NASA

Contractor

Report

4784

Design Current
R. W. Evans Tec-Masters,

Guidelines Carrying

for Shielding Capability, of Composite

Effectiveness, and the Enhancement Materials

of Conductivity
Inc. Huntsville,

Alabama

Prepared

for Marshall Space Flight Center under Contract NAS8-39983

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Marshall Space Flight Center MSFC, Alabama 35812

and sponsored by the Space Environments and Effects Program managed at the Marshall Space Flight Center

August

1997

PREFACE

These materials (EMC). shielding, of composite

guidelines which The main may

address have topics an of return,

the effect the

electrical on

properties

of

composite

electromagnetic include protection concentrate require primarily

compatibility the electrical capabilities on the to of

guidelines and lightning guidelines but may

fault

current materials.

These conductive These

composites be adequate

that for reinforced

are EMC

somewhat purposes. polymers. to is for

enhancement consist

composites

graphite An impedance information of

introduction of materials is useful materials protection for are materials for (SEE)

resistivity, included determining and their for

conductivity, informational

and purposes. of

intrinsic This types and

characteristics shielding, current

various carrying,

composite

lightning Methods EMC purposes

capabilities. determining defined, and this Program and joints study adequate methods are was conductivity of increasing levels for various of

conductivity

composite Funding and and Effects

described. provided by by NASA the MSFC's Space Environments

administered Branch was the through

Electromagnetics

Aerospace Mr. Steven assisted sections

Environments Pearson by of Mr. the Mr.

Contract monitor Mr.

NAS8-39983. for Tony this Clark theory. Engineer, publication Investigator and contract. reviewed From Ms.

technical McCollum. and Camp provided was and was this the

He

was

Matthew report Dennis

certain Tec-Masters, Marla Mr.

supporting Senior

Inc.,

Luttrell Ross Evans, the

proofread Tec-Masters, contracted

documents Inc., effort of

provided the Principal

advice. who

performed

program.

iii

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

Page Preface Acronyms Introduction Materials 2.1 2.2 Plastics Graphite of Fiber Conductivity of Materials Reinforced Required Plastic Description and Abbreviations iii viii 1 3 3 4 6 9 9 12 Impedance Intrinsic Intrinsic Skin Depth of Impedance Impedance Materials of of Air Metals 15 15 16 17 19 Calculation of Shielding and Comparison 19 19 20 Effectiveness Calculating Conductive Shielding Materials 30 Shielding With 5.3.2 Effectiveness of a Conductive Panel 31 of Panel With 34 of Wire Screens or 35 Determination 36 23 27

Summary Impedance 4.1 4.2 4.3

Resistivity Conductivity Intrinsic 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3

5.0

Shielding 5.1

Effectiveness Effectiveness Quick More Estimate Exact

Shielding 5.1.1 5.1.2

Effectiveness

Calculations for Shielding for or

5.2

General 5.2.1

Equations Outline of of

Method Metal

Effectiveness 5.3 Apertures 5.3.1

Other

Apertures Effectiveness Aperture Effectiveness Meshes Effectiveness

Shielding Subdivided

5.3.3

Shielding Conductive

5.4

Summary

of

Shielding

6.0

Current 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

Carrying Electrostatic Radio Antenna Fault

Capability Discharge (RF) Plane and (ESD) Protection

39 39 40 42 42 44 44 45 47 48 49 56 Methods 57

Frequency Ground Current

Shielding

Lightning 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 6.5.4 6.5.5

Protection Environment Specifications Direct Indirect Protection Reaction of Protection Effects Effects

6.6 6.7

Galvanic Summary

vi

TABLES Page

Table Table Table Table Table Table

i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Steps

to

Determine Materials Resistivity Shielding Determine Direct Protection

Resistivity

and

Conductivity

of

13

Composite Typical Additional Steps Damage Review to

and

Conductivity

Values Due to Shadow Effect

14 33 37 52 58

Effectiveness Total Strikes Methods Shielding

Effectiveness

from of

FIGURES Page Figure Figure I. 2. Resistivity Shielding Surface Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Quick Path Definitions Effectiveness, Resistance Estimate of a of Shielding Wave Effectiveness a Barrier 22 23 26 31 34 35 Shielding Effectiveness of Materials and 38 Frequency, Thickness, and 9 21

Radiated

Through B(dB)

Rereflection Aperture Subdivided Wire Screen of

Coefficient Dimensions Apertures

Examples Slots

Figure

!0.

Lightning

Protection

55

REFERENCES Page References 6O

vii

ACRONYMS

AND

ABBREVIATIONS

A A_ B_ oC cm d dB dc D e E El EMC EMI Er ESD Et f f_z F g GFRP H Hz

current absorption rereflection centigrade centimeters depth decibels direct box 2.718 electric incident of

(amps), loss

or

cross

sectional

area

(m 2)

(dB) (dB)

coefficient

slot

current

depth

field wave,

strength electric

(V/m) field strength (V/m)

electromagnetic electromagnetic reflected electrostatic transmitted frequency frequency farads air gap fiber field wave,

compatibility interference electric discharge wave, (Hz) (MHz) electric field strength (V/m) field strength (V/m)

graphite magnetic hertz

reinforced strength

plastic (A/m), henries, or box height

J
k kA K 1 in log

4:7
a constant depending upon distance and source impedance

kiloamps a ratio of (m wave or cm) impedance to metal impedance

length natural logarithm

logarithm to the base i0

viii

L LA LB m
nirn

frame slot slot meters

opening length length

or after before

slot

length

(m

or

mm)

subdivision subdivision

millimeters MSFC EMC Design and Interference Control (a handbook)

MEDIC MHz MSFC NASA Ni r Re_ RF

megahertz Marshall National nickel distance reflection radio measured from loss source (dB) (m) Space Flight Center and Space Administration

Aeronautics

frequency resistance resistance (ohms) (ohms/square)

R_
S

surface seconds slot slot slot

S SA SB SE SEaB SEE SE E SE H
SEshad

height width width

or after

width

(mm)

subdivision subdivision

before

shielding shielding Space

effectiveness effectiveness and (clB) Effects electric magnetic due to field field shadow effect

Environments

shielding shielding shielding total

effectiveness, effectiveness, effectiveness

SEtotal

shielding (mils, (cm) (m)

effectiveness m, or mm)

t t_ tm V
W

thickness thickness thickness volts width box (m width

or

cm)

W Z
Zair

impedance intrinsic intrinsic

or

intrinsic of of

impedance air thin (ohms) metal

(ohms)

impedance impedance

ZB

(ohms)

ix

Z m

intrinsic source wave

impedance impedance

of (ohms)

metal

(ohms)

Zs Zw

impedance constant (cm SE or m) to subdividing slots

attenuation

5
ASE o
_r

skin change

depth in

due

permittivity permittivity permittivity wavelength permeability

(farads/m) of air or space to air (8.84xi0 -12 farads/m)

relative (m) (henries/m) of air

_o _r

permeability permeability 3.1416

(4_x10 to

-7 henries/m) air

relative

P
Qcu

volume

resistivity of copper

(ohm

meter (1.724xi0

or

ohm

cm) meter)

resistivity resistivity conductivity

-8 ohm

Pr

relative (mhos/m) of copper

to

copper

(_cu

conductivity conductivity 2_f angular

(mhos/m) to copper

(_r CO

relative frequency

DESIGN CURRENT OF

GUIDELINES CARRYING CONDUCTIVITY

FOR CAPABILITY, OF

SHIELDING AND COMPOSITE

EFFECTIVENESS, THE ENHANCEMENT

MATERIALS

1 .0

INTRODUCTION

Electromagnetic in a system operates within (EMI) is or

compatibility properly outside occurs without the when and a

(EMC)

occurs

when

all

equipment from

electronic

interference

equipment interference unit two. reducing interrupting that Thus,

system. there method is a of

Electromagnetic source of emission, between by and/or a the

susceptible, electromagnetic

transmission can be controlled

interference reducing path. requires that

unnecessary the

emissions, transmission

susceptibility,

Electromagnetic conductive for filters, structure

compatibility and joints

electrically an RF ground plane

provide protection, antenna

electrostatic fault current

discharge return, Highly an

electromagnetic plane, of at and

shielding, lightning thickness the primary

ground material

protection. and sound

conductive bonding conductive can be

adequate joints are

electrical of of a

connections structure. found and in the

components for control

General MSFC Control [i] and steel, is

guidelines Electromagnetic (MEDIC)

EMI

Compatibility NASA cases have Reference and the

Design

Interference 1368. of of

Handbook, Equipment

Publication structure been metal. made When

basic

spacecraft aluminum,

launch or other

vehicles

traditionally conductive bonding these return between highly path,

electrically electrical structure, current degree years and of

proper and from

attention equipment provide for filters, a

given cases good and in

to to fault some

segments conductive

materials plane

an

RF

ground radiated

shielding

against materials

emissions. used for

However, spacecraft weight,

recent

composite equipment

have of

been their

structure

cases

because

lighter

high strength, and ease of fabrication. composite materials are not as electrically traditional metal structures. Therefore,

Despite these benefits, conductive as extra steps must be

taken to alleviate this shortcoming. This document is partly tutorial, but it provides specific guidelines in the form of lists and charts to help meet EMC requirements while using composite
materials in spacecraft.

2.0

MATERIALS

DESCRIPTION

2.1

Plastics

Plastics called polymers. chains can be with melted monomers.

are

synthetic Long chains

materials of

made

from

raw

materials are called

repeating consist between the

monomers of long, them.

Thermoplastic no physical and recast

polymers connections maintaining

intertwined They typically of the

characteristics

original

material. polymers thermosets consist have of chains that are with chains formed to to set speed into crosslinked many with by fewer mixing a

Thermoset together. crosslinks. crosslinks. resin pressure Thermoset original thermoset dimensional Composite the shortcomings of with a until Rigid

short have

chains longer are mixture applied and

Flexible Thermoset hardener hard. can Due

thermosets polymers and Heat not to allowing is be the

typically the

under hardening. the

usually melted tightly

polymers polymer. plastics stability

reformed

crosslinked and

structure, provide greater

resist than

higher

temperatures

thermoplastics. have been compounds. materials by any of developed A to rectify is achieve alone. some any some This but it of

materials of two not usually stability of plastic or more

composite to

combination characteristic combination may increase

designed the

offered provides or long

materials for

reinforcement electrical fibers They polymers or may

strength,

conductivity. mats be to that added provide tend to

Reinforcing to either strength strengthen

material and

consists the or

stabilize

plastic. thermoset

thermoplastic and stability. To fulfill

greater

mechanical various high resins

property strength such as most

requirements fibers epoxy, used are

for combined

aerospace with or phenolic. boron,

applications, appropriate Among the

binding high

polyester, are graphite,

strength

fibers

Kevlar, and glass. Of these, only graphite offers some degree of electrical conductivity. Fortunately, graphite mats and long fibers are the reinforcement of choice for aerospace work. Other methods may be used to increase conductivity, such as adding conductive fillers to the resin. Conductive fillers are usually small particles with low aspect ratios (small length to width) which are too small to provide reinforcement, and they could reduce the strength of the plastic alone. Typical conductive fillers include graphite flakes or fibers, metal coated graphite fibers, and metal flakes or fibers. Conductivity may also be introduced by adding conductive screen, plating, or paint to the finished product. Increasing the conductivity of finished composite panels or cabinets by adding a conductive coating is a common practice in the commercial electronic cabinet industry. The technologies used to form conductive coatings include flame spray, arc spray, vacuum metallization, conductive paints, electroless plating, ion plating, conductive foil or tape, conductive filled plastic, and inherently conductive plastic. All of these methods provide some degree of shielding when used on enclosures. Compliance with FCC rules may only require 30 to 40 dB of electromagnetic shielding. New plastics and new methods of reinforcement are constantly being developed and introduced, but the composite most often chosen for aerospace use is some form of graphite fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP). 2.2
Graphite Fiber Reinforced Plastic

Shielding related resin use as to with

and

current-carrying Where these

capabilities capabilities is clearly enclosures.

are are

directly desired, for

conductivity. nonconductive structure metal when

reinforcement or equipment and

unacceptable The has proved

spacecraft of adequate The of

conductivity be are fully used.

structure proper of or

equipment and much fillers.

cases good less

to joints

thickness GFRP metal is

conductive than However, the the

conductivity metal sheets

conductivity

conductivity of GFRP is much higher than plastic alone with nonconductive reinforcement, such as fiberglass. Some form of graphite
composite One mixed Another resin layers, layers oriented the in linear the as type with type tape and to material of graphite resin is or and made woven and finished presently composite a hardening

or plastic
common

embedded in plastic
in use is by the from to made agent

is
loose

the most
fibers solid

aerospace

industry. that composite. with in are

form fibers

from

unidirectional The are tape

prepackaged is hardens The of placed the

fabric. heat

or

fabric This

pressure form the

applied.

composite of the high

material. strength conductivity However,

graphite fibers also

is in

to

take

advantage The fibers fairly

the is

direction. the be

electrical are uniform

greater

direction can in various

oriented. if several

electrical of graphite

conductivity are laid The that of

layers

orientations. of most metals The is i000 times of depends required If can greater graphite upon and the the bonding good of a If extent than

conductivity graphite material or

composites. as current conductive carrying of

suitability structure capability fibers. surfaces the total for for to the many a

composite of shielding and

amount of the

orientation composite across structure the may

graphite mating

electrical provide

graphite

conductivity finished additional conductive product the or

joints, be is adequate

conductivity applications. specific of added

conductivity material a layer itself. may of

required added

application, the as finished part of

be

surface may be

metallic

material

laminate

3.0

SUMMARY

OF

CONDUCTIVITY

REQUIRED

Later related or We EMC epoxy carrying such greater the highly as

sections the

of

this

document important is

will

show

that for

for

EMC

purposes

most

consideration its electrical adequate such or

structural

equipment have noted

enclosure that and most highly cannot is fiber of

material metals

conductivity. conductivity as fiberglass for

provide

purposes, composites

resistive be used

materials where The shielding

current of composites be I000 better times than

capability graphite than that resistive that of are

required. reinforced

resistivity (GFRP) is still

plastic but It of is most it

may much

most

metals,

material. the subject required following

these of with

"in-between" this the document. purpose general purpose. and The the

composites values

conductivity but the

varies summary upon

application, for conductivity

presents the

guidelines

required

depending

Electrostatic resistivity charge Materials can develop when less than

discharge
7

--

Material does

with not

surface retain static

I0 bonded

ohm/square to

electrically that a have static

conductive above not is 1

structure. x 1013 ohm/square even when

resistivity charge that

values will

dissipate generally if the the

bonded. enough particles coating and an to

Graphite prevent protrude of epoxy

reinforced static through may be

material

conductive graphite A a in surface charge, some

charge the

development plastic to

surface. to retain

nonconductive coating

enough may be

additional

conductive

required

cases.

Electromagnetic surface shielding resistivity content. resistivity at of

Shielding 0.i

--

thin will

sheet provide GFRP vary

of

material 50 a dB

with of

ohm/square 1 MHz.

over has

frequencies
2

above

Typical but may with

surface

of

i0of

ohms/square, other

with

graphite filler or

Resistivity

materials

conductive

coating may be considerably different. Thicker material adds some shielding especially at lower frequencies. Joints and apertures will degrade shielding effectiveness (SE) of the material, and they are usually the limiting factor in SE. Calculations should be made for the specific case using methods outlined in table 4 of section 5. Antenna
ohm/square usually with is meets conductive Ground adequate this tape Plane for -most Surface antenna resistivity ground less planes. should than GFRP be bridged one

requirement. or metal to

Discontinuities present a

relatively

homogeneous,

conductive

surface.

Fault resistance current itself the

Current of metallic Since exceeds

Return

--

MiI-B-5087 not to of the be

requires exceed graphite end to end to 0.i

joint ohm fiber for fault

structure the this path resistance value, may circuit the 5

paths. usually circuit to the

material of enough No that at matter

resistance conduct

short

return typical of

too

high

current how low

activate resistance

protection tests have causes in short used

devices. shown fire section circuits in some

path,

short the care to GFRP. where

circuit shorting must Ground a fault be

current point taken fault current

exceeding to to GFRP avoid

amps

usually As noted of be

material. the

6.4,

possibility may is

circuit path

interrupters through GFRP

cases

unavoidable.

Lightning prevent also as and a damage important. the top layer Use to

-from

Good a a

conductivity direct strike.

alone

may

not of

be the foil

enough material or

to is

Thickness layer to of metal

Use in another

sacrificial

screen

composite one on

material the the bottom

help if

disperse

current fields between may be

heat.

electric Joints top bottom shield

problem

equipment must the used

inside have high as good

enclosure. between and the field

composite or screen

panels to carry

contact

layers layers must

of of be

foil

current, an electric

conductive

material

continuous protection

without large gaps. Further can be found in section 6.5. reaction

copper, metal have an

information

on lightning

Galvanic series, below

aluminum aluminum corrosion. or should

-and

Graphite
can be in the

is

low in
to series.

the
GFRP

galvanic
corrosion joined to reduce to to

expected

cause

other

higher

intermediate

metal

coating

4.0

IMPEDANCE

OF

MATERIALS

4.1

Resistivity

The defines facilitate Volume unit is The one sized

following the applicable

short

review terminology

of

resistivity and provides

of

materials to

equations

calculation. resistivity cube of material volume in (p) is to the the resistance opposite is may from face. stated be in one When face the of cube a

cubic

meter, resistivity by i00.

resistivity ohm-meters

ohm-meters. to ohm-cm by

volume

converted

multiplying Surface from Any one size edge

resistivity of a has depicts square the

(ms) ' of same

in

ohms/square, material for a to given

is the

the

resistance edge.

thin value

opposite

square 1

thickness. pictorially.

Figure

resistivity

definitions

Im

b<

Volume

Resistivity

Rs

Rs

Surface

Resistivity

Figure

i.

Resistivity

Definitions

If surface resistivity

volume

resistivity can be

of

homogeneous by the dividing surface:

material the volume

is

known,

resistivity by the

found of

thickness

=
t Where, R_ p t If determine Notice material. The resistivity volume surface that Surface relative of the = = = surface volume thickness resistivity resistivity volume resistivity resistivity of the is in in in in ohms/square ohm-meters surface use thickness in meters in cm to

(1)

conductive ohm-cm,

ohms/square. remains constant with the for a given

resistivity varies of divided a

resistivity resistivity material

inversely material by the is

thickness. volume of copper:

resistivity

P
Pr --

(2)

Pcu Where, Pr p Pen Pcu : = = = resistivity volume volume 1.724xi0 of a material of of a relative material, to copper

resistivity resistivity
-8

ohm-meters ohm-meters

copper,

ohm-meters

In of

practice,

the

surface and assume

of true a

composite surface homogeneous the

material resistivity material

may may and

consist be very

nonconductive These

plastic, definitions of current very the

high.

uniform

distribution measurement measuring resistivity surface of The

throughout low whole and to

material. resistance the cube edge for of

Practical from volume sheet for method sample. The a the

requires probes to

relative face the of

measurement resistivity for lightly are contact then

whole One

the

measurement. composite sanded coated and a

reasonably uses a small

accurate block fibers. to provide

measurement ends are ends

material to with expose

conductive paint better

sanded consistent

conductive with much

surface

conductivity

i0

than the composite material being measured. Resistance is then measured end to end between the conductive surfaces of the block sample. Surface resistivity is the measured resistance (Rm) times the width, divided by the length in meters to give ohms per square. Volume resistivity in ohm-meters is attained by multiplying the surface resistivity by the thickness in meters.
(3)

p Where, Rs
Rm

R_(t)

(4)

=
:

surface measured width length thickness volume

resistivity resistance (m) (m) (m) resistivity

(ohms (ohms)

per

square)

w 1 t P

= = = =

(ohm

meters)

The graphite layers provide plastic orientations finished resistivity Tests the value of

resistance fiber in

is single are for When used, as

lower layer usually

in

the mats

linear and

direction

of

the several to

tapes. at

However,

material

oriented graphite layers

different fiber with

angles

strength (GFRP). are composite of have for dc

the four

finished or more

reinforced different can be made The on the

resistance if it is may the at a

calculations homogeneous be ac low determined resistance frequencies. which the dc is

material. as of described GFRP At more is higher shape just

volume above.

the

material that

shown

close

to

resistance inductive

frequencies than in a material metallic

the

reactance, exceeds [2]

dependent as it does

dependent, conductor.

resistance

ii

4.2

Conductivity.

Conductivity

((_)is

the

reciprocal

of

volume

resistivity.

1
Siemens/meter or mhos/meter

(5)

The conductivity copper:

relative of the

conductivity material

(_r) divided

of by

material the

is

the of

conductivity

(_r

-(_cu

(6)

Where, (;r = (_ = (_cu = _cu : relative conductivity conductivity

7

conductivity of of the

of

material mhos/meter

material,

copper,

mhos/meter

5.8xi0

mhos/meter

Relative extensively Table determining composite Some relationship provide values 1 in

resistivity impedance specific and

(pr)

and

conductivity effectiveness measuring of

(_r)

are

used

and

shielding steps for

calculations. resistance and samples of

lists

resistivity material. typical between for

conductivity

rectangular

resistivity the rough

values

are of

given various

in

table

to and

show to

resistivity calculations.

materials

12

Table

I.

Steps

to of

Determine Composite

Resistivity Materials

and

Conductivity

Expose

conductive sample.

fibers

by

sanding

opposite

ends

of

rectangular

Make

good

electrical paint to

contact the sanded

with

the

fibers

by

applying

conductive

ends.

Measure

resistance

(Rm)

from

end

to

end.

Surface

resistivity

(Rs)

Rm

I) w
T

ohms/square.

Volume

resistivity

(p)

Rs(t)

ohm-meters.

Conductivity

(o)

1 -- mhos/meter.

Relative

conductivity

_r

:(_cu

or,

i. 724
(_r ----

10 -6 tc_

Rs X

Where,
7

_cu w 1 t tom

: : = = =

5.8xi0 width length thickness thickness of

mhos/meter sample sample of sample (meters) (meters) (meters)

of

(centimeters)

13

>

>
,m

C 0 0 et_ >, > u) u) a: (J Q. >, I-I

"_

o
0 ' I11 0.1 0 , LLI I_ 0 , ILl ,-0 , LLI _ 0 , LLI 0 0 0 , , 1.11 ILl 0 0 0 , Ill 0 0 , ILl _ 0 + LLI 0 0 + ILl 0 T0 UJ C_ CO 0 ILl 0 CO 0 LLI 0

e4
.10 I-LLI

CO

cO

cO

d _o
_:

c_ o

c_ d

c_ o

c_
0 _

o
O_

c_ o

_I r_ W <

._

_ _ ___= o _ _= __ _
,_ m _

,_

_q:_

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. _ : i_ _
_ _

14

4.3

Intrinsic

Impedance

of

Materials

All conductivity, an

materials

have

an

intrinsic and

impedance of the

dependent the

upon

the As

permeability, wave wave

permittivity through the

material. the of the

electromagnetic of the

propagates approaches

material, impedance

impedance material. The

intrinsic

general

equation

for

intrinsic

impedance

is:

[3]

(7)
Where,

j:Vcf
= 2zf f = : radians frequency of in the Hz material of of material of of material of of air air or = (_o_r) = 4Kxl0 to -7 H/m air

permeability _o _r = =

permeability permeability of

space

material : copper material =

relative (_cu6r) = 5.8xi0 relative

conductivity _cu = _r =

conductivity conductivity of

v mhos/meter to copper

permittivity o r = =

(oEr) or space = 8.84xi0 to -12 F/m air

permittivity permittivity

material

relative

4.3.1

Intrinsic

Impedance

of

Air

In j_ is

determining small, the zero.

the

intrinsic _, the

impedance is much

of

air,

even --

though

conductivity, Thus, for

smaller of air,

i.e., 7

approaches becomes:

impedance

equation

Zai

377

ohms

(8)

15

An electromagnetic (r) from the source,

wave propagating where r _ 2K

through field,

air

at a distance

, the far

has an impedance

equal

to Zair . In the near field, where r _

, the wave impedance depends 2K upon the source impedance and the distance from the source. Assuming the source is small compared to a wavelength (_), the wave impedance becomes: Zw Where, E = electric H = magnetic k = i,
k 2Kr But Zw cannot exceed the source impedance.

E - k377 ohms H strength strength (V/m) (A/m)

(9)

field field r
>-2_

if

k
, if the source is high impedance and r _< 2_

2Kr
k __

But

if Zw

the cannot

source be

is less

low than

impedance the source

and

r 2K impedance.

4.3.2

Intrinsic

Impedance

of

Metals

In conductivity metal is

determining is greater impedance high than

the and

intrinsic _ >> (0.

impedance Assuming the 7 skin

of the depth

metal, thickness (t >>

the of 35), the the

three (Zm) of

times equation

intrinsic

becomes:

Zm

olLms / square

(i0)

or,

in

terms

relative

to

copper:

Zm

369

J _rfMHz _r

micro-o_ums

per

square

(10a)

16

Zm can also be expressed metal:

in terms of skin

depth

(8)

for

any

'----

a5

ohms/square

(10b)

Where,
1 : meters

4.3.3

Skin

Depth

The amplitude at the

skin at

depth any

is

the

depth has

within decayed

a to

metal I/e

where (37%) of

current's the to current

2

frequency At two skin

surface. etc. the and So, surface two

depths, of skin etc., is the

current current 86% to than 99%

has flows

decayed through
2

i/e

(14%), between surface If the

63%

(l-l/e) and one

metal the depths.

depth; up less

(l-i/e) at five its For

between skin

skin of

depths; the than metal that (ZB)

thickness is higher

this, for Zm .

apparent thin metal

impedance the

calculated becomes: [4]

intrinsic

impedance

Z m Z B -

ohms/square

for

any

value

of

t/6

(ii)

For

t/5

<<

i:

ZB

--

SZm - -- x 5
t t _6

t(_

ohms/square

(lla)

or: 2. 438xi0 ZB :
C_ r tcm

-_ ohms/square (llb)

17

The ratio (K) of wave impedance to metal impedance is used to determine reflection components in the shielding effectiveness
equations in the next section.

--Zw Zm

for

>

38

(12)

and:

--Zw ZB

for

<

36

(12a)

18

5.0

SHIELDING

EFFECTIVENESS

5.1

Shielding

Effectiveness

Calculation

and

Comparison

The spacecraft holes adequate spacecraft metal are in

shielding skin that is

effectiveness determined Typical when by

(SE) the

of type

equipment of thick material enough

cases used to

and and provide and the the

material.

metals, used SE. to on

mechanical skin, the most

strength provide common effort

for

equipment and

cases slots in most number

acceptable detriment concentrates

Holes SE.

Therefore, the

shielding size of

design openings. the

reducing

and

With nonconductive material Designers paints, conductive as

increased plastics,

use

of

composite are

materials with the

and the SE of slots. the

designers degradation embedded etc., provide in

concerned by

well

as rely

SE on

caused conductive the

holes

and

must metal

filaments, material where

conductive to make it

deposits, to

composite shielding

enough

adequate

required.

5.1.i

Quick

Estimate

of

Shielding

Effectiveness

Figure values different plot shows of

is

plot

of

SE

versus The value in SE

frequency plot of between also surface 1 mm

calculated includes

for three

two

surface thicknesses a with range small the

resistivity. for variation same SE surface of each

resistivity. and 1 cm thick

The

materials frequency dB with a

resistance. SE

However,

across

the 30

and

interest, in surface

decreases resistivity. that be used and

approximately Similar surface to SE determine range of

tenfold using of SE a

increase other particular the

comparisons resistivity approximate interest. Figure values of

variables material limited

indicates can

the

across

resistivity

shows

the

same

SE

versus 1 mm

frequency thick

for

several Figure 3

surface

resistivity

for

material.

19

may be used for quick SE estimates for composite materials with a resistivity in the range of interest. For example, materials with resistivity greater than i0 ohms/square obviously cannot be relied upon for shielding. However, materials with surface resistivity less than 0.001 ohms/square can provide SE approaching that of metal when apertures are considered.
Shielding assumptions variations materials, technique, enough shielding fact, factor makes and in the to and, in the and the test the effectiveness sometimes, answers. results operators. the results, tests calculations different When vary tests with These but are and the of are equations are the made test made that on set using various produce sample up, test usually show that This driving

differences they not an are

are enough

not to

invalidate calculations the most use fact final of a

and that

exact will is

science. be very SE the

apertures if

joints

results quick

material the

conductive, very

estimate

material

attractive.

5.1.2

More

Exact

Calculations

In material more

some may

cases be SE. for

the

amount In determine

of

shielding specific proper

required cases thickness

of

the a

critical. First, the of

these the to in and of

determine or

exact

conductivity minimize conductivity More the equations the

material apertures all joints

provide the

adequate material and

shielding. provide

Then good

size across

covers. material The SE may of an magnetic be made using for

detailed in SE to of

calculations the next section.

_Outline provides

Method organized as

Calculating approach electric The whether Estimate"

Conductive calculations

Material" and

these

considers

well

as

fields. section the is on apertures for SE must of be used for or SE the calculation "Quick

"Equations used.

Materials"

2O

0 0 0 ,i--I

.I.I p, 4.1
&

.-I =1 @ o o @ u I.I r_ ,1:1

,\
I

\
o @ rj .rl

/'
L'q r.j

r3 O e 14

it
i i

//

oH u tll

__

_
IIM

rt

I.i

g
o
0 0 Cq 0 O0 _ 0 _ _ 0 --.1t _--I 0 _ r-_ 0 0 _--I 0 O0 0 _ 0 _ 0 0 0

(_P)

as

21

JI

o o 0

|
I

0 0

\
0 _ ri

\
I
m u i i i | i | i

II

L i |

6') W

i | i i i |

o
I

(4
L i

U.

|
m l ....

0 0

"C.i olm

(,Oi ....

_ J

.x.l_ LJ

.__-! o 0 o 0 od 0 co .,-0 0 0 0_1 0 o o 0 0

(ep)3s 22

5.2

General

Equations

for

Shielding

Effectiveness

Shielding of radiated received

effectiveness power with received the

of without

barrier the

is barrier It

defined in is

as place

the to

ratio the in

power dB.

barrier

in

place.

usually

stated

The surface attenuation as and time shown again the

SE due

of to by

the the

barrier impedance

is

caused mismatch

by

reflection the

from two

the and

between the second

mediums

absorption 4, first

loss occurs surface. the usually may be at

within the Some

barrier.

Rereflection, surface occurs The power absorption to the losses each

in at wave

figure the

barrier-to-air loss barrier. adding the

absorption of SE the by if

traverses component

thickness reduces significant

rereflected output. are low. The

reduction

Incident Ei Re_

Wave

Absorption I_

I I Transmit

. ted

Er

Figure

4.

Path

of

Radiated

Wave

Through

Barrier

The form:

equation

for

SE

of

conductive

sheet

or

panel

takes

the

23
%.,

SE
Where, A_ RdB BoB = = = Attenuation Loss due to

AdB

RdB

BdB

(13

due

to

absorption

reflection correction

Rereflection

The

separate

terms

can

be

found

by

the

following:

[3

&

4]

Absorption: AdB = 201og e _t" = 8.686_t m = 8.686tm_-f_o (14

AOB Where, t =

1314tcmQf_z_rOr

(14a

thickness

of

sheet

or

panel

(m

or

cm)

Reflection: (I + RdB Where K is = 20 log in 4K equations 12 or K) 2 20 log-4 12a. K , for K>>I (15

found

In

the

far for

field'

Ir

>

I 2_

plane

waves:

R_

108. 1 -

i0 log < _rfMHz ) (_r

(15a

In he field t near <r <

--

2_

for

high

impedance

fields:

RoB

141.

7 -- I0 log

I 321
_rfsHzrm

(15b)

for

low

impedance

fields:

24

R_:74.6-101og

_r fMHz(_rr2m1

(15C

Rereflection:

K+I

XI0-01Ad_

(COS

0. 23Ad_

-- j sin

0. 23AdB

(16

BaB

20

log

(1

-- e-2t _4_e

-j2t_4_ )

(16a

See Bd_ BdB

figure is can a

for

approximate number unless that AaB

values reduces is

of

BdB, total

knowing SE.

AdB

and

K.

negative be ignored

small.

25

i
LJI LILB J I I I I L I I ; I I J L l 1 t f _ t

0
!

0 OJ

0 CO

0 _

0 I..0

0 (,0

0 r-,,

'

'

(BP) B

....

26

5.2.1

Outline of

of

Method Metal or

for Other

Calculating Conductive

Shielding Materials

Effectiveness

General section. calculations, references many 3,

equations Certain but 4, special have 5, of person and the

for

SE

have

been that on

given require their of SE

in

the fewer are

previous

equations restrictions 6. The

use,

available and the

in

number

equations, become

restrictions to the or panel with the

special trying to

equations, make a

somewhat of solid SE.

confusing However, sheet material calculation

quick

calculation SE of a

outline can very are be

given used

here for

for any

calculating metal The or other

conductive steps for SE

few

restrictions. in their proper

following

given

order:

(i)

The

constants

required

are:

r,

t,

_r,

_r,

and

Z s.

r use

distance a large

from default

radiating value

source for a

(meters). wave

If

unknown,

plane

calculation.

t in

thickness centimeters.

of

metal

or

conductive

surface

in

meters

and

permeability

of

the

conductive

material

relative

to

_o
air.

: _o :

absolute 4z x

permeability permeability

of

material of air (henries per meter)

10 -7 =

(_r

-(_cu

conductivity

of

material

relative

to

copper

1 absolute conductivity of material

P
_cu p : = 5.8 Rs x X 107 tm = : conductivity resistivity of copper (mhos per meter)

volume

(ohm-meters)

27

Rs = surface Zs = estimated (2)

of Choose interest. specific

resistivity

(ohms per square)

source

impedance
(MHz) across the frequency range

frequencies

Calculate results of

the each

following calculation

at

each helps

frequency. keep things

table

including

organized:

300 (3) I = f_z wavelength (meters)

(4)

8-

0.0066 -- skin 4_r c rf M_z depth (centimeters)

(5)

t -- =

ratio

(use

same

units

for

each)

(6)

Zm

369 I__r

(f_z)

10 -6 =

impedance

of

material

when

>3

Z m

(7)

ZB

impedance

of

material

for

any

value

of

t --

I e

2.718

t when_ >_ 3, (Z B = Z.)

(8)

Zw

k377

wave

impedance

(ohms)

Where, k=l when r _> --, 2_ (for plane waves)

28

k but Zw

2Kr

when r _
exceed

2_'

and source
impedance.

impedance is h___;

cannot

source

2 _r k but Zw k cannot be lower when r <_ 2z' than source impedance. and source impedance is low,

(9)

-w ZB

ratio

(both

in

ohms)

(K

+ 4K

1) 2

(i0)

RdB

20

log

RdB

K 20 log--, 4

when

K>>I

(ii)

A m
or,

1314

tcm

_fSHz_rf_r

(12)

BdB

20 log

1 -K+I

XI0 -'IAdB(cos

0. 23A_B

-- j sin

0. 23Aa_)

or,

BdB

20

iog(l

-- e-2t_f_e

-j2t _4_7_-6)

Where, f in Hz, _ and _ in absolute units

or,

use

figure

5,

to

determine

BdB,

knowing

Ad_

and

(13)

SEtota I :

RdB

Ad_

BdB,

add

algebraically,

BdB

will

usually

be

negative.

29

5.3

Apertures

The on the SE

methods of a

of solid

calculation sheet and and such or

presented panel of

so

far

have

concentrated

conductive skins have

material. apertures the method SE for of such the

Typical as

equipment vents, material. the the of of SE SE

cases seams, In of a

spacecraft joints cases,

windows,

that a is

degrade

conductive calculating calculate frequency at each each

special necessary.

the

structure of the

First, material SE of the SE at each

for

panel Second,

conductive the use the

interest. same

calculate Then

aperture value at

the

frequencies.

lower

frequency. Usually, there are several is similar by several types to of the apertures. method of The method of

combining total

their

effects produced

calculating

resistance

parallel

resistors:

1 BEfore I

1 + -+ SE 1 SE 2

1 (17) SE 3

However, converted converted somewhat The determining back back less

since to to than a dB.

the ratio

SE

is before

stated

in

dB, The several SE.

each

SE

must SE is

be then will be

adding. SE of

total

The

total

apertures

the

lowest

individual demonstrate

following individual

paragraphs SE for

the types of

methods apertures.

for

various

3O

5.3.1 With

Shielding Apertures

Effectiveness

of

Conductive

Panel

L Figure 6. Aperture Dimensions

For

rectangular

shaped

slot

as

shown

in

figure

6:

[4]

(18) SE_ = 97 20 log(Lf..,) + 20 log 1 + in S + SE'_d + 30 L

Where, L& S d SE,_ d in = = = = slot depth shadow natural length of and slot, height usually see table (mm) thickness 3, or of default material(nun) to 3_.

effect, log

For

circular

hole

as

shown

in

figure

6:

[4]

1
Where, L = diameter (mm)

(19)

31

In both cases, if approaches zero. This The shadow effect wall of an the size of frequency. produces a
energy. of from lobes the

the panel is thin (d<<L), the last term is the absorption term. occurs when the slot is in one conductive

otherwise enclosed box. The shadow effect depends upon the slot, the dimensions of the box, and the In effect, the slot reradiates inside the box. This pattern of lobes and nulls that scatter the incoming
shadow nulls value effect inside is the the box. Table shadow will 3 dB have is a integrated It 3, effect less good reduces shows for than default value the typical various 5 dB of this pattern intensity of slot to use in field

The and peak

received. due boxes Thus, to

values box and

additional dimensions. the the shadow equation. At appear sheet low to SE It created At dB

shielding Typical effect.

attributed for

value

frequencies the the be poor SE

the of a

equation solid

will panel.

produce At this

values point

that the solid

exceed becomes

upper that

limit. any a for opening, can slots such be as the small a --, 2 gap slot. zero

should by high a

noted contact

at or

joint, long

considered L _

frequencies

when

assume

shielding.

32

Table

3.

Additional

Shielding

Effectiveness

Due

to

Shadow

Effect

(dB)

[2]

D/W L/W 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 S/H 0.01 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 0.1 1 0 9 6 2 1 0.2 7 7 5 3 0 0.3 6 6 5 3 0 0.5 5 5 4 3 1 1.0 3 2 2 2 1 1.5 2 2 1 1 1 2.0 1 1 1 1 1

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

0.01 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80

1 0 9 7 2 1

7 7 6 3 1

6 6 5 3 0

5 5 4 3 1

3 2 2 2 1

2 2 2 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

0.01 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 0.01 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 0.01 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80

1 0 8 6 3 1 1 0 6 4 2 2 1 0 5 2 1 1

7 6 6 4 1 7 6 4 3 1 7 5 3 1 1

6 6 5 4 1 6 5 4 3 2 6 5 3 2 1

5 5 4 4 2 5 4 4 3 3 5 4 3 2 2

3 2 2 2 1 3 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 1

2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

0.01 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80

10 3 1 1 1

7 4 1 1 0

6 4 2 0 0

5 4 3 1 0

3 2 2 1 1

2 1 1 1 0

1 1 1 1 0

L ,4 l,

s ll

I
;r

W H D

: : :

Box Box Box

Width Height Depth

L S

: :

Slot Slot

Length Width

33

5.3.2 Aperture

Shielding

Effectiveness

of

Panel

With

Subdivided

To first, the the the

calculate calculate of line the in

the the

SE SE

of of a

panel panel of

with with

a one

subdivided aperture apertures equation the 20, large

aperture; as large as shown as by

outline dashed

outer figure

edge 7.

the

smaller using

Then, by

calculate hole into to

improvement holes. SE.

(_SE) Add [4] the

caused

subdividing to the

smaller get total

improvement

original

calculation

LB

I{ SB II II

SA

i1 I

Figure

7.

Subdivided

Aperture

(20) [LAJ Where, L, LA and and S, SA = = slot slot length length and and width width before after subdividing subdividing i + 1 + inILB]] InIs_I

Note: with the same

If

the L/S

original ratio as

hole the

is

subdivided the

into second

smaller term

holes

original,

disappears.

34

5.3.3 Conductive

Shielding Meshes

Effectiveness

of

Wire

Screens

or

For

plane

waves,

where

-> --, 2_

[4]

SE

20

log

I!i l
[ dB, for g Zsource to

for

<

k 2

(21)

SE

0,

2 Where, r = = g = distance wavelength distance from screen (meters)

(meters) between wires (meters) as shown in figure 8

Figure

8.

Wire

Screen

For

near

fields

'

where

< -

--, 2K

[4]

Magnetic

fields: SE H = 20 log

<2g

--x

-_,

0
4 Krg

(22)

Electric

fields:
-X --

SE E

20

log

2g

2 Kr

)=:01ool )

(23)

35

or,

SE can be calculated

for

plane waves using

equation

21:

then

add: 20 log 12Kr I I J for near magnetic fields

(24)

or,

add: 20 logI2_r
] for near electric fields (25)

Neither panel. These fraction a solid of piece

can

be

higher

than

the

SE

of

an

equivalent

thin

metal

equations a

are

valid such

when as g

g A

10-61. the

When

is

tiny like

wavelength, of thin be

i0-61, the field equal

screen

looks material field of the

metal. used for

Therefore, both near

conductive and to far that

equations calculations. material

should Use times

material percentage

conductivity of optical

wire

its

coverage.

5.4

Summary

of

Shielding

Effectiveness

Determination

The flat panel panels

previous with The and is is and 4 an

sections and without

provide holes the

methods assuming SE at

for no higher at

calculating leakage around

SE

of the for

edges.

holes

degrade The of the

frequencies the The lower SE of of the the

composites frequencies material material Table panel or

metals. the SE

limiting material upon the

factor itself. the

generally the

dependent of the

conductivity

thickness

panel. for determining the SE of a

summarizes enclosure.

method

36

Table

4.

Steps

to

Determine

Total

Shielding

Effectiveness

material range. the

To

determine and the use SE the

total due to

SE,

determine

the across

SE the

of

the

apertures of the two

frequency as

Then

lower

at

each

frequency

result.

quick

To

determine If the

the more

SE

of

material, values are for

use

figure

3 use SE"

for

estimate. in

exact of

required,

equations paragraph

"Outline

Method

Calculating

in

5.2.1.

To through 25

determine as

SE

due

to

apertures

use

equations

17

applicable.

The calculate slots SE in

methods the SE

described of several materials.

in

the

previous materials 9

sections and

were the SE of

used due

to to

typical

conductive for at and and such several

Figure and SE

shows

plots As is

calculated

values

materials the

thicknesses. of the materials slots The make good the very cause plot good

noted limiting

earlier, factor, leakage metals, the there Notice, graphite embedded assumed materials The have figure SE of zinc metals is

low at

frequencies higher the

the

frequencies limiting and

increasing shows that When

become as have

factor.

copper

aluminum, that give about

shields. strength, metal. examples filaments their

thicknesses to that be

mechanical SE of in and the our steel SE with

no

need

concerned the composite

however, filament in plastic

materials (GFRP)

--

reinforced -may Thus, at least be even

plastic not provide increasing an

adequate

conductivity. should plated good that

conductivity design is

of

composite

important thin,

consideration. enough point in to of the

plastic, shielding

though

conductive The primary factor

fairly 9 is

characteristics. is the most

conductivity

important

materials.

37

0 0 0

L/I_

--//, i
0

\ V
\ A
v

r J

i i

--

i 4 u

ffl 0

"

'
i

a-

_
I1 .. 1 0

m-4

E
X I,IJ
I

L_

14.

38

6.0

CURRENT

CARRYING

CAPABILITY

The considerably section several

current

carrying upon the

requirements the effect of

of

materials

vary This to meet

depending review related where must

being

considered. materials

will EMC

ability

composite will

requirements needed. be given to

and

provide

suggested

enhancements Attention bonding Even as more graphite joints because must to

joint when to

preparation using metallic

and

electrical structures.

maintain attention fiber in

conductivity must be given

semiconductive (GFRP) is . more poor Making

materials good

such

reinforced conductive surfaces to the

plastic composites are

contact than in Good within

across metals contact the

difficult conductors. or layers

their be made

typically

conductive

particles

composite.

6. 1

Electrostatic

Discharge

(ESD)

Protection

Nonconductive cloth, their these to Kapton, surface materials a

materials Kevlar, and

such Teflon to any

as

fiberglass,

rubber,

Beta charges When any plastic to be on of

retain charging

electrostatic mechanism. in nonconductive is type a very

when is

exposed used as

reinforcement the composite of may does

form

composite

material,

susceptible not

electrostatic used in areas

charging. where of static

Composites charging charge

7

this be

should

problem. require in any high material can time. in current is readily This

Dissipation flow. considered progress relatively materials flakes, or Resistivity

electric
2

not

of

i0

to

i0

ohms/square An dissipate easily by as be

statically along high by by the

dissipative. surface and can

electric in a

charge short

resistivity graphite any other

obtained

composite fiber or The

using using of

fabric, filler

compounding conductive composite if

carbon as

carbon. is are

conductivity adequate for

typical

graphite charge

epoxy

material provisions

electrostatic

dissipation

39

made for electrical bonding between conductive filaments and basic structure. The nonconductive plastic outer surface of some graphite fiber reinforced plastic presents a problem when it is exposed to a charging mechanism. Therefore, it may require an additional conductive coating to prevent charge buildup. The class S bonding requirement of MiI-B-5087 addresses the dissipation of electrostatic charge across joints. It requires a conductive connection between basic structure and any conductive
items that may less meet with develop than an one electrostatic ohm any across each charge. joint. between selected. more higher A effort It This metal specifies limit plates, is and a resistance easy this between one could 1 X ohm be 107 to is

almost the

connection one may ohm was

probably composite requirement. used ohms is for

reason

Connections to meet the limit 1 x 106 or

materials In static

require a much

reality charge for most

resistance limit of

dispersal. installations. should

adequate

Nonconductive charge conductive make charge enough contact a may develop. coating conductive that to

composite If should connection Graphite static to

materials

not are

be

used

where

a a

nonconductive be used. to basic epoxy if

materials The conductive structure material the graphite

unavoidable, coating should off any

to is

drain conductive material

develops. drain off joints epoxy

charge the basic on to

makes

across

structure. surfaces the required

Sanding of

of

nonconductive material across may joints.

coatings

mating

graphite

be

necessary

obtain

conductivity

6.2

Radio

Frequency

(RF)

and

Shielding

Graphite some SE.

epoxy

materials varies depends of interest.

are with upon

conductive graphite the SE of amount

enough content, of

to

provide the desired on their of as

Conductivity required frequencies may or by be

and

conductivity and the

shielding based estimate 5.2.1

materials the of quick

conductivity figure stated 3 in

determined exact

by

using

more 4.

calculations

paragraph

table

4O

Generally the limitations of conductivity for RF are due to inductive reactance at higher frequencies and not due to high currents through resistive elements. According to reference 8, tests showed that leakage of RF through simulated GFRP aircraft skin was dominated by joints. These joints act like slots if there is not a good conductive contact along the mating surfaces. Typical values of resistance across commonly used GFRP joints are 50 to i00 milliohms. The class R bonding requirement of MILB-5087B is intended to provide a low impedance return path for RF. Since it is difficult to perform RF impedance tests in the field on joints of various configurations, the only test requirement is for a dc resistance less than 2.5 milliohms across each joint. For radio frequencies (RF) the inductive reactance of the joint configuration will likely be higher than the dc limit. The exact RF limit is not specified, but care must be taken to assure low inductance across the joint to provide the lowest impedance possible. Tin or other metal plating or conductive paint on GFRP can aid conductivity through joints, especially if the surface of the GFRP is sanded lightly to expose the graphite. The conductive surface is spread over a larger area and more layers of graphite are in contact with the better conductor. The plated or prepainted surfaces are mated by overlapping at the joint or by butting the sections together and bridging the joint with metal foil or screen. The use of conductive paint on sanded surfaces seems to make the best joint for RF purposes. For shielding purposes the contact between painted surfaces along the joint must be continuous, or nearly so, with no long gaps between contacts. The acceptable length of the gap depends upon the amount of shielding required and the frequency being shielded. SE can be determined by assuming the gap is an aperture as defined in section 5.3.1.

41

6.3

Antenna

Ground

Plane

Some ground typically uniform cannot

types

of Image

antennas currents and

are in

made an

to

operate ground is

with

a plane

conductive are by epoxy a

plane. very graphite be The used surface less adequate could with between for

antenna

small, epoxy as a

antenna

performance However, [7]

not

degraded graphite

ground

plane. element. of typical square. ground so such and

the

driven

resistivity than one for an ohm per

conductive This plane.

composite, is at be good is

GFRP, usually a seam

is

conductivity Discontinuities joints should A

antenna

cause

perturbations, material antenna of base

gaps as the [8]

and

bridged contact required

conductive the some

aluminum conductive

tape.

composite

types

antennas.

6.4

Fault

Current

Results in aerospace

of work in

this will

review

indicate be most in tape fibers

that some

composite form of form resin. Other nickel

materials

used

probably The embedded

graphite consists The of layers

reinforcement of may woven also

plastic. fabric

common epoxy form. and

graphite be in a

graphite

unidirectional graphite Composites metals such flows in the the are as

graphite coated graphite will if

reinforcement fibers be more in epoxy

includes resin. if

using used, fiberglass, GFRP, or

other highly are ohmic of

reinforcements resistive used. heating This between greater occur returns GFRP. bonded return will above

conductive

nonconductive When 65C occurs graphite than be or for expected signal can high cause

fillers, current changes heating Since

through

resistivity relaxes is i000

GFRP.

probably the for than for GFRP would power

because fibers.

plastic

contact times will

resistivity temperature Therefore, not boxes to box. be

aluminum, with circuits

greater metal. should

rises intentional

carried be a fused

through

Metallic the in basic case of metal a

electronic structure to the

should provide A

electrically current line

to path

fault power

short

protect

42

against hazardous voltages resulting from shorts to the metal case of equipment when the metal case is connected to the source ground through metallic structure or a _green wire" safety conductor. However, the green wire will not protect against shorts to GFRP structure. The GFRP will have enough resistance to limit fault current to some specific level. This level may be lower than the level required to blow a standard circuit breaker or fuse. The current probably will still be high enough to cause fire in the GFRP. Tests of composite material made of Hercules IM7 fiber and Hercules 8552 resin showed that current above 5 amps produced hot spots that burst Amoco T300 fiber into flame. Similar in Thiokol TCR resin results were obtained using and Hercules AS4 fiber in

Hercules 3501 resin. [9] Composite materials should have good conductive joints to carry small currents for other purposes; but, if any part of the return path for fault current must be through GFRP, standard or slow blow fuses or circuit breakers should not be relied upon for protection. Ground fault circuit interrupters may be used in some cases. They will detect a difference between outgoing and returning current and can be selected to break the circuit below a hazardous current level. MiI-B-5087 requires joint resistance not to exceed 0.i ohm for fault current paths. This is meant for highly conductive metallic structures only. Joints between GFRP panels can easily exceed this value, and the GFRPpanel itself may have resistance exceeding this limit. Joints using conductive paint can be conductive enough to carry small fault currents if a large enough area of contact is used. However, we have seen that fault current over 5 amps through a 0.003 square inch usually starts a fire at the GFRP. This can also happen restricted to a small point. fire hazard, graphite epoxy fault current from electrical within electronic equipment. contact (the end of a # 14 wire) contact point on several types of at a joint if the contact area is Since it is difficult to avoid this should not be relied upon to carry shorts to metallic structure or The design 43 should avoid the

possibility of an electrical short directly current paths through composite material

particular capability. shorting sample Rigidite with some up of point Space 506 to 33 material Charring in most should and be tested for fire possible

to GFRP.
cannot current be

If

fault
the

avoided,

carrying expected performed material, burst into at on the a Cytec flame that carry

can tests

be

cases. External

However, Tank Prepreg, circuit high current

Shuttle

nose did

cone not

Graphite-Phenolic amps of short with fault

current. temperature without

This resin burning.

indicates could

composite

materials of

reasonable

amounts

6.5

Lightning

Protection

6.5.1

Environment

Lightning charging in with or within

strikes

originate

most

commonly

from They can

electrical also occur

cumulonimbus around volcanoes, may

thunderclouds. or be other to within of A column in the the the stepped leader an a

snowstorms, particles. between At some

atmospheric ground, clouds. the typical of cloud,

turbulence cloud to cloud,

Lightning of in the

cloud

pockets point

opposite the earth with a

charge

electrification takes slow place. moving

a to air reinforced This the that working the its path

discharge ground called by a

towards strike a pilot intense 50 begins

cloud ionized is

streamer. discharge meters on the high or

The

charge

streamer leader. approaches

more

called so. As

occurs ground, eventually way from

every objects

ground enough

develop for

opposite to

charge start meet, a low

becomes the to path seen in the peak in the in

streamer When these and This

toward cloud

approaching ground for a is the cloud is

leader. highly return to ionized stroke.

two

provides is the

resistance normally pocket produces pockets

intense A

flash

ground

lightning through the

stroke. return

charged and

cloud current cloud

discharged levels up to

stroke, charged

200 same

kiloamps. path to

Other cause

may

take

the

multiple

44

strokes

with

less

current

than the first

return

stroke

and all

occurring within a second or two. The ground takes a charge opposite above it. Most cloud to ground strikes

that of the cloud directly occur between the

negatively charged lower portion of the cloud to the positive ground, but they can occur between a positively charged portion of the cloud to negative ground. Intracloud lightning develops in a similar manner but occurs between oppositely charged pockets within the cloud. Aircraft and rockets may trigger strikes on occasion. The polarity, the path, or whether it is triggered makes little difference to any aircraft or launch vehicle that is in the path of a strike even though amplitudes may be less for triggered strikes. When struck by lightning, an aircraft or launch vehicle becomes part of the path for the high current. There will be an attachment point and an exit point usually at extremities on the vehicle. Both of these points may move along the surface or reattach at a series of points on moving vehicles.
6.5.2 Specifications

Lightning simple requirement at

protection to have

of

NASA

launch skin points together. current critical adequate

vehicles thick and to The on

began enough to

with avoid

the

metallic attach

burn-through all the metallic high

lightning and

electrically idea the was surface to

bond keep of the

skin

structure frequency all

amplitude, and the when direct vehicle. it unit of was was

high it

vehicle within flight instrument dumping that

around This plan by

electronic to save launch. vehicle did

circuitry the Apollo The skin. point Saturn The out 12

was

struck

lightning by the

during

protected data wiring in

well-bonded Apollo through

computer with to

spacecraft apertures

vehicles

exposed upset. obviously

were

susceptible The Shuttle was

lightning Shuttle

Space Lightning

would

have JSC

apertures; later shuttle

and NSTS

the 07636,

Criteria be used as

Document, a

07636, on all

developed

to

requirement

elements.

45

The idealized lightning current waveform developed for document by the lightning community became the standard,
several modifications, [I0] lightning waveforms lightning "C", high _D", peak environment that strike. and "H": of
6 2

this
with

for

later

lightning

protection

specifications. The combination characteristics components "A",

standardized of current of "B", "A" -a

consists the

of

represent These

important consist of

waveforms

Component

current of 2x10

200

kA

and

an

action

integral Component "B" -intermediate 2 Component _C" -kA and

s with average of 200 200 i00

6 2

current charge current to current of 0.25xi0 of deliver of

amplitude coulombs amps for up

of

transfer of

i0

Continuing one second

to

800

to

coulombs and an action

Component

"D"

-- Restrike integral

kA

A s
Ii

Component

_H"

-- Fast

rise

time

2x10

A/s

and

peak

of

i0

kA

These zone

current to

wave define

forms design

are

used

in

conjunction for vehicle

with

strike skin,

locations and action by in

requirements

structure, The multiplied contained Strike likelihood initial upon between the

equipment. integral the time. strike. locations strike to are the on defined location in the and to be depending and same the upon the of the is It the is integral an indicator of the of current the energy squared

the zone

of

possibility Zones and as low may

attachment vehicle's vehicles. Zone IA:

hanging

location.

depend vary

configuration The Initial lightning zones

orientation are with

defined point hang-on point hang-on

follows: possibility of

attachment channel attachment channel stroke channel

Zone

IB:

Initial lightning

with

high

possibility

of

Zone

2A:

swept

zone

with

low

possibility

of

lightning

hang-on

46

Zone 2B: Zone 3:

A swept stroke zone with high possibility lightning channel hang-on Portions of the vehicle between the other

of zones

that may carry substantial amounts of current due to lightning strike to one of the other zones
6.5.3 Direct Effects

Physical called in a direct ways

damage effect

to

a of

vehicle lightning.

resulting This

from damage

strike may be

is sustained

several Melt

including: and pitting from high at attachment and exit points

through force at

Magnetic Pitting Resistive Shock from

current due to high current density

structural heating expansion of

joints conductors of the

leader

and

return

stroke

path

Vehicles thickness and exit to

with

metal

skin heating

and and trouble

structure shock at

of

sufficient attachment other current direct

withstand have except

lightning the where

points hazards and

little at

withstanding bonded joints hot

effects density

poorly to

resistance surfaces made

combine of from from the the

cause

spots. material may have the

Outer problems material. stroke result usually tries in

nonconducting underlying outward material

when The

streamers shock to

conductors expansion along the when

penetrate the return path

penetrate damage. penetration

streamer

can

severe

Non-conductive by the streamer

homogeneous much can. better This

materials than is probably

resist

nonconductive due to tiny

layered holes that shock or

composite paths the of a at

material the

plastic-to-reinforcement strength strike attachment may of shatter and the the exit the a composite. conductive

interface The composite. vaporizes current to

reduces effect

dielectric direct at and to

Resistive the produces carbon enough The

heating fibers heat result,

points The carbon of high fiber current

ignites cause

plastic. and

resin the

disintegrate.

depending

upon

amount

47

in the strike, is usually a burned hole through several layers of laminate with charring for several inches around the contact point. This direct effect to a launch vehicle is clearly unacceptable in most cases. Graphite epoxy seems to be able to carry a considerable amount of current after it gets dispersed throughout the material. The problems occur at restrictions where the high density current causes heating to the ignition point. This can happen at riveted or bolted joints as well as at the attachment and exit points mentioned above. [i0 & ii]
6.5.4 Indirect Effects

Even vehicle's current at any

when wiring surges

lightning or in

does

not

make

direct it affect can

contact cause

with voltage

the and

electronic wiring

systems, that may

the

electronic

equipment

location. induced lightning changes run parallel also because of Any structure the currents current rapidly to are as and the it caused flows by a magnetic the field

Magnetically surrounding skin. wiring This that Voltage the vehicle and the the field may

along currents current.

vehicle into any

induces

lightning between high

differences structure the

develop of the

different through joints structure There at

parts the between

of

current and to

structure parts on the of

impedance

the

structure connected that and point.

structure. of the

wiring at wire

takes be a

voltage difference

will other

voltage locations.

between

structure

Well-bonded a little attention, joints of higher

aluminum standard that will

structures

are

very

conductive, can low.

and make

with good

construction keep this and material of

techniques voltage fairly bonded resistivity and requires

conductive Materials the problem.

resistivity epoxy that

poorly has

joints

increase

Graphite i000 lightning times

approximately effort for

aluminum

special

protection.

48

6.5.5

Protection

The to provide

most

direct

way

to

protect For inches amps

metal

against

melt

through this can Painted

is

adequate means 0.125 coulombs

thickness. to 0.250 (i000

unpainted thick. for 50

aluminum This

usually take metal the hang 25

thickness

to

50

milliseconds). unpainted to cause to the

may same on

require strike. to the and same the

greater Painted point lightning are be to

thickness surfaces longer on

than tend a

withstand strike Zone at design to

moving to be

vehicle. encountered specific

locations specific requirements Another two is layers burned A

environment be determined

locations can

before

defined. of protecting metal. strike one In point 0.020 adhesive [i0] panels arcing contact many held are must or be burning the well bonded the joint along with for are many metal. should the to carry To be joint. or Relying too will even few present though and be the against laboratory but inch the layer can melt through tests lower and the is top remains layer strike to use layer

method of away

laminated at the of

layer one the

intact. separated as one

laminate by

0.030 same

nonconductive inch between layer. metal without the

withstand

0.080 Joints

lightning electrically continuous Connections bolts on too bond far are

current bonded, or at

along

least

have

connections together adequate straps

through typical straps apart to is and the

surfaces and risky the sharply across he has usually because strap

rivets

aluminum. usually that is the so

the some

has

inductance This lead

impedance the dc

rising the a

current. might

resistance to believe

joint

unsuspecting

person

good on

bond. the outside strike. a strike As make noted way of a vehicle these an may find

Nonconductive itself will not in the conduct has path

material of a

lightning current, choices. may the with

Since to

materials

lightning two route

exposed a the to the go streamer

nonconductor from an

earlier, through tries If

underlying

conductor and path

its

nonconductive through the

material, same tiny

resulting explosive

strike results.

49

material has a high to a nearby conductor

to the underlying may cause composite is still

dielectric
may have

strength,
lower While effects explosive on the this to

a path across
than the current underlying across

the surface
short the it path

impedance

conductor. indirect to not the be

equipment,

preferable should and damage efforts strike diverter with a

route. exterior However, to enhance This material

Nonconductive of a if the is done or by vehicle its use if is to

composites puncture unavoidable, divert conductive material The to make the

used

are

unacceptable. be made

should across strips the

tendency by

material. the

attaching the

across layer. strips

covering

conductive metal strike than

conductive sure the

should across

be

close the

enough to

together a and

will

flash the

surface

diverter striking distance the so

rather conductive depends to

puncturing equipment

nonconductive the strength

composite material. of the This material should impedance

underneath

upon the

the

dielectric

and not be

distance long that than

underlying inductive

equipment. reactance impedance diverters to and used These or the is

Diverters provides of from the 12 an

their the distance be

greater separation They tearing

punch

through

material. to 24

Typical inches. from [10] or like Any may thin visual solid of be layers

between fastened

should the

firmly strips layers

prevent damaging where

magnetic nearby

forces material.

metal

loose may be

Conductive transparency metal this formed act as foil, group as is woven may outer to They still

electromagnetic may metal be thin foil. or they The of

not

required. fabric, over the

layers expanded

metal cemented

be

nonconductor material. the the surface

layers lead will serve

of the be

composite along away at of metal is surface to

guides

strike

the strike point,

material. but they

melted

lightning

their if

purpose

protecting layer is

underlying used on the inside. tabs arc path of

equipment Where or is is the dots guided made, may

especially visual be down the arc In

another

transparency on of the dots

required, such basic long

small that the

conductive lightning Once to carry the most

placed the row

structure. enough

will this

sustain case

itself underlaying

current.

electronic

equipment

must

5O

be kept away from the non-conductive material to assure the arc from dot to dot is the path of least resistance. Conductive composite material usually means some form of
graphite current effect heat arcing high. of of epoxy. if damage from at the it can to The be graphite distributed layers can carry the a substantial material. from from the Direct shock and is and throughout results points where and

conductive entry other to at

composites and exit

strike or damage

heating density

joints

restrictions graphite the strike the and occurs of epoxy

current of

Typical and leading the

consists and

disintegration or fraying

graphite fibers from

epoxy away high of

point

splitting due to the

from

strike fast due the

point rise to

initial of during [ii]

shock several the

current material

time. high heat

Burning transfer

layers

continuing Protection

current of

portion

lightning consists larger area

strike. of or

conductive current enough becomes

composites over to a have

efforts to provide

to

disperse composite after pressure should assure effects expanded graphite the basic be the

the

lightning thick This or a

material strike. vessel

adequate if In this the

thickness material special used against screen, contact be well foil, is

left a tests to direct or the to

critical

fuel on the

container. particular Methods outer the The layer

case being

performed

material for of and layer metal protection metal making should helps

adequate should foil where

thickness. include cured into an

laminate metal The

with bonded the

possible.

metallic over at near a a

structure. area level. strike material. while

disperse of

current composite vaporized the mils even

larger lower the

holding metal but

temperature can be less used is are expected damage usually

the to be done 2 to 4 to

The point, The

much

is

graphite thick. though Wire

epoxy By they mesh per

metal

comparison, are may be 1/8 made Solid Expanded curves. to

aluminum 1/4 of or inches as

skins

sometimes [ii]

punctured

thick. fine metal as

wire

0.002 foil may

inches be around

spaced 0.001 sharp

up inch

to

200 or

inch.

expanded is

thicker. compound

metal

easier

to

shape

bends

and

51

Table

5 shows the direct

strike

damage done to 12 inch by simulated

squares of various GFRP samples when they were struck lightning components "A" and "C".
TABLE 5. Damage from Direct Strike

[11]

Expanded "A" foil, _C"

metal

on Damage:

both

sides 1.5 on

of

GFRP

(0.098

inch) hole in

Component and Component 1

Burned spot Burned

inch GFRP. 1

diameter

inch

diameter

Damage:

through

to

layers

of

GFRP.

Expanded _A"

metal

on Damage: on GFRP,

top

side Blew melted Burned on off

of 2/3

GFRP of

(0.073 foil, spot 3 to 4

inch) charred 1 inch

Component spot

diameter "C" GFRP,

0.5

inch

on

back. of

Component 1 inch

Damage: spot melted

through back.

layers

GFRP _A" spot "C"

mat Component through Component

(0.068

inch) Burned of 2.5 inch to 4 inch diameter

Damage: two layers

GFRP. through 2 to 4 layers of GFRP.

Damage:

Burned

GFRP "A"

Unitape Component 4 sides Component up to inch of

(0.062 Damage: to 5 inch

inch) Blew out 4 to spot, 5 single split layers and of GFRP,

frayed both "C" melted

diameter

cracked

sample. Damage: 1.25 inch Burned diameter through spot 2 on to 4 layers of GFRP,

back.

Honeycomb "A" from "C" Component back

(0.621 Damage:

inch) Delaminated aluminum Burned 2 to and core. 3 layers of GFRP on top blew off GFRP panel

side,

expanded Damage:

Component

panel.

52

The direct effects of lightning can damage conductive composites at joints and at other constrictions in addition to attachment and exit points. Adhesives are usually used at composite material joints. The adhesive is usually nonconductive and often is applied in a layer of nonconductive fabric. Joints should be protected by increasing the electrical contact area along the joint. This may be done by doping the adhesive with conductive particles or by inserting a conductive material within the joint or across the joint. Rivets or bolts may also be used alone or in combination with adhesives. Conductive adhesives are doped with metal particles aluminum or silver. More metal makes the adhesive more conductive, but it also makes the adhesive bond weaker. usually It is

usually better to use regular adhesive to assure good connection and use a side dressing of conductive adhesive to provide conductivity across the joint. The shock effect of a lightning strike tends to forcibly separate joints. Rivets or bolts may be required to help hold the connection together. A carbon cloth, screen wire, or expanded metal scrim may be applied between overlapping composites with the adhesive. When placed under pressure while hardening, the carbon or metal scrim will contact conductive graphite in both layers and provide electrical contact along the joint. The composite material may need to be sanded to expose the graphite before applying the scrim and adhesive. If conductive contact is not adequate through the scrim, arcing will occur and the joint may be debonded by the resulting pressure. Bolts or rivets alone may also be used to join two conductive composites. They will provide conductive paths, but the contact from graphite to the fastener is limited to the area under the head and nut. If the composite has a nonconductive outer coating, the conductive area may be increased by using beveled washers and fastener heads in countersunk holes. The number of fasteners required particular for adequate material. conductivity is usually found by test of the If bolts or rivets are the primary method of 53

holding
an

the panels
Some or at enough The surfaces the

together,
arcing can

there
area.

are usually
be arcing but provide conductive mechanical If is may

enough to provide
if damage not it is to destroy mechanical between would fasteners sanded not the the in do

conductivity. explosive

usually The

tolerated

flammable contact fasteners use and best of a

composite joint if

to

the

fastener to of for

should adequate

are

used

strength. sanded seem are panel cured, better to used

combination fasteners of

adhesive strength

metal method

be and

the

connection. connection of conductive with metal

mechanical undesirable,

permanent with used across tests there joint

adhesive coatings

surfaces can be

adhesive, fasteners

separately to make

in

conjunction the joint. no butt across Two test. most of the bolts

contact During

was or a

discernable joint the held with butt each

difference a 2 inch

in wide, Two to

damage 0.125 held aluminum

when inch the plate

using thick, lap

lap

aluminum together. butt "C" was

plate

joint. sample

bolts the

joint the

for

joint did

Component joint, effect but of The surfaces charring sanded dry there

heating of GFRP

type layers

damage due

at to

the the shock

some "A".

splitting

component GFRP on was

frayed

and joints.

charred The the mating

one fraying

layer was

deep

at

the

mating and the to the

unimproved by

eliminated and paint painting was

reduced area with joining

sanding

surfaces The

conductive the

silver

paint. [ii]

allowed

before Indirect

samples. on underlying

effects not be

electronic by of another in figure should allow current. current tend the a

equipment single

and outer layer

circuitry of metal.

may This

completely becomes may as its gaps rise

negated more

protection problem and laminate required long fast

shielding layer i0. be of If foil the as an

effectiveness inner layer of layer to from be

require shown joints that lightning secure forces

the is

shielding connected resulting foil layers layers. should

carefully by layers flow in the RF of both

prevent the

can

penetration Both may to

mechanically in magnetic

since that

resulting

separate

54

_ Foil, Screen, or Expanded Metal Current Carrying _ Bond

Strike

Composite

Electronic] Equipment Added Protection Against Direct Strike

Structure Ground

Foil, Screen, Expanded

or

Current

Carrying

Bond

Strike

Metal

\ /

Composite

--

Foil, Screen, or Expanded Metal

No Gap RF Bond Equipment Electronic

Structure Ground

Added Protection Against Direct Strike and Radiated Field From Strike

Figure 10 -

Lightning

Protection

55

Indirect skin are reduced good as

effects by bonding lightning inside

within enclosing practices current the metal. structures

vehicle all at flows wiring,

with

conductive reducing just as

composite and skin. current be the case on

apertures, with metal more would current Another is the that current

applying However, is with wiring phenomenon continues lightning inside

joints down

the

vehicle, than more

distributed more and

composite This

structure results the in

conductive metallic with to flow poorer

flowing

inside

vehicle. skin than the

conducting the with vehicle

composite longer skin current were metal square were

inside whereas

duration rise and

of

the

strike, closely

metal

current

fall

follow

the

lightning tests various

itself. on several A was over used remote strike used the to large to i0 strike 3 showed house inch

Shielding thicknesses aluminum sensors, opening. directly meters that all of

effectiveness GFRP with with inch a

performed enhancements. opening bolted "D" and at was a

container and 12

i0

inch samples

square lightning of

Simulated to from the the center

component samples of

the Results at to a

point test against sample. 30 dB

sample. provided compared rate GFRP foil center of

the 30 dB

remote of

samples fields field

least

shielding fiberglass ranged from GFRP strikes

electric Magnetic 0.062 expanded directly shielding for 0.062 inch

nonconductive measurements 50 on dB each for

change to over

for an made

thick aluminum to the

0.098

inch When

with were

layer of the

side. the 40 dB inch field

samples, from 0.098

electric better GFRP rate [ii] can to than with of

field fiberglass expanded change ranged

effectiveness GFRP foil dB to to on 40 50 both dB dB

ranged for the

aluminum from 20

sides. for the

Magnetic same that enhanced where

materials. GFRP materials with metal

These shielding, significant

results and they

indicate can of be

provide a

some

obtain

amount

shielding

required.

6. 6

Galvanic

Reaction

Since galvanic

graphite reaction

is between

low

in

the

galvanic

series is

near a

copper, A

dissimilar

materials

concern.

56

potential difference over one volt can be expected between carbon and aluminum. Aluminum or other metal high in the series will corrode when in direct contact with GFRP in the presence of moisture. Graphite epoxy joints can deteriorate rapidly in salt spray conditions. [12] This corrosion in the joint could result in a high resistance contact. It should be treated accordingly. A dielectric coating between materials prevents corrosion but also prevents electrical contact. A metal that is nearer the more active metal in the galvanic series should be used as a conductive coating on the GFRPmating surface. Coat both the GFRP and the more active metal or just the GFRP. Never coat just the more active metal because any contact through a small break in the coating will cause corrosion more severe than through a large contact area. Tin plating or shims between aluminum and GFRP should be satisfactory. Nickel may be used for moderately long term installations if a water tight coating is applied after assembling the joint. Permanent installations with nickel to aluminum may eventually corrode.
6.7 Summary of Protection Methods

Table purposes.

presents

review

of

protection

methods

for

various

57

TABLE

6.

Review

of

Protection

Methods

Electrostatic Resistivity static Assure materials Avoid charge use can charge.

Discharge
7

(ESD): I0 ohms is adequate to disperse

less

than

electrical to of

bond

from basic

conductive structure.

or

semiconductive

conductive nonconductive and

materials cause problems.

where

electrostatic

develop

RF

Shielding: Use procedure outlined in table 4 to assure adequate

shielding Use figure

effectiveness. 3 for for 17 a quick more through estimate exact 25 or use equations of SE material due to of SE.

section Use

5.2.1

calculation to determine

equations

apertures. Reduce Close plating Provide mating apertures joints over in to GFRP a minimum. by use of conductive paint or metal

mating

surfaces. or nearly lengthy continuous, cracks. contact between

continuous, surfaces to

avoid

Antenna

Ground

Plane: material with adequate conductive resistivity for an less antenna to than one ohm plane. large per

Composite square

usually joints

is with

ground avoid

Cover

material

discontinuities.

58

TABLE

6.

(Cont.)

Review

of

Protection

Methods

Fault Avoid Avoid

Current: use use of of return. current material fire and if on return to is unavoidable: current at 5 or shorting amps slow is blow carrying point involved. fuses or capability. and at GFRP GFRP, for intentional possible, current for return. unintentional fault

where

current If fault Test

determine charring more than

Expect

restrictions Do not rely

standard

breakers. Use ground fault circuit interrupters.

Lightning: Avoid If nonconducting are to surfaces on exterior use of diverter vehicle. strips to

nonconductors strike extensive

unavoidable, conductive to to GFRP at

divert Expect Use

nearby damage

structure. strike strike point. without

adequate

thickness failure. metal expanded material foil

withstand

structural Use Use as expanded another shielding

on

surface foil on

to

help

protect and

GFRP. treat it

metal to

underside

protect

against

indirect

effects.

6.

Galvanic

Reaction:

Graphite copper.

is

low

(more

negative)

in

the

galvanic

series

near

It

may

be

bonded

directly or

to gold. use

copper

or

to

platings

of

nickel, When GFRP Do not

tin, bonding only, coat or

silver, to on

aluminum both more from

tin to

or

nickel

coatings reaction.

on

the

surfaces positive the

reduce

the

surface joint

only.

Preclude

moisture

59

REFERENCES

Clark, Marshall Design Reference

T.

L., Space

McCollum, Flight

M. Center

B.,

Trout,

D.

H.,

and

Javor,

K.:

Electromagnetic (MEDIC) AL,

Compatibility Handbook. NASA

and

Interference Publication

Control 1368, MSFC,

June

1995.

Bull,

D.

A.,

Jackson, and NATO

G.

A.,

and

Smithers,

B. of

W.: CFC

"RF

Resistivity Materials." Development, Portugal,

Screening Advisory

Characteristics Group for

Aerospace No. 283,

Research Lisbon,

and

Avionics June 1980.

Panel,

Conference

Violette,

J.

L.

N.,

White,

D.

R.

J.,

and

Violette, Van Nostrand

M.

F.:

Electromagnetic Reinhold, Co.,

Compatibility New York, NY,

Handbook. (1987).

White, Series

D. on

R.

J.,

and

Mardiguian,

Michel: and 3, VA,

Handbook Compatibility, Control

Electromagnetic Shielding. Inc.,

Interference Volume

Electromagnetic Technologies,

Interference (1988).

Gainesville,

Keiser,

Bernhard:

Principles Artech House,

of

Electromagnetic MA, (1987).

Compatibility.

Norwood,

Duff,

William

G.: and

Handbook

Series

on

Electromagnetic of Interference VA, (1988).

Interference Electromagnetic Control

Compatibility, Compatibility. Inc.,

Fundamentals Volume Gainesville, i,

Technologies,

Blake,

C.

L.:

_Composites Impact." Compatibility,

IEEE

Their

Electrical

and Symposium DC, July on 1976.

Electromagnetic Electromagnetic

International Washington,

6O

Weinstock, Structure Research Lisbon,

G. in and

L.:

_Electromagnetic NATO Advisory

Integration Group for

of

Composite

Aircraft." Development, June

Aerospace No. 283,

Avionics 1980.

Panel,

Conference

Portugal,

R.

Evans:

_Test Reinforced

Report,

Fault

Current NASA

Through

Graphite Marshall Space

Filament Flight

Plastic." Sept 1996.

CR-4774,

Center,

AL,

i0.

Fisher, Protection Pittsfield,

F.

A., of MA,

Plumer, Aircraft. (1990).

J.

A.,

and

Perala,

R.

A.:

Lightning Inc.,

Lightning

Technologies,

ii

Evans,

R.:

_Test NASA

Report, CR-4783,

Lightning Marshall

Effects Space

on

Composite Center, AL,

Materials." Feb 1997.

Flight

12.

Birken,

J.:

_In

Depth

Studies

of NATO

Composite Advisory Avionics June

Aircraft Group Panel, 1980. for

Electromagnetic Aerospace Conference Research No.

Performance." and

Development, Portugal,

283,

Lisbon,

61

REPORT

DOCUMENTATION

PAGE

Form Approved

OMB No. 0704-0188

Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructicos, searching existing data sources, gethedng and maintaining the data needed, end completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operation and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Artington, VA 22202.4302, and to the Office of Management and Budget, Paperwork Reduction Project (0704-0188), Washington, DC 20503 1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave Blank) [ 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED

I
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

August Effectiveness,

1997 Current

Contractor

Report (Final) 5. FUNDINGUMBERS N NAS8-39983

Design

Guidelines

for Shielding

Carrying Capability, and the Enhancement of Composite Materials

6. AUTHORS

of Conductivity

R.W.

Evans

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAMES(S) ADDRESS(ES) AND Tee-Masters, Inc. 1500 Perimeter Parkway, Huntsville, AL 35806 Suite 400

8.

PERFORMING REPORT

ORGANIZATION

NUMBER

M-837

9. SPONSORING/MONITORING NAME(S) ADDRESS(ES) AGENCY AND National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, DC 20546--0001

10.

SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY REPORT NUMBER

NASA

CR--4784

11.SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES Prepared Technical

12a.

for the Marshall Space Flight Monitor: Steven Pearson

STATEMENT

Center

DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY

12b.

DISTRIBUTION

CODE

Unclassified Subject

- Unlimited 18

Category

13.

ABSTRACT

(Maximum

200

words)

These guidelines address the electrical properties of composite materials which may have an effect on electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). The main topics of the guidelines include the electrical shielding, fault current return, and lightning protection capabilities of graphite reinforced polymers, since they are somewhat conductive but may require enhancement to be adequate for EMC purposes. Shielding effectiveness depends heavily upon the conductivity of the material. Graphite epoxy can provide useful shielding against RF signals, but it is approximately 1,000 times more resistive than good conductive metals. The reduced shielding effectiveness is significant but is still useful in many cases. The primary concern is with gaps and seams in the material just as it is with metal. Current carrying capability of graphite epoxy is adequate for dissipation static charges, currents through graphite epoxy may cause fire at the shorting contact and at joints. The effect of lightning on selected protection methods are reviewed.
14. SUBJECT TERMS

but fault and

graphite epoxy material and mating surfaces

is described,

15.

NUMBER

OF

PAGES

natural space environment, electromagnetic compatibility, electrical shielding, fault current, electrical and lightning effects on composites
17. SECURITY OF REPORT CLASSIFICATION 18. SECURITY OF THIS CLASSIFICATION PAGE 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF ABSTRACT

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