CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION
Human body is perfect combination of motion, balance, co-ordination and reflex. It because human brain is so much developed that all these activities can take place in such perfect co-ordination. With advancement in science we humans have created many beautiful creations and robot happens to be one of them. Humans have developed robots that can mimic humans. In the same context it is our humble effort to develop an electromechanical autonomous robotic vehicle that can have multiple degree of freedom, which enable it to move through various terrains.

Taking inspiration from NASAs path finder robot we have tried to make a tone down prototype which control its movement with help of microcontroller which properly coordinate its motion. In our project we have tried to built an electro-mechanical autonomous robotic vehicle, which moves over the hurdles in front of it by sensing obstacle with help of sensing circuit and taking controlled action with microcontroller ,which drives the motors to make robot climb over the obstruction. We have used many other chips to achieve this motion which we have described in the component section. This robotic vehicle could become a prototype for surveillance vehicle and other military vehicles used for detection and detonation of mines .Since cost of this prototype is very less thus it could be inducted in army easily and be made indigenously.Mainly ou project is based on working of microcontroller for the automatic management and motors for hardware management.

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1.1 Microcontrollers
Circumstances that we find ourselves in today in the field of microcontrollers had their beginnings in the development of technology of integrated circuits. This development has made it possible to store hundreds of thousands of transistors into one chip. That was a prerequisite for production of microprocessors, and the first computers were made by adding external peripherals such as memory, input-output lines, timers and other. Further increasing of the volume of the package resulted in creation of integrated circuits. These integrated circuits contained both processor and peripherals. That is how the first chip containing a microcomputer, or what would later be known as a microcontroller came about.

1.2 Stepper motor

A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can be controlled precisely, without any feedback mechanism .Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors Stepper motors operate differently from normal DC motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step," with an integral number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

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Literature Review

2.1Basic operation of circuit:

In above block diagram, as sensors are mounted on the robot for detecting the obstacle in front of them. IRLED (Infra Red Light Emitting Diode) and Photodiode act as sensors here. IRLED emitted light for detecting obstacle which is reflected back by obstacle and is received by Photodiode. we use total three number of sensors. From the reception of Photo diode voltage is generated, this generate voltage is feed to comparator for comparing with the reference voltage. We use total three number of comparator. Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) IC LM324 is used for comprator After comparing the output voltage is given to the Micro Controllers input port.

Comparator 1
S E N S O R S

Motor Driver 1 MI CRO

M O T O R S

Comparator 2

CONTROLLER

Motor Driver 2

Comparator 3

Motor Driver 2

Fig 1 :Block Diagram If comparator output is high which is inputted to the Micro Controller 8052 so that enabled the input pins. Micro Controllers 12 ports are programmed for output ports.

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These output ports are used for input for Motor Driver. IC 293B is used for Motor Driver.Motor Driver is used for the driving the motors which are mounted on the robot.

2.2 Circuit Diagram Explanation

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Fig 2 :Circuit Diagram

2.3 Single sided PCB layout of Automated Step Climber

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Fig 3 :Single sided PCB layout

2.4 Components Used

Semiconductors

IC1

: Atmel 89C52 microcontroller

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IC2 IC3 Photo diode IR LED

Resistors

: LM324 comparator : L293B motor driver : Qsd2030F : Qed234

R1-R6 R7-R13 R14-R26 R27

Capacitors

: 470 ohms : 5.6 kilo-ohms : 10 kilo-ohms : 2.2 kilo-ohms

C1 C2
Miscellaneous

: 0.33F ceramic disk

XTAL1 M1-M9 Battery

: 12MHz crystal : 6V,30 rpm stepper motor : 12 V.

2.5 Components Description2.5.1 Atmel-89C52 Features

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 Compatible with MCS-51 Products 8K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz Three-level Program Memory Lock 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Three 16-bit Timer/Counters Eight Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial Channel Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

Description The AT89C52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 8K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 and 80C52 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C52 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control

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Fig 4:Pin configuration Pin description: VCC Supply voltage.

GND Ground.

Port 0 Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As anoutput port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs.

Port 1 Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups.The Port1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high.

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Port 2 Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups.The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.

Port 3 Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups.The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. RST Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. ALE/PROG Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory.This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. PSEN Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory.When the AT89C52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. EA/VPP External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions.This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming when 12-volt programming is selected. XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

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2.5.2 L293B
Features

n OUTPUT CURRENT 1A PER CHANNEL n PEAK OUTPUT CURRENT 2A PER CHANNEL (non repetitive) n INHIBIT FACILITY n HIGH NOISE IMMUNITY n SEPARATE LOGIC SUPPLY n OVERTEMPERATURE PROTECTION

DESCRIPTION The L293B and L293E are quad push-pull drivers capable of delivering output currents to 1A per channel. Each channel is controlled by a TTLcompatible logic input and each pair of drivers (a full bridge) is equipped with an inhibit input which turns off all four transistors. A separate supply input is provided for the logic so that it may be run off a lower voltage to reduce dissipation.

Fig 5: Pin configuration

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2.5.3 LM324
Features

Internally Frequency Compensated for Unity Gain Large DC Voltage Gain: 100dB Wide Power Supply Range: LM224/LM224A, LM324/LM324A : 3V~32V (or 1.5 ~16V) LM2902: 3V~26V (or 1.5V ~ 13V) Input Common Mode Voltage Range Includes Ground Large Output Voltage Swing: 0V to VCC -1.5V Power Drain Suitable for Battery Operation

Description The LM324/LM324A,LM2902,LM224/LM224A consist of four independent, high gain, internally frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide voltage range. operation from split power supplies is also possible so long as the difference between the two supplies is 3 volts to 32 volts. Application areas include transducer amplifier, DC gain blocks and all the conventional OP Amp circuits which now can be easily implemented in single power supply systems.

Fig 6 :Pin configuration.

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2.5.4 Photo diode

Features

PIN photodiode Package type: T-1 3/4 (5mm lens diameter) Wide reception angle, 40 Daylight filter Package material and color: black epoxy High sensitivity Peak sensitivity = 880nm Radiant sensitive area: 1mm x 1mm

Fig 7:Package Dimension

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2.5.5 IR LED

FEATURES 940 nm = Chip material =GaAs with AlGaAs window Package type: T-1 3/4 (5mm lens diameter) Matched Photosensor: QSD122/123/124 Medium Emission Angle, 40 High Output Power Package material and color: Clear, untinted, plastic Ideal for remote control applications

Fig 8:Package Dimension

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2.5.6 Resistance
The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the passage of a steady electrical current. An object of uniform cross section will have a resistance proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area, and proportional to the resistivity of the material. Discovered by Georg Ohm in the late 1820s,[1] electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm, symbol . Resistance's reciprocal quantity is electrical conductance measured in siemens, symbol S. The resistance of a resistive object determines the amount of current through the object for a given potential difference across the object, in accordance with Ohm's law:

2.5.7 Capacitance
In electromagnetism and electronics, capacitance is the ability of a body to hold an electrical charge. Capacitance is also a measure of the amount of electric charge stored (or separated) for a given electric potential. A common form of charge storage device is a two-plate capacitor. If the charges on the plates are +Q and Q, and V gives the voltage between the plates, then the capacitance is given by

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2.6 Working

At initial position all the wheels are on the ground and microcontroller is programmed in such a way that the robo moves forward till the sensor circuit detect any obstruction. The sensor circuit consist of IR LED and phototransistor .The IR LED emits the IR radiations ,when there no obstruction the phototransistor does not detect any reflected radiation and the vehicle moves forward without any vertical motion.

When any obstruction comes in front of sensor mounted in front of wheel one the IR radiation are reflected back from the obstruction which is picked up by phototransistor .This phototransistor supplies a trigger signal to the comparator which conditions the signal and supplies the signal to microcontroller. The forward motion of the robo stops and microcontroller then detect the signal on a programmed pin. According to programming controller send the signal to the motor driver .The motor driver drives the rack and pinion which lifts the wheel set one from the ground. The phototransistor detect the radiated IR radiations till the IR LED moves above the obstacle. As the wheels thus IR LED moves above the obstruction no sensor detect any signal thus forward motion of robo is initiated by the controller. Now the second detector detect the obstruction and same action is repeated as in case of first sensor. Once the second wheel moves over the obstruction the center of gravity moves in such a position that robo cannot topple. Thus in similar way third and last wheel climb over the obstruction and the robo moves above the obstruction.

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Source code in c language Mov P1,#0FF H JB P1.0,L1 JB P1.1,L2 JB P1.2,L3 SETB P3.0 CLR P3.1 SETB P3.2 CLR P3.3 SETB P3.4 CLR P3.5 CLR P3.6 CLR P3.7 CLR P2.0 CLR P2.1 CLR P2.2 CLR P2.3 LOOP FOR L1 L1:CLR P3.0 CLR P3.2

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CLR P3.4 SETB P3.6 CLR P3.7 SJMP BACK LOOP FOR L2 CLR P3.0 CLR P3.2 CLR P3.4 SETB P2.0 CLR P2.1 SJMP BACK LOOP FOR L3 CLR P3.0 CLR P3.2 CLR P3.4 SETB P2.2 CLR P2.3 SJMP BACK END

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

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Methodology
3.1 Robo Layout
It Consists of1. RACK & PINION -> The combination of rack and pinion is used to make the up and down motion of the pairs of the wheels. 2. FIBER COVER -> The fiber cover is used to keep the pinion fixed on rack by providing fiber cover from both the sides. 3. RUBBER WHEELS 3 pairs of rubber wheels are used i.e., 6 wheels are used in the robot. 4. ALLUMINIUM FRAME -> Two alluminium frames are used to keep the racks fixed in their positions. 5. ALLUMINIUM CYLINDERS -> Alluminium cylinders are used in the rubber wheels to provide strength to the wheels. 6. MOTORS -> 30 r.p.m motors are used for the motion of the wheels. 7. Electronic Circuit-It contains microcontroller, sensor,few components.

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3.2 PCB Preparation

Rules for PCB design:1. The PCB layout should be as compact as possible so that the circuit does not become bulky. 2. There should be no 900 turns of the track. If the track takes sharp then there is the probability of the tracks stripping off the board. 3. There should be minimum use of jumpers. 4. Heat dissipating components should not be kept in the vicinity of heat sensitive components. This may lead to unwanted variations in the heat dependant parameters. 5. Appropriate spacing should be provided between the components. 6. Ground tracks must be the thickest, so that ground can be easily tacked. 7. Etching area should be as small as possible. 8. All the inputs and outputs should be kept together. 9. The PCB should be exposed for optimum time.

Steps in PCB design and fabrication:The following steps were involved: Artwork preparation Film making Film developing Exposing Etching Drilling Soldering

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Artwork preparation:We design the PCB layout using PCB design software such as ULTIBOARD and take a print out on either butter paper or simple white paper. The schematic is called artwork. It should be proper without leaving any connection or making any excess connection or shorts.

Film Making:Cut the photo sensitive Lithium film in the dark room according to the size of the layout, keep the layout and the film over it in the Film Making Unit for 7 sec. This has been found to be the optimum time. Film developing:Dip the lithium film into developer solution (consisting of solution A and B) in a tray for 2-3 minutes. Now take out his film from the tray and dip it into another Lithium fixer solution for about 1-2 minutes. Dry it in air, Now the film is ready. Exposing:The process of taking the impression of the Lithium film on the copper cladded board is known as Exposing. Cut the copper laminated board as per requirement and rub it with steel wool or sand paper to remove the oxidation. Dry it in the dryer machine at a temperature of 40 C. Now keep this is the Dip coating machine which contains a mixture of Liquid photo resist and LPR thinner (1+1 liter). Again keep it in the dryer machine. Now put the Lithium film and copper board in the exposing machine (first place the lithium film and keep the copper board over it) for 90 seconds. Now take out this copper board and dip it into a tray containing LPR blue dye. Etching:Now, the exposed board is rinsed in the etching solution. The etching solution constitutes concentrated FeCl3 with water. The copper cladded board is kept inside the solution for about 10 minutes till all the excess copper is removed where as unexposed copper remains intact on the board. This unexposed copper then makes the pattern that we

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finally see on the PCB. Now the prepared PCB is kept in water for some time to remove dry acidic profile that may cause poor performance of assembly.

Drilling:The PCB is now ready for drilling operation. The holes are now drilled at the places where the components are to be placed with the help of a PCB drilling machine having a drill bit of 0.75mm or 1mm size. The size of the hole should be optimum, not very large or very small. If the hole is too large in diameter, It will be difficult to solder and a lot of will be consumed. On the other hand, if the hole is too small, we face difficulties in inserting the components. Testing and assembling of the unit:The PCB is checked for all interconnections using a multimeter. Any track that is either broken or short is subsequently corrected. Components are mounted keeping in mind the proper polarity and direction. Avoid contact between the components. Heat-sink is to be put wherever required with a heat sink compound. After assembling the components they are solded and thereafter cleaned with CTC liquid. Soldering:Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductors. The joint where the two metal conductors are to be joined or fused is heated with a device known as soldering iron and then an alloy of tin and lead, called solder, is applied which on melting covers the joint. The solder cols and solidifies quickly to ensure a good and durable connection between the joined metals. Covering the joints with solder also prevents oxidation. How to solder:Good soldering practices are as important as proper assembly of any electronic circuit. A poorly soldered joint or connection in an electronic circuit is the cause of most problems. Given below are some steps that should be followed in good and correct soldering practices :

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1) Keep the soldering iron hot during the working period and let is rest on its stand when not in use.

2) Enough heat is applied to the joint so that the solder metal flows freely on the joint. 3) Too much solder should not be used to avoid short circuits between tracks on the PCB 4) Use of correct type of soldering iron and solder is important. Flux is used to avoid dry soldering but we should avoid the use of excessive flux.

Advantages of Printed circuit boards:1) Printed circuit boards are of interest to industry because they are the common denominator for almost all approaches to mechanized fabrication of electronic equipment. 2) Their use has greatly reduced the labour required for the wiring of an electronic circuit. This reduction is especially significant for various purposes from small units in computers to guided missile equipment. 3) This can be manufactured uniformly because graphic art process provided repeatable results. 4) Their uniformity improves the product through simplification of quality control. 5) Printed circuitry has helped to minimize unskilled labor and thus greatly reduced one major cause of unreliability in electronic equipment (individually soldered connections) by permitting the use of dip soldering rather than hand soldering processes.

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CHARTER 4

Result and Discussion

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Result & Conclusion

We have divided this chapter in 2 parts

1. Mechanical part 2. Electronic part

Mechanical Part The main challenge in building the mechanical part was tackling toppling problem of robot while climbing the obstacle. We have solved this problem by making the skelton fame by light weight aluminium and dividing section in a ratio which adjust the center of gravity in forward direction while climbing, thus solving problem of toppling.

Electronic Part We have achieved a synchronized and desired motion between different mechanical part by the help of sensor circuit (IRLED and phototransistor) and microcontrollers. We have also tackled the particle difficulties such as false triggering, synchronization of speed between different parts through microcontroller programming.

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CHAPTER 5 Application and Scope of further Work

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Application and Future Enhancements

Application 1. Military use for spying and mines detection and detonators. 2. Exploration on various terrains and places unsuitable for existence of human. 3. Prototype for higher and sophisticated advance machines.

Future Enhancement 1. Additional sensor can be mounted which could help in mineral exploration and extraction process. 2. Remote controlled circuit could be mounted along with option of automated mode.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS :1. Electronics For You Magazine 2. C Programing for Microcontrolllers by Joe Pardue

WEBSITES :1. www.google.com 2. www.atmel.com 3. www.datasheets4u.com

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Appendix

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