standardize the necessary guidelines for any future training. STEP 3: DELIVER THE TRAINING PROGRAM. This step is responsible for the instruction and delivery of the training program. Once you have designated your trainers, the training technique must be decided. One-on-one training, on-the-job training, group training, seminars, and workshops are the most popular methods. Before presenting a training session, make sure you have a thorough understanding of the following characteristics of an effective trainer. The trainer should have: - A desire to teach the subject being taught. - A working knowledge of the subject being taught. - An ability to motivate participants to want to learn. - A good sense of humor. - A dynamic appearance and good posture. - A strong passion for their topic. - A strong compassion towards their participants. - Appropriate audio/visual equipment to enhance the training session. For a training program to be successful, the trainer should be conscious of several essential elements, including a controlled environment, good planning, the use of various training methods, good communication skills, and trainee participation. STEP 4: EVALUATE THE TRAINING PROGRAM. This step will determine how effective and profitable your training program has been. Methods for evaluation are preand post- surveys of customer comments cards, the establishment of a cost/benefit analysis outlining your expenses and returns, and an increase in customer satisfaction and profits. The reason for an evaluation system is simple. The evaluation of training programs are without a doubt the most important step in the training process. It is this step that will indicate the effectiveness of both the training as well as the trainer. There are several obvious benefits for evaluating a training program. First, evaluations will provide feedback on the trainers performance, allowing them to improve themselves for future programs. Second, evaluations will indicate its cost-effectiveness. Third, evaluations are an efficient way to determine the overall effectiveness of the training program for the employees as well as the organization. The importance of the evaluation process after the training is critical. Without it, the trainer does not have a true indication of the effectiveness of the training. Consider this information the next time you need to evaluate your training program. You will be amazed with the results. The need for training your employees has never been greater. As business and industry continues to grow, more jobs will become created and available. Customer demands, employee morale, employee productivity, and employee turnover as well as the current economic realties of a highly competitive workforce are just some of the reasons for establishing and implementing training in an organization. To be successful, all training must receive support from the

top management as well as from the middle and supervisory levels of management. It is a team effort and must be implemented by all members of the organization to be fully successful.

http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Infande4.html