A STUDY ON IMPACT OF INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES ON SUSTAINABLE RURAL LIVELIHOODS OF KAWAD PROJECT BENEFICIARIES

Thesis submitted to the University of agricultural sciences, Dharwad In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE (AGRICULTURE) IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION EDUCATION

BY

BASAVARAJ N. BIRADAR

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION EDUCATION COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DHARWAD - 580 005

JULY, 2008

ADVISORY COMMITTEE
DHARWAD JULY, 2008 Approved by : Chairman : ____________________________ (L. MANJUNATH) 1. __________________________ (L. V. HIREVENKANAGOUDAR) 2. __________________________ (BASAVARAJ BANAKAR) 3. __________________________ (V. S. YADAV) 4. __________________________ (B. S. LINGARAJU) (L. MANJUNATH) MAJOR ADVISOR

Members :

CONTENTS
Sl. No.
CERTIFICATE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF PLATES 1 2 INTRODUCTION REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3 Concept and definitions of livelihood Participation of KAWAD project beneficiaries in different activities Income and employment generation Personal, socio-economic and psychological characteristics of KAWAD project beneficiaries Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Influence of personal, socio-economic and psychological factors of respondents on Sustainable rural livelihoods Problems associated with sustaining rural livelihoods

Chapter Particulars

METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research design 3.2 Selection of the study area 3.3 Brief description of study area 3.4 Selection of taluks and villages 3.5 Selection of respondents 3.6 Variables for the study 3.7 Operationalization and measurements of variables 3.8 Data collection 3.9 Statistical tools used

Contd..

Sl. No.
4 RESULTS 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Chapter Particulars
Distribution of livelihood status of respondents Income and employment generation through income generating activities Impact of income generating livelihoods of beneficiaries Personal, socio-economic characteristics of beneficiaries and activities on

psychological

Relationship of independent variables with various capital acquisitions by the beneficiaries

4.6 Problems and suggestions of beneficiaries in sustaining rural livelihoods 5 DISCUSSION 5.1 Distribution of livelihood status of respondents 5.2 Income and employment generation through income generating activities 5.3 Impact of income generating activities on livelihoods of beneficiaries 5.4 Personal, socio-economic characteristics of beneficiaries and psychological

5.5 Relationship of independent variables with various capital acquisitions by the beneficiaries 5.6 Problems and suggestions of beneficiaries in sustaining rural livelihoods 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES APPENDIX

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
KAWAD DFID KWDP NGO SHG GDP IFAD FAO VDO MWSDC NRM : : : : : : : : : : : Karnataka Watershed Development Society Department of international Development Karnataka Watershed Development Project Non Government Organization Self Help Group Gross Domestic Product International Fund for Agricultural Development Food and Agriculture organization Voluntary Development Organization Micro-Watershed Developmental Committee Natural Resource Management

LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Title
Status of livelihood practices before intervention of the project Income generating activities supported under KAWAD project Distribution of beneficiaries involved in various income generating activities with respect to their earlier livelihood practices Income and employment generation through income generating activities Change in human capital due to income generating activities Change in physical capital due to income generating activities Change in social capital due to income generating activities Change in financial capital due to income generating activities Change in food security due to income generating activities Change in overall livelihood status due to income generating activities Impact of income generating activities on capital acquisition in respondents Distribution of respondents according to their age Distribution of respondents according to their education Distribution of respondents according to their land holding Distribution of respondents according to their annual income Distribution of respondents according to their family size Distribution of respondents according to their urban contact Distribution of respondents according to their source of information Distribution of respondents according to their Economic motivation Distribution of respondents according to their Achievement motivation Distribution of respondents according to their Risk bearing ability Relationship of independent variables with various dimensions of capital improvement Problems associated with sustaining rural livelihoods Suggestions of respondents for sustaining rural livelihoods

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
3.1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Map showing study area Status of livelihood practices before intervention of the project Income generating activities supported under KAWAD project Change in human capital due to income generating activities Change in physical capital due to income generating activities Change in social capital due to income generating activities Change in financial capital due to income generating activities Change in food security due to income generating activities Change in overall livelihood status due to income generating activities Distribution of respondents according to their age Distribution of respondents according to their education Distribution of respondents according to their land holding Distribution of respondents according to their annual income Distribution of respondents according to their family size Distribution of respondents according to their urban contact Distribution motivation of respondents according to their economic

Title

Distribution of respondents according to their achievement motivation Distribution of respondents according to their risk bearing ability

LIST OF PLATES

Plate No.

Title

Different income generating activities undertaken by KAWAD project beneficiaries

1. INTRODUCTION
'India lives in its villages' - this axiom is as true today as it was when the country became independent 60 years ago. Over 67.00 per cent of the population lives in rural areas. Agriculture and related activities in rural India contribute to 20.00 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and is responsible for the employment of over 60.00 per cent of the workforce. Hence, when one talks of socio-economic progress in India, what is mostly relevant is how the lives of the rural people have changed. According to the 1990-91 agricultural census report, 105.29 million operational holdings in the country were classified as small farms and marginal farms. There were over 74.6 million agricultural labourers/workers in the country representing about 25.00 per cent of the total labourers. With such a large number of small holdings as well as agricultural labourers as farm servants, the incidence of unemployment, under employment and disguised-unemployment is very large. Most of agricultural labourers could get employment for less than 180 days per annum, and the employment is only for few hours and it is at a level much below their productive level and earning capacity. The rate of growth of employment has declined sharply from 2.04 per cent per year during the period 1983-94 to only 0.98 per cent per year during the period 1994 - 2000. There was a sharp decline in the growth of labour force from 2.05 per cent during the period 198394 to 1.03 per cent in the period of 1994-2000. Growth rate of employment is less than the growth rate of the labour force indicating an increase in the employment rate. Employment growth accelerated to 2.60 per cent during 1999-2005 outpacing population growth. But the average daily status of unemployment rate, which had increased from 6.10 per cent during 1993-94 to 7.30 per cent during 1999-2000, increased further to 8.30 per cent in 2004-05. The government of India and Various State Governments have been implementing various programmes for rural uplift. However, rural poverty and unemployment still persist in the country. This problem is become severe and acute. The Indian economy indicates that about 26.00 per cent of the total population in the country belongs to the rural poor. Considering the gravity and intensity of the problem, many Voluntary Development Organizations (VDOs) have come forward with different programmes for the rural poor in the country. These agencies under take various innovative programmes and schemes to address the issue of poverty and unemployment prevailing in our country (Vijayachandran and Harikumar, 2006). In this context, the Department for International Development(DFID) assisted rural livelihood development project under the domain of watershed was implemented in Karnataka State during the period of 1997-2004 with main objective of reducing the poverty of watershed community and to maintain sustainability. The Karnataka Watershed Development Project (KAWAD) was undertaken the implementation of the livelihood development programmes in three watersheds, namely, Chinnahagari watershed in Molakalmuru taluk of Chitradurga district, Upparahalla watershed in Kudligi taluk of Bellary district and Doddahalla watershed in Indi taluk of Bijapur district. These watersheds were selected based on various criteria of poverty, drought occurrence, high percentages of women-headed households, high percentages of landless labourers as well as small and marginal farmers. The project area covers 62 villages in 13 Gram Panchayats and one Town Panchayat in the above three districts. Based on the experiences of earlier programmes and other institutions engaged in the implementation of watershed project, KAWAD was introduced an element of community participation as the fulcrum for sustainability of watershed programmes. Micro-Watershed Developmental Committees (MWSDCs) were formed at the micro watershed level to take decisions about developmental activities (land-based activities) whereas, Self-Help Groups (SHGs) were formed to look after the non-land based activities. Services of competent NGOs were being used to work with and support micro watershed communities in the micro-

watersheds. These were called Partner NGOs (PNGOs). There were three different implementing agencies i.e., NGO in Chitradurga, Zilla Panchayat in Bellary and Watershed development department in Bijapur. Apart from the "landed" activity, the project was also encouraged a number of nonland based income generating activities on a pilot basis such as sheep or goat rearing, buffalo rearing, kirani shop, petty shop, plant for extraction of neem and honge oil and manufacture of leaf plates by groups or individuals with assistance from the SHGs. The key strategies of KAWAD project were: 1) Development of natural resources on watershed basis and maintain sustainability. 2) Implementation of Non-land based activities to families below poverty line. The emphasis of the project was on: Watershed development with people participation Involvement of NGO in educating people and developing local institution to assign management responsibilities Cost-sharing and distribution of benefits Community asset management through micro watershed associations Priority to women in watershed development activities and their involvement in all stages of project management Enhancing the productivity through land based activities such as soil conservation, afforestations, horticulture, sericulture, and live stock development activities. Improving the income through Non land based activities. Human resource development for different stakeholders.

In order to ensure effective participation of people and local institutions such as Self Help Groups (SHGs) were established and each member of the SHG contributed his/her mite every week to build up their own resources with a matching assistance from the KAWAD. The funds were being used for lending among members for taking different income generating activities. As village level institutions, Village Level Federations (VLFs) were also promoted on the basis of user groups. That is, the micro watershed of the village was demarcated according to the landowners who become the members of that particular VLF. Three to four Village level federations in each village were established. The development fund of the demarcated area was transferred to the particular village level federation for implementation of the activities (The project staff had facilitated the process). Income generation takes many forms. Originally, it was a term used only by economists to explain the intricacies of a nations economy. However, it is now quite widely used to cover a range of productive activities by people in the community. Income generation simply means gaining or increasing income. There are three ways through which income can be generated. Firstly, income generation does not always mean the immediate getting of money, although in the end we use money to place a measurable value on the goods and services people produce. An example of income generation which does not lead to getting money would be a situation where a productive person produces enough food to feed himself or herself and the family. Skills have been used to meet immediate needs and thus savings

have been achieved. A money value can be placed on the food produced and so the food can be seen as income (Rex and Subbarao, 1993). A second way a person can generate income is by astute investment of existing resources. An example would be development of a piece of land through planting a crop for sale. The money gained is income. An indirect form of investment is to bank savings or to purchase part ownership (shares) in a productive enterprise such as a business. Money generated from such investments is income. A third way to generate income is for people to use their skills by serving another person who pays for the use of those skills. That is they earn wages. Agriculture and allied activities support livelihoods of nearly 70 per cent of Indias rural population. In recent years, land based livelihoods of small and marginal farmers are increasingly becoming unsustainable, since their land has not been able to support the familys food requirements and fodder for their cattle. As a result, rural households are forced to look at alternative means for supplementing their livelihoods. The rapid changes at the macro level that India witnessed since the early nineties has contributed to the instability of the livelihood systems of the poorer section of both rural and urban households. While the benefits of globalization process have largely accrued to the urban sector growth the rural sector has been left behind. Slowdown in agricultural growth and productivity, changing cropping patterns, increase in distress migration, changing consumption patterns, government policies favouring industrial houses, among others have seriously undermined the food and livelihood security of the poorer households. An integrated, multidimensional and holistic approach to poverty eradication efforts is crucial to preserve and enhance the livelihoods of the poor. Majority of the rural families are dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. However, due to denudation of natural resources, sub division of their land holdings and fluctuations in climatic conditions, the income from agriculture has been dwindling steadily. Further more, introduction of new technologies and farming practices have given tremendous benefits to resourceful and educated farmers on one hand, while depriving the small land holders of such benefits on the other hand. While farming is certainly an important factor in rural economies, rural areas contain a wide range of economic activities. It is only in recent years that a new paradigm of rural development emerged that takes a broader view on the rural economy, incorporating economic activities other than farming, while highlighting the broad diversity of rural development processes. Generally this is referred to the diversification of the rural economy. Rural men and women, especially in poor households engage in diverse and multiple activities to improve their livelihoods by maximizing income generating activities, while minimizing vulnerability and risk and achieving other household objectives (improved health, nutrition and education etc.). These activities may include farm, non-farm and other nonagricultural activities, often linked with other activities carried out by rural as well as non-rural households. The effectiveness and profitability of these diverse livelihood systems will vary depending on the general development environment, each household members access to and control of the asset base, their productive and reproductive roles and responsibilities, their capabilities and their linkages with other rural and urban actors. Livelihood as always more than just a matter of finding or making shelter, transacting money and preparing food to put on the table or exchange in the market place. It is equally a matter of the ownership and circulation of information, the management of social relationships, the affirmation of personal significance and group identity and the inter relation of each of these tasks to the other. All these productive tasks together constitute a livelihood. For an anthropologist, livelihood is an umbrella concept, which suggests that social life is layered and that these layers overlap (both in the way people talk about them and the way

they should be analyzed). This is an important analytical feature of the notion of livelihoods (Wallman, 1984). Livelihoods are the means people use to support themselves, to survive, and to prosper. Livelihoods are an outcome of how and why people organize to transform the environment to meet their needs through technology, labour, power, knowledge, and social relations. Livelihoods are also shaped by the broader economic and political systems within which they operate. Sustainable livelihood concepts are increasingly being used by governments and international organizations, such as the World Bank through its Community- Drive Development approach and its Rural Development Strategy (2002), The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) through its Rural Poverty Report (2001) and FAO, through its strategic framework 2005-2015. FAO, with its unique mandate on agriculture (including forestry and fisheries) and rural development is in a strategic position to find ways and means to improve the livelihoods of rural dwellers in a sustainable manner. For this purpose, it has gradually incorporated a more holistic perspective in its normative and operational activities that will help in identifying the complementary synergies and opportunities for cooperation that will increase the effectiveness of development interventions aimed at enhancing rural livelihoods. DFID (Britains Department for International Development) stresses that there are many ways of applying livelihood approaches but that there are six underlying principles to all these approaches, where in, poverty focused development activity should be : 1. People-Centered: Sustainable poverty elimination will be achieved, only if, external support focuses on; what matters to people, understanding the difference between groups of people and working with them in a way that is congruent with their current livelihood strategies, social environment and ability to adapt. 2. Responsive and participatory: Poor people themselves must be key actors in identifying and addressing livelihood priorities. Outsiders need processes that enable them to listen and respond to the poor. 3. Multi-level: Poverty elimination is an enormous challenge that will only be overcome by working of multiple levels, ensuring that micro level activity informs the development of policy and an effective enabling environment and that macro level structure and processes support people to build upon their own strengths. 4. Conducted in partnership: With both the public and private sector. 5. Sustainable: There are four key dimensions to sustainability; economic, institutional, social and environmental sustainability. All are important and a balance must be found between them. 6. Dynamic: External support must recognize the dynamic nature of livelihood strategies, respond flexibly to changes in peoples situation and develop long-term commitments. Livelihood framework The module gives the analytical framework for examining and documenting livelihoods and their transformation. We begin by disentangling the component parts of livelihoods and gradually integrate these together and build up the framework.

Livelihoods can only be understood if we take account of, and examine, the locally specific contexts in which they occur. So we need, for instance, to examine the interrelations between the processes, which operate at various scale or levels that impinge on livelihoods.

Livelihood framework

The figure above -adapted from DFID schematically presents the various components of an analytical framework to analyse livelihood (Carney, 1998; Scoones, 1998; and Ellis, 2000). Usually, livelihood analysis begins with the taking stock and specifying the key resources people have at their disposal. Resources are a key component of livelihood. They may be tangible resources (such as land or cattle) but many are non-tangible. For examples, one could think about policies or law as resources around which peoples livelihoods revolve. It is essential to identify these resources in a non-rigid way, particularly as they can have multiple interpretations. DFID stresses the importance to livelihoods of capital assets and distinguishes five categories of such assets, natural, social, physical, human and financial. It also stresses the need to maintain an outcome force, thinking about how development activity effects upon peoples livelihoods, not only about immediate project outputs. An analysis of livelihoods needs to take into account the ways in which people use and organise access to resources, deal and negotiate with institutions, and live and work in a particular socio-cultural-economic and historical context, which itself is the product of a particular configuration of global and local processes. The aforesaid information reveal that livelihood development projects play an crucial role in mobilizing and motivating the rural poor to take different land based and non land based income generating activities. Many projects have undertaken livelihood development programmes for rural people however, there are hardly empirical evidences on the impact of programme on capital improvement. KAWAD was one such project has undertaken livelihood development programmes through income generating activities for rural people in Bijapur, Bellary and Chitradurga districts. Hence, the present study was taken up with the following specific objectives.

Specific objectives of the study were a. To study the impact of income generating activities on rural livelihoods of KAWAD Project beneficiaries b. To analyse the profile of KAWAD project beneficiaries involved in income generating activities c. To ascertain the association between personal, socio-economic and psychological characteristics and sustainable rural livelihoods of KAWAD project beneficiaries, and

d. To enlist the problems and suggestions in sustaining the rural livelihoods of KAWAD project beneficiaries Scope of the study The central focus of the KAWAD project was on ensuring livelihood security in the drought-prone and degraded areas of Karnataka through the restoration of degraded habitats. The project envisages that the needs of the poor people in the treated watersheds are met fully through environmental improvements and non-land-based activities. So, considering the significant role played by the KAWAD project in undertaking different livelihood development activities by rural people, an attempt has been made in the present study to know the impact of income generating activities on sustainable rural livelihoods of KAWAD project beneficiaries. Besides these, socio-economic characteristics of the respondents also play a significant role in influencing the livelihoods. The present study addressed towards identifying such factors that influence livelihoods. Above all, the problems and suggestions expressed by the respondents in sustaining the rural livelihoods be of immense use to the policy makers, extension workers, NGOs and developmental agencies to redesign their programmes for effective utilization by beneficiaries for their development. Limitations of the study Due to paucity of time and other resources for the student researcher, the study was limited to one project in two districts. The investigation was based on the information collected from 9 villages and 120 families. Hence, the generalization of findings has been made based on the sample study. Non-availability of the base line data pertaining to pre-project status has made the researcher to depend on information from same respondents to indicate the status of pre project period based on their memory. Selected relevant variables were considered to assess the cause and effect relation; there could be more factors that contributed to the outcomes of the existing status.

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Research is a continuous process. For any scientific investigation, previous findings provide basis to the research. The review of literature is one of the important aspects in the research process. It helps the researcher to keep his work going in right and appropriate direction. Hence, an attempt has been made to review the research studies and the same have been presented in the following sequences. 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Concept and definitions of livelihood Participation of KAWAD project beneficiaries in different activities Income and Employment generation Personal, socio-economic and psychological characteristics of KAWAD project beneficiaries Sustainable Rural Livelihoods Influence of personal, socio-economic and psychological factors of respondents on Sustainable rural livelihoods Problems associated with sustaining rural livelihoods

2.1 CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS OF LIVELIHOOD

Conceptually, Livelihoods denotes the means, activities, entitlements and assets by which people make a living. Assets, are defined as: natural / biological (i.e., land, water, common-property resources, flora, fauna); social (i.e., community, family, social networks); political (i.e., participation, empowerment-sometimes included in the social category); human (i.e., education, labour, health, nutrition); physical (i.e., roads, clinics, markets, schools, bridges); and economic (i.e., jobs, saving, credit). The sustainability of livelihoods becomes a function of how men and women utilize asset port folios on both a short and long-term basis. Sustainable livelihoods are those that are: able to cope with and recover from shocks and stresses such as drought, civil war, policy failure through adaptive and coping strategies. One can describe a livelihood as a combination of the capabilities and resources people have (including social, human, financial, natural and material assets) and the activities they undertake in order to make a living and to attain their goals and aspirations. A livelihood is sustainable when people cope with and recover from shocks and crises (eg. seasonal, environmental and economic) and can maintain or enhance their capability and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base. The sustainable livelihoods approach is a way of thinking about the objectives, scope and priorities for development work. The approach puts people at the centre of development work. And it attempts to understand socio-economic development and resource management from this human perspective. The Development Alternatives (DA) approach encompasses activities intended to help economically disadvantaged members of society to meet their daily subsistence needs in a manner that is dignified, locally appropriate and environmentally sustainable. Sustainable livelihood creation basically translates into the creation of livelihoods that empower individuals to earn enough money to provide for basic amenities such as food, clothing and shelter. It also enables people to lead a life of dignity in a sustainable manner.

Livelihoods are ways of keeping one self meaningfully occupied by using ones endowments (human and material) to generate adequate resources to meet the requirements of the household in a sustainable manner. A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims and access) and recovers from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation and which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the long and short run (Chambers and Conway, 1992). A livelihood intervention (livelihood promotion) is a conscious effort by an agency or an organization to promote and support livelihood opportunities, usually for a large number of people. Livelihood intervention is more than income enhancement. It is about increasing economic power of people. It is facilitating asset creation, capacity building and access to opportunities. It is building securities.

2.2 PARTICIPATION OF KAWAD PROJECT BENEFICIARIES IN DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES

Veena et al. (1987) conducted a study in Mahendra district and revealed that in scheme villages, dairy, tailoring, soap making and knitting were the most preferred activities in order of importance, whereas, in non scheme villages tailoring, knitting, soap making and dairy were the most preferred activities in order of importance. Gaikwad et al. (1997) found that the magnitude of involvement with animal husbandry related activities ranged between 30-40 per cent except the activity of hiring of drought animals (24%). Hemalatha Prasad and Omprakash (1997) reported that the type of income generating activities taken up by the farm women were chick rearing and egg selling, vegetable growing and selling, mahua collection and selling in off season, fish selling, bread and egg selling, tailoring, bamboo basket making, kirani shop manihari (ladies makeup items like bangles, comb mirror etc.,) petty business, goat rearing etc. Hommes (1997) examined self-help groups in Vietnam and found duck breeding, cattle and goat breeding or fruit crops rising as the common enterprises undertaken. The profit generated was recycled into the group funds for building of better sanitation stations. Snehalatha and Reddy (1998) revealed that the income generating activities taken up by the women were dairy, forest nursery, sericulture, vegetable cultivation and petty business, which were carried out as a group activity. Prita (2001) in her study conducted at Dharwad district reported that the wide range of activities undertaken by the SHG members were raising paddy nursery (25.92%), pickle making (25.53%), leaf storage + leaf plate making (23.66%), mushroom cultivation (17.56%), seed storage (15.27%), goat rearing (9.16%), buffalo rearing (7.63%), pottery and soap box making (6.11% each), book selling (4.58%), manufacture of lice killing medicine (3.82%), tailoring (2.29%), rabbit rearing (1.53%), bee keeping poultry rearing and vermicomposting (0.76% each) as income generating activities. Arunkumar (2004) conducted a study on profile of SHGs and their contribution for livestock development in Karnataka, reported that the income generating activities undertaken by the self-help group members were dairy activities followed by sheep rearing and poultry activities. Savitha (2004) in her study revealed that high participation was seen in regular activities in all the three enterprises, viz., dairy (88.70%), poultry (100%) and goat rearing (83.60%).

Dasaratharamaiah et al. (2006) studied the income generation activities through the Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) and found that ram lamb rearing was under taken by 8 per cent beneficiaries. Vegetable vending by 26 per cent, basket making 20.67 per cent, milk vending by 29.33 and 4.67 per cent petty trade, 1.33 per cent beneficiaries under took leaves making and 60 per cent of beneficiaries under took the fruit vending activity. Gangaiah et al. (2006) in a study on impact of SHGs on income and employment in Karkambadi village and reported that the members were isolated in activities like dairying flower vending, tailoring, idly shop and cloth business.

2.3 INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT GENERATION

Puhazhendi and Jayaraman (2000) reported the positive impact of employment generation on 45 per cent of the group members who had undertaken income generating activities. The additional employment generated through SHG lending worked out to 172 mandays per member. Undertaking supplementary activities such as animal husbandry, poultry etc. and nonfarm activities like petty shop, kirani shop and flower vending business etc. Jayachandra and Gurappa Naidu (2006) conducted a study on impact of dairy cooperatives on income, employment and creation of assets of marginal and small farmers- A case study. The study revealed that the increase in income from dairying Rs.850 (25.5%) in the case of marginal farmers and Rs.1480 (22.98%) in the case of small farmers per annum. More idle women in the families of both the categories of farmers have taken up dairying as a part time and full time employment. The value of asset has increased 15 per cent in the case of marginal farmers and 12.5 per cent in the case of small farmers. Mavi et al. (2006) conducted a study on impact of self employment programme on dairy farming in Fatehgarh Sahib District of Punjab. The study revealed that there is significant increase in total income (1,09,751 to 1,88,011), dairy income (23,434 to 1,03,948), herd size (4.4 to 15.5) of the farmers after participation in the programme. Hari and Kumawat (2006) conducted a study on impact of Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) in Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan). The study revealed that small farmers who obtained assistance under SGSY for buffalo rearing could be able to increase their annual income by Rs. 15,310 over and above Rs. 14,170 earned by the non-swarojgai families. In percent terms it was about 108% higher than that of non-swarojgari families. The study also revealed that the buffalo rearing activity helped to increase employment by 92 man days (52.79%) for small farmers and 72 man days (46.15%) for marginal farmers. Rais et al. (2007) studied the impact of dairy farming on livelihood of participating women under Grameen Bank in a selected area of Rangpur District in Bangladesh. The study revealed that increase in income from dairy sector was the highest. In general the average per family total income increased by 87.51 per cent. It was indicated that the households gained remarkable increase in rented-in land (113.33 per cent) after being a member of GB with a dairy cow.

2.4 PERSONAL, SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF KAWAD PROJECT BENEFICIARIES

2.4.1 AGE
Samuel (2000) studied the impact of IRDP programmes in Medak district of Andhra Pradesh and confirmed that 58 per cent of the IRDP beneficiaries were middle aged followed by young (32.67%) and old age farmers (9.33%).

Murthy (2000) in his study on Janmabhoomi programme in Chittur district of Andhra Pradesh identified that majority (55.83%) of the beneficiaries of Janmabhoomi programme were middle aged. Sultana (2001) studied the impact of selected non-governmental organizations on rural women in Dharwad and revealed that majority of (68.66%) of beneficiaries were of young age group as compared to a very less percentage (2.00%) under old age group. The remaining 29.34 per cent belonged to middle age group. Geetha (2002) in her study on diversified farming Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh revealed that majority (52.00%) of paddy, dairy farmers were in middle age followed by young age (26.00% ) and old age category (24.00%) respectively. Sarah (2004) conduded study on critical analysis of pro-poor initiatives for empowerment of rural women through South Asia Poverty Alleviation Programme (SAPAP) revealed that, majority (40.00%) of the SAPAP beneficiaries belonged to middle age category, followed by young aged (37.80%) and old aged (22.20%) categories. Bevenahalli (2005) conducted a study on critical analysis of swa-shakti programme in Karnataka. Reported that majority of the respondents (70.33 %) were middle aged, while 28.33 per cent were young age and remaining (1.33 %) were old age. Bharathi (2005) in the study conducted in Gadag district of Karnataka reported that majority of the SHG members (51.70 %) were young aged, 48.30 per cent of them were middle aged. Joseph and Easwaran (2006) in the study conducted at Aizawl district of Mizoram reported that majority of the respondents were aged between 40 and 60 years, followed by 30.77 per cent falling below 40 years and 15.38 per cent falling above 60 years. The mean age of members was found to be 48 years.

2.4.2 Education
Ingle and Kubde (1991) reported that 25 per cent of the respondents were educated up to primary level while 24 per cent and 23 per cent were educated up to middle school and high school and remaining 28 per cent of the respondents were illiterate. Singh (1991) in his study on tackling poverty through sheep rearing found that most of the respondents were illiterate and only 17 per cent had education upto middle standard. Singh et al. (1994) in an attempt to know the participation of women in agriculture, allied and household activities, concluded that participation of women involved in animal husbandry is affected by education. Vasudevarao (2003) conducted a study in three districts of Andhra Pradesh and reported that illiterates formed only 11 per cent, while 60 per cent had formal schooling. Arunkumar (2004) in his study on profile of SHGs and their contribution for livestock development in Karnataka state reported that 65 per cent of the respondents were illiterates and 35 per cent of the respondents were literate. Amongst literate respondents, 12.50 per cent of them were studied upto primary school, followed by middle school (9.38%) and high school (11.25%). A meager per cent of the respondents (1.88%) were college educated. Bharathi (2005) in her study on assessment of entrepreneurial activities promoted under NATP on empowerment of women in agriculture reported that 44.2 per cent of the respondents were illiterates followed by 23.3 per cent had high school level education, 13.3 per cent had primary level and middle school level education and the remaining 5.8 per cent had completed their education upto college level.

2.4.3 Annual income

Soundarapandian (1991) in Kamaraja district of Tamil Nadu found that, out of 100 sample beneficiaries, 96 respondents had the annual income below Rs.4800 before the implementation of TRYSEM. After receiving the benefits from the programme 71 respondents of the total sample beneficiaries crossed the poverty line. Deepak (2003) in his study on perception of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries towards WYTEP programme in Dharwad district revealed that 36.00 and 40.00 per cent of the beneficiaries and non beneficiaries belonged to semi- medium income group respectively. Nearly 1/3rd (32.00%) of the beneficiaries and 29.33 per cent of the non beneficiaries belonged to low income group. An equal per cent (20.00%) each of beneficiaries and non beneficiaries belonged to medium income group. Very less per cent of the beneficiaries and non beneficiaries belonged to high income group. Savitha (2004) revealed that 45.50 per cent of the respondents had low income followed by medium and high income constituting 28.28 per cent and 25.70 per cent respectively in Dharwad district.

2.4.4 Land holdings

Chaudhari et al. (1996) conducted study on Integrated Rural Development Programme, poverty alleviation and development: A comparative study of West Bengal, reported that majority of IRDP beneficiaries (80.46%) were landless, 18.49 per cent were marginal farmers, while 1.06 per cent were small farmers in West Bengal. Rangi et al. (2002) in the study conducted at Fetehgarh Sahib district of Punjab reported that about two-third of the respondents did not own any land whereas about onethird had their own land. The latter comprised only of small and marginal farmers. Satyanarayana et al. (2002) in a study on SGSY beneficiaries revealed that vast majority of beneficiaries were landless (62.86%) followed by medium farmers (17.14%) and small farmers comprised only 11.43 per cent of beneficiaries. Devalatha (2005) reported in her study on profile study of women SHGs in Gadag district of northern Karnataka that, 30.83 per cent of the SHG members were landless, 28.33 per cent belong to marginal farmers (<2.5 acres) 20.83 per cent belonged to small farmers i.e., (2.5-5 acres) and 20.0 per cent belonged to big farmers (>5 acres).

2.4.5 Family size

Ray and Mandal (1996) found that 39.64 per cent panchayat pradhans had upto 5 members and 60.36 per cent had above 5 members in their families. Kalakannavar (1999) conducted a study on role performance and training need identification of panchayat women members found that, majority of the respondents belonged to the family consisting of 5-7 members. The members in family below 5 members were 29.00 per cent and more than 7 members were 27.00 per cent. Manay and Farzana (2000) conducted a study on socio-economic characteristics of rural family found that, 25 per cent of the families had less than 5 members and 65.2 per cent of them had 3 to 7 members in their families which shows a declining trend in the size of the families. Sultana (2001) in her study on impact of selected non-governmental organization on rural women, revealed that majority (95.34%) of beneficiaries belonged to large family and the remaining very less (4.66%) per cent of them belonged to small family. Bharathi (2005) in her study on assessment of entrepreneurial activities promoted under NATP on empowerment of women in agriculture reported that majority of respondents (57.5%) belonged to nuclear families and 42.5 per cent belong to joint families.

Ningareddy (2005) conducted a study on knowledge, extent of participation and benefits derived by participant farmers of the watershed development programme in Raichur district of Karnataka state. Reported that majority of the respondents had medium family size (60.00%), followed by big (34.77%) and small family size (5.33%) respectively in Raichur district of Karnataka state with respect to Watershed Development Programme. Joseph and Easwaran (2006) reported that family size of the SHG members in Mizoram revealed that 61.54 per cent belonged to the medium size (4-6 members) and 28.21 % belonged to the large size of family. The mean size was computed as 5.87.

2.4.6 Source of information

Tripathi (2001) conducted a study on information receiving behaviour of rural women influencing productivity of milch animals and found out that high percentage of respondents (78.12%) utilized the non-institutional interpersonal information sources such as friends, relatives, neighbours, own family members etc. at high level. About 11 per cent of them were medium level utilizers and an institutional sources such as veterinary doctors, cooperative personnels, scientists, extension agency, block personnel etc. were utilized at medium level by majority (58.12%) of the respondents. About 13.55 per cent and 31.77 per cent of them were high and low level utilizers of the institutional information sources respectively. Sonawane et al. (2001) conducted a study on utilization of communication sources by the farmers for seeking farm information and revealed that among the personal localite sources friends (90.62%) were the major source of information for the farmers followed by neighbourers (76.56%), relatives (60.15%) and progressive farmers (60.15%), whereas, among the personal cosmopolite sources, agricultural assistant (96.87%) was the main source of information followed by university scientists (53.90%), agricultural officer (25.78%) and subject matter specialists (21.87%). Jayalatha (2003) conducted a study on impact of commercial bank schemes on the growth of entrepreneurs and revealed that majority of (65.22%) of the respondents used advertisement by banks as main source of information at middle level. Nearly 21.14 per cent and 35.71 per cent of them used the same source at high and low levels respectively.

2.4.7 Urban Contact

Mruthyunjayam (1987) conducted a critical analysis of farm telecast programme-An experimental study and reported that most of the respondents had medium urban contact followed by high and low urban contact. Prasad (1996) conducted a critical analysis of diffusion and adoption of maize production recommendations in Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh, revealed that majority (41.11%) of the farmers belonged to medium urban contact followed by low (32.78%) and high (26.11%) urban contact. Purnima (2004) in her study on Women self help group dynamics in the North Coastal zone of Andhra Pradesh found that majority (46.66%) of the respondents had high urban contact followed by medium (39.16%) and low (14.17%) urban contact respectively.

2.4.8 Economic motivation

Chowdary (1997) study on Krishi Vignana Kendra (KVK) in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh, inferred that 68.33 per cent of farmers had medium economic motivation followed by 16.67 per cent and 15.00 per cent under low and high economic motivation respectively. Reddy (1997) study on critical analysis on adoption of improved practices of diversified farming among farmers in Mahaboobnagar district in Andhra Pradesh concluded that 48.00 per cent of the diversified farmers had medium economic motivation followed by low (32.67%) and high (19.33%) economic motivation, respectively.

Reddy Gurava (1998) study on impact of training programmes of Agricultural Marketing Committee as a follow-up activity of KVK in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh presented that majority of farmers (76.67%) had medium economic motivation was followed by low (15.83%) and high (7.50%) levels of economic motivation. Reddy Prasad (2003) study on differential Innovation Decision and Attitude of Rice Growing Farmers Towards Eco-Friendly Technologies in Andhra Pradesh, concluded that majority of the rice farmers (64.90%) fall under medium economic motivation followed by low (19.20%) and high (15.90%). It is evident from the above studies that majority of the respondents had Economic motivation.

2.4.9 Achievement motivation

Shivalingaiah (1996) in a study on participation of rural youth in farm activities identified that, majority (86%) of the girls had low to medium levels of achievement motivation and in case of boys majority of the rural youth had medium to higher levels of achievement motivation. Praveen (1997) study on role perceptions and role performance of mitrakisans in transfer of watershed technology in Ranga Reddy district of Andhra Pradesh reported that majority of mitra kisans belonged to low (44.16%) followed by medium (43.34%) and high (12.50%) levels of achievement motivation. Monica and Talukdar (1997) conducted study on variables influencing entrepreneurship of women entrepreneurs in Assam, revealed that 33 per cent of the women entrepreneurs had low achievement motivation, 28.30 per cent of them had medium achievement motivation and 38.70 per cent of the women entrepreneurs had high achievement motivation. Paul and Chandra (1998) study on entrepreneurial behaviour of vegetable growers in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh, found that 52.50 per cent of respondents had medium achievement motivation followed by more or less. Chatterjee (2000) study on the impact of National watershed development project for rainfed areas (NWDPRA) in Burdwan district of west Bengal, inferred that majority (68.33%) of the beneficiaries fall under medium level of achievement motivation followed by high (20.00%) and low (11.67%) levels of achievement motivation. Ravichandra Prasad (2002) study on the impact of on farm extension demonstration (OFEPs) in Rice in Nelore district of Andhra Pradesh, revealed that 62.50 per cent of the beneficiaries had medium achievement motivation followed by high (25.00%) and low (12.50%) levels of achievement motivation. From the above reviews it can be inferred that majority of the respondents had medium level of achievement motivation.

2.4.10 Risk bearing ability

Sheela (1991) conducted a study on improved dairy practices in Bidar district who revealed that 35 per cent of the women showed medium risk taking ability whereas 28 and 16 per cent of them had low and high risk taking ability respectively. Monica and Talukdar (1997) revealed that 16.66 per cent of the women entrepreneurs had low risk taking ability, 45 per cent had medium risk taking ability and 38.34 per cent of the women entrepreneurs had high risk taking ability. Vijaykumar (2001) conducted a study on enterprenuurial behaviour of floriculture farmers in Ranga Reddy district of Andhra Pradesh indicated that majority (33.34%) of the respondents fell under low risk taking ability followed by 35 per cent and 26.66 per cent of them were in medium and high level of risk taking ability categories respectively.

Bhagyalaxmi et al. (2003) in her study on profile of the rural women micro entrepreneurs revealed that majority of the respondents (75.36%) had medium risk orientation followed by low (15.56%) and high (13.33%) risk orientation. It is evident from the above studies that majority of the respondents had medium risk bearing ability.

2.5 SUSTAINABLE RURAL LIVELIHOODS

Lucas (1997) indicated that human capital in terms of education, skills, knowledge, and health determines access to economic opportunities. Individual human capital therefore has long been seen as a key determinant of migration probability, and there is a significant amount of evidence indicating that those with better education and skills have a comparative advantage in destination labour markets and are more likely to migrate. This suggests that the better off are likely to be represented disproportionately high in migration streams. However, educational attainment may be of limited significance in migration decisions where other assets are important. Knox et al. (1998) has much debated on the Green Revolution centered around whether or not large landholdings (natural capital) were required to adopt the various components of the green revolution package. Considerable policy emphasis has also been given to expanding agricultural credit (financial capital) and roads or transportation (physical capital) in order to permit technology adoption. Human capital, in the form of knowledge and skills, is often required to properly make use of many new technologies. It is now increasingly recognized that social capital can facilitate adoption of technologies that operate on a large spatial scale, wherein collective action is needed to coordinate the action of individuals for common investment or adherence to rules. Sherin (1999) found that 82.69 per cent of the functional SHG respondents had expressed empowerment in terms of authority in planning, decision making, impelemtnation and evaluation of the SHGs programmes, while only 55.17 per cent of the respondents of the non-functional SHGs claimed that had been empowered, which support the findings of the study. De Haan (2000) found an inverse relationship between land and livestock ownership and migration, suggesting that it is the poorer that migrate more, although migration is seldom from households that did not own any land at all. Migrants from two sites in Bangladesh were less likely to be from landless households and on an average owned more land than households without migrants, although the differences were small and varied according to locality, and international migrants in particular were from better off households in terms of landholdings. Planning Commission of India (2000) recorded that, the number of assets created under JRY and EAS in Fingeshwar and Kharkhara. Under JRY over 82 per cent of the total assets were created. It also showed that creation of assets under both the schemes is higher at around 60 per cent in Fingeshwar Gram Panchayat. Tranthi and Mahabub Hossain (2001) found that the coefficient of worker is statistically significant in rice income and in non-rice income as well as in total household income equations. The coefficient of human capital is significant in the equation for non-rice income but not for the rice income. This finding suggest that human labour is still a major source of income in rural economy but it requires much more skill and technical know how for mobility from agricultural to non-agricultural activities. De Haan (2002) found evidence from Bihar suggesting land ownership to be an insignificant determinant of migration, although he notes that studies in other Indian states have shown the opposite. The impact of (asset) poverty on migration is highly contextual dependent in India, partly; it appears, because of the effect of different forms of social exclusion such as the caste system, that segment migration or certain types of migration to particular groups.

Sarma (2004) advocated that the theory of under development views poverty as product of the vicious circle of low per capita income, low savings, and consequently low capital formation and productivity and so on. In rural areas, which is mainly due to unemployment, under employment, unsustainable livelihoods and ultimately resulting into low earnings. Sarma (2004) explained that development of social infrastructure for the components of Human capital like education, skill and training is crucial, so as to enable rural people to be gainfully employed, besides paying special attention to encourage self employment on a large scale through provision of micro-credit. Hence, poverty alleviation is the thrust area in India's special emphasis in the provision of Basic Minimum Services (BMS). ETC, India (2004) in its report indicated that income generation programme launched through SHGs in all the watersheds have been able to make good impact on the income levels of the landless and the marginal farmers. Training in entrepreneurial activities has been able to increase the income level and bring out the entrepreneurial abilities of women. This is true in case of those women beneficiaries who owned kirani shops and hotel. Anonymous (2005) in their Quick Evaluation of Beneficiary Oriented (SC/ST) Programme of SGRY, revealed that, 30.30 per cent beneficiaries who acquired various sustainable income generating assets e.g. sewing machines, rickshaw vans, cattle etc., confirmed of increase in their income. Nearly nineteen per cent beneficiaries of the total who were sanctioned for open irrigation wells, bore wells for irrigation could increase their income as an outcome of the asset. Dolli (2006) conducted a study on sustainability of natural resource management in watershed development project in Bijapur district, which revealed the impact of NRM was positive and significant on livelihood of participating families in both the projects. The significant impact was also seen with respect to human, physical, natural, social, financial capitals and also food security of the participating farmers both in case of SHG and non-SHG members.

2.6 INFLUENCE OF PERSONAL, SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF RESPONDENTS ON SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS
Adamss (1993) study on male international migration from Egypt indicated that the education, had no significant effect on migration (as most migrants worked in unskilled employment), was overwhelmed by the impact of landlessness combined with agricultural employment, which 'pushed' people abroad. Total labour supply availability within the household is likely to be an important determinant of whether the household has excess labour capacity and can therefore afford to send migrants out without adversely affecting domestic production. De Haan (1999) indicated that social capital is often cited as a significant determinant of population mobility, particularly due to 'segmentation' of migration streams between specific regions of origin and destination due to kinship and other networks. Social networks and affiliations with formal institutions such as trade unions and community based organizations facilitate labour migration, for example by providing initial accommodation and employment at destination or information on employment opportunities facilitating job search. Migration may be too risky as an option for poor communities lacking developed social networks with migration destinations. Sending localities may be discriminated against because of issues of culture and identity such as gender, ethnicity, religion and caste, which may disable opportunities if migration is not seen to be socially or culturally acceptable. Certain cultural groups may lack access to migrant networks, where these develop within cultural boundaries. For example, among the Fulani ethnic group in Burkina Faso migration was traditionally restricted to the high status class, although the increase in migration propensity among low status households in recent decades has diminished such distinctions. Alternatively, migration may be the -only option available to certain groups who are excluded from profitable work at origin.

De Haan (1999) stressed that political capital enables population mobility, most obviously through citizenship, allowing internal and external movement. The poor are more likely to be politically marginalized, and therefore by definition restricted from influencing existing migration policies that are more likely to restrict than promote movement. Bhattacharya (2000) in the study on 'An Analysis of Rural-to-Urban Migration in India finds that, states with a relatively high proportion of Scheduled Tribes in the population have higher rural to rural migration rates, whereas Scheduled Caste population has the opposite effect on migration. He argues that Scheduled Tribes large outside the Hindu caste system and therefore are not "ordained" to specialize in certain specific occupations. Further, unlike Scheduled Castes who are dispersed geographically, STs are concentrated in certain areas within states and in which they usually have a sizeable presence and they may therefore feel freer to move within these areas than SCs do generally. De Haan (2000) in Bangladesh, Ethiopia and Mali, found that differences between migrants and non-migrants in terms of education were limited, whereas differences in migration propensities could be explained by physical asset holdings somewhat surprisingly, given that the likelihood costs of international migration exceed costs of internal migration. Reddy (2001) study on watershed development and livelihood security: found that improvements in the household income and employment are statistically significant in all the sample villages with the total livelihoods assets (financial capital); while fuel wood and water availability was not found significant in all the village except mallapuram (natural capital); human capital indicators have improved significantly where as social capital has not changed significantly due to watershed intervention. Mosse et al. (2002) studied opportunities and experiences of seasonal rural to urban migration among Scheduled Tribe population in Western India. Urban informal sector work is highly 'ethnically' differentiated; with tribe people limited to low pay, unskilled, less secure work at destination. However, within the tribal group, the poor and better off have different experiences of migration. Whereas migration among the better off is used to manage risk and build assets, migration is more common among poorer people and often leads to labour 'bondage' or sale of assets. The poorer are more likely to undertake long-term migration of entire households to service debt accumulated at high interest rates for subsistence purposes. Because of this, migration often serves to increase intra-community inequality among Scheduled Tribe communities. Bird and Shepherd (2003) found that higher income households receive a higher share income from remittances in rural Zimbabwe, whereas the severely poor, who shifted away from reliance on remittallces as the main "source of income during the 1990s, receive the lowest share.

2.7 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SUSTAINING RURAL LIVELIHOODS

Tejaswini and Veerabhadraiah (1996) identified the problems faced by rural women in SHG activities. The findings revealed that 85 per cent of them facing difficulty in getting good price for their product, lack of common work place (83.00%), lack of proper marketing facilities (75.00%), problems in getting loan money released in time (66.00%) and lack of training facilities (50.00%). Pandey and Brijbala (2000) listed out the constraints faced by the rural dairy farmers as artificial insemination and breeding constraints, feed and fodder oriented constraints. Vyas and Patil (2001) reported that non-availability of loan facilities, non-availability of artificial insemination and milk marketing facilities and no pasture land as the main constraints faced by milk producers.

Arunkumar (2004) in his study on profile of SHGs and their contribution for livestock development in Karnataka reported the problems faced by the members were lack of timely support from banks/other organization was the major problem, inadequate number of organizations linked up, unequal distribution of work among members, non introduction of agriculture based income generating activities (IGA), non availability of information about IGA, and difficulty in getting external loans. Bardhan et al. (2005) conducted a study on constraints perceived by farmers in rearing dairy animals reported that constraints perceived by farmers in rearing dairy animals as no-remunerative price of milk, testing of milk only on the basis of fat percentage, reproductive problems, distant location of AI centres and high cost of feeds. Bharathi (2005) in her study on Assessment of entrepreneurial activities promoted under NATP on empowerment of women in agriculture reported that the problems faced by members are lack of formal education, lack of training, lack of social mobility, insufficient loans as their economic problems and technical problems like non-availability of spare parts, shortage of electricity and unskilled women group members. Joseph and Easwaran (2006) in a study on SHGs and tribal development in Mizoram reported the number of constraints, problems and or obstacles faced are lack of co-ordination between government agencies, banks and SHGs, delay in sanctioning and disbursement of loans to SHGs, high rate of interest on the loan, insufficient of loan for income generation, conflict over loan sharing, problems in marketing products.

3. METHODOLOGY
The research study on impact of income generating activities on sustainable rural livelihoods of KAWAD project beneficiaries was conducted during the year 2007-2008 in Bellary and Bijapur districts of Karnataka. This chapter deals with material and methods followed in conducting the present investigation, are as follows. 3.1 Research design 3.2 Selection of the study area 3.3 Brief description of study area 3.4 Selection of taluks and villages 3.5 Selection of respondents 3.6 Variables for the study 3.7 Operationalization and measurements of variables 3.8 Data collection 3.9 Statistical tools used

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

In the present investigation, ex-post facto research design was employed. This design was appropriate because the phenomenon had already occurred. Ex-post-facto research is the most systematic empirical enquiry in which the researcher does not have any control over independent variables as their manifestation has already occurred or as they are inherent and not manipulatable thus, inferences about relations among variables were made without direct intervention from concomitant variation of independent and dependent variables.

3.2 SELECTION OF THE STUDY AREA

The present study was conducted in Bijapur and Bellary districts of Karnataka during the year 2007-08. Bijapur and Bellary districts were purposively selected for the study where maximum number of households benefited by the KAWAD project.

3.3 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

Bijapur district falls under Northern dry zone (zone III) where annual rainfall ranges from 464.5 to 785.7 mm and most of the showers are received from the south-west monsoon. The rainfall is scanty, erratic, uncertain and unevenly distributed. The district which is located well in the interior of the Deccan Peninsula lies at an altitude of about 593 meters above the mean sea level. The temperature ranges from 14.8 to 44C with the max temperature prevailing during March, April and May months and the minimum during December and January months. The climate is generally dry and healthy. The hot season begins by the middle of February and extends till the end of May or beginning of June, followed by southwest monsoon extending till the end of September with cool and moist weather. The Northeast monsoon season is between October and November while the cold season is from December to middle of February. Bellary district is spread from southwest to northeast and is situated on the eastern side of Karnataka state. The district is 15 30 and 15 north latitude and 75 40 and 77 50 11 east longitude. The geographical area is 8447 km. As per 2003 census the population of the district stood at 2,245,000. The rural populations constitute 70 per cent. The density of population is 196 per km, which is much lower than the state average of 235 per km. The

scheduled caste/scheduled tribe population constitute 28 per cent of the total population. The sex-ratio was 965, which is slightly higher than the state average of 960.

3.4 SELECTION OF TALUKS AND VILLAGES

KAWAD project was undertaken the implementation of the livelihood development programmes in three watersheds, namely, Chinnahagari watershed in Molakalmuru taluk of Chitradurga district, Upparahalla watershed in Kudligi taluk of Bellary district and Doddahalla watershed in Indi taluk of Bijapur district. The project area covers 62 villages in 13 Gram Panchayats and one Town Panchayat in the above three districts. Among three taluks, two taluks were purposively selected such as Kudligi and Indi where, maximum number of households benefited by the KAWAD project. The villages selected from these two taluks was based on the criteria of maximum number of beneficiaries undertaken income generating activities. Five villages from Kudligi taluk and four villages from Indi taluk were selected. Thus, nine villages were purposively selected namely Pujarahalli, K B Hatti, Hulikeri, Alur and Hosur from Kudligi taluk, and Inchageri, Devarnimbargi, Jigajeevani and Jeeranakalagi from Indi taluk (Fig.3.1). Village-wise distribution of respondents Sl. No. Districts selected Taluks selected Villages selected Inchageri 1. Bijapur Indi Devarnimbargi Jigajeevani Jeerankalagi Pujarahalli K B Hatti 2. Bellary Kudligi Hulikeri Alur Hosur Total No. of respondents 15 10 10 15 15 15 15 15 10 120

3.5 SELECTION OF THE RESPONDENTS

The method used for selection of the respondents was random sampling. From the selected villages the list of beneficiaries undertaken income generating activities was prepared by contacting Village Level Federations (VLFs), which have been formed during KAWAD project. Income generating activities such as, cow rearing, baffolo rearing, sheep rearing, goat rearing and kirani shop were purposively selected, because most of the benficiaries have undertaken these activities in the study area. Among the beneficiaries 120 respondents were randomly selected. Thus, the total sample size was 120.

Fig. 3.1: Map showing study area

3.6 VARIABLES FOR THE STUDY

The dependent and independent variables for the study were selected based on the available literature and opinion of the experts in the field of extension. The variables selected for the study along with their empirical measurements are presented in the following table. Sl.No. Name of the variables Empirical measurement

A. Dependent variable 1. Sustainable rural livelihoods Index developed by Dolli (2006) with suitable modifications

B. Independent variables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Age Education Land holdings Annual income Family size Source of information Procedure as followed by Satyavathi (2001) Procedure as followed by Satyavathi (2001) Procedure as followed by Deepak (2003) Procedure as followed by Deepak (2003) Procedure as followed by Usharani (1999) Scale developed by Rao (1985) with suitable modifications Scale developed by Rajan (1982) with suitable modifications Scale developed by Singh (1978) Scale developed by Supe (1969) Scale developed by Nagaraja (1989)

7. 8. 9.

Urban contact Achievement motivation Economic motivation

10. Risk orientation

3.7 OPERATIONALIZATION VARIABLES

3.7.1 Dependent variable
3.7.1.1 Sustainable Rural Livelihoods

AND

MEASUREMENTS

OF

The concept of Sustainable Rural Livelihood (SRL) is an attempt to go beyond the conventional definitions and approaches to poverty eradication. Earlier efforts were found to be too narrow because they focused only on certain aspects or manifestations of poverty, such as low income, or did not consider other vital aspects of poverty such as vulnerability and social exclusion. It is now recognized that more attention must be paid to the various factors and processes which either restrain or enhance poor peoples ability to make a living in an economically, ecologically and socially sustainable manner. The SRL concept offers a more coherent and integrated approach to poverty alleviation. To achieve sustainable rural livelihoods different livelihood asset capital such as Human capital, physical capital, natural capital, social capital and financial capital would play a greater role to cope with and recover from shocks/stress and maintain or enhance the individual capabilities and assets both in present and in the future without degrading the natural resource base.

An attempt was made to measure the SRL by developing an index for the study taking the index developed by Dolli (2006) as base and with certain modifications comprised of the livelihood assets such as human capital, physical capital, social capital, financial capital and food security for which sub indices were computed and summed up to arrive at the sustainable rural livelihood index. The different livelihood asset capital is opertionalized as under. a) Human capital Improvement in human capital was measured by considering the following aspects. i) Education: It refers to the improved capacity of beneficiaries to educate their children and other family members in the schools both within and outside the village. ii) Health: It refers to the improved capacity of food intake as per the requirement and consulting doctors in taluk and district head quarters for minor and major ailments. iii) Employment generation: This was measured based on the increased mandays of employment to self and family members. The respondents were asked to indicate their response for before and after undertaking income generating activities as high, medium and low for all the statements of human capital and a score 3, 2 and 1 were given, respectively. To assess the change in human capital status, the respondents were categorized as low, medium and high based on mean (X) and standard deviation (SD) as measures of check, for both before and after undertaking income generating activities. Score Category Before Low Medium High < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD) After < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD)

The score obtained by the respondents for each statement were summed up to obtain the human capital score. The human capital index is the ratio of actual score obtained by the respondent and maximum possible score. The formula used as follows. Actual score obtained by the respondent under human capital Human capital index = Maximum possible score b) Physical capital This was measured by considering the accumulation of physical assets like house, household articles, entertainment materials or farm equipments. The respondents were asked to indicate their response for before and after undertaking income generating activities as high, medium and low for all the statements of physical capital and a score 3, 2 and 1 were given, respectively. To assess the change in physical capital status, the respondents were categorized as low, medium and high based on mean (X) and standard deviation (SD) as measures of check, for both before and after undertaking income generating activities. X 100

Score Category Before Low Medium High < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD) After < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD)

The score obtained by the respondents for each statement were summed up to obtain the physical capital score. The physical capital index is the ratio of actual score obtained by the respondent and maximum possible score. The formula used as follows. Actual score obtained by the respondent under physical capital Physical capital index = Maximum possible score c) Social capital This was measured based on the improvement of the social status both at home and outside in terms of respect and contacts. The respondents were asked to indicate their response for before and after undertaking income generating activities as high, medium and low for all the statements of social capital and a score 3, 2 and 1 were given, respectively. To assess the change in social capital status, the respondents were categorized as low, medium and high based on mean (X) and standard deviation (SD) as measures of check, for both before and after undertaking income generating activities. Score Category Before Low Medium High < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD) After < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD) X 100

The score obtained by the respondents for each statement were summed up to obtain the social capital score. The social capital index is the ratio of actual score obtained by the respondent and maximum possible score. The formula used as follows. Actual score obtained by the respondent under social capital Social capital index = Maximum possible score d) Financial capital This was measured based on the access to financial sources and accumulation of the financial capital in terms of savings. The respondents were asked to indicate their response for before and after undertaking income generating activities as high, medium and low for all the statements of financial capital and a score 3, 2 and 1 were given, respectively. X 100

To assess the change in financial capital status, the respondents were categorized as low, medium and high based on mean (X) and standard deviation (SD) as measures of check, for both before and after undertaking income generating activities. Score Category Before Low Medium High < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD) After < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD)

The score obtained by the respondents for each statement were summed up to obtain the social capital score. The financial capital index is the ratio of actual score obtained by the respondent and maximum possible score. The formula used as follows. Actual score obtained by the respondent under financial capital Financial capital index = Maximum possible score e) Food security This was measured based on the availability of the food grains, vegetables and milk during the crop season and also off season. The respondents were asked to indicate their response for before and after undertaking income generating activities as high, medium and low for all the statements of food security and a score 3, 2 and 1 were given, respectively. To assess the change in food security status, the respondents were categorized as low, medium and high based on mean (X) and standard deviation (SD) as measures of check, for both before and after undertaking income generating activities. Score Category Before Low Medium High < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD) After < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD) X 100

The score obtained by the respondents for each statements were summed up to obtain the food security score. The food security index is the ratio of actual score obtained by the respondent and maximum possible score. The formula used as follows. Actual score obtained by the respondent under food security Food security index = Maximum possible score X 100

3.7.2 Measurement of independent variables

3.7.2.1 Age

It is referred to the chronological age of the respondent at the time of investigation. The age of the respondents was recorded as mentioned by the respondents in completed years. The respondents were categorized in to three age groups based on the procedure followed by Satyavathi (2001). Category Young age Middle age Old age 3.7.2.2 Education Education refers to the number of years of formal schooling completed by the respondents. This was quantified by using the items and weights used by Satyavati (2001). The items included for quantifying education and their weights were as follows: Education level Illiterate Primary Middle school High school PUC Degree Weightages 0 1 2 3 4 5 Score 18-30 years 31-50 years > 50 years

Considering the above pattern, the individual scores for the respondents were arrived for statistical analysis. 3.7.2.3 Land holding The actual land possessed by the respondents was recorded and this was converted into standard acres based on Karnataka land reforms act, 38 of 1996. Category No land (Land less farmers) Less than 2.5 acres (Marginal farmers) 2.6 to 5 acres (Small farmers) 5.1 to 10 acres (Semi medium farmers) 10.1 to 25 acres (Medium farmers) 25 acres and above (Big farmers) The similar classification was followed by Deepak (2003). Score 0 1 2 3 4 5

3.7.2.4 Annual income Annual income of the family refers to the income earned by all the members of the family of the respondents from different sources per year. Categories of the annual income were done as follows. Category Low income Semi-medium income Medium income High income Family income/year (Rs.) Upto 17,000 17,001-34,000 34,001-51,000 Above 51,000

The similar classification was followed by Deepak (2003) as per the classification suggested by Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. 3.7.2.5 Family size In the present study, the family size of the respondents was operationally defined as total number of members residing in the family, including new borne baby also. It was categorized as small and large family by following general norm. Category Below 5 5 and above Score 1 2

Usharani (1999) followed the same procedure. 3.7.2.6 Source of information Information seeking was operationally defined as the frequency of contact or exposure of an entrepreneur to different sources for obtaining information regarding their enterprises. The information seeking behaviour of a respondent was measured with rating scale developed by Rao (1985). The scale contained 11 items. For determining the degree of information seeking by the respondents through these sources, three response categories namely frequently, occasionally and never were provided with weightages of 2, 1 and 0 respectively. Based on the score obtained by respondents on information seeking, they were grouped into following three categories. Category Low Medium High 3.7.2.7 Urban contact Urban contact was defined as the respondents frequency of visits to the urban areas and the purpose of the visits. The scale developed by Rajan(1982) was used for the study with suitable modifications. The scoring pattern for frequency and purpose of visits is given below. Score < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD)

a. Frequency of visits: Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 b. Purpose of visit Purpose of visits IGAs Other 3.7.2.8 Economic motivation It refers to the value or attitude for which the farmer attached greater importance to profit maximization. This was quantified by using the scale developed by Supe (1969). The scale consisted of six statements, of which first five statements were positive and the last one was negative. The responses were recorded on 3 point continuum ranging from Agree undecided and disagree with scores of 2, 1 and 0 for positive statements. The scoring was reversed for negative statements. Maximum and minimum scores obtainable by the respondent on the scale were 12 and 0. Based on the scores, farmers were grouped into three categories by using mean (x) and standard deviation (SD) as measures of check. Category Low Medium High 3.7.2.9 Achievement motivation It is defined as the degree to excel regardless of social rewards. It is the desire to do well not so much for the sake of social recognition or prestige, but to attain an inner feeling of personal accomplishment. In the present study, the achievement motivation is defined as the value associated with an individual, which drives him to excel in his related field and there by attain a sense of personal accomplishment. The achievement motivation scale developed by Singh (1978) was used in the present study. The scale has six statements in the form of questions. Each question has three alternative answers. The respondent has to tick one of the alternatives to each statement. The questions, 1, 4 and 6 classified as, positive statements were scored as 2, 1 and 0. The scoring is reverse for other selected negative statements. The summed up value gave the total score of the individual farmer. Thus the score ranged from 0 to 12. To assess the level of achievement, the respondents were categorized as low, medium and high based on mean (x) and standard deviation (SD) as measures of check. Score < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD) Score 2 1 Frequency of visits Occasionally Fortnightly Weekly Frequently Daily Score 1 2 3 4 5

Category Low Medium High 3.7.2.10 Risk bearing ability

Score < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD)

It is the degree to which a respondent is oriented towards risk and uncertainty and has the courage solve/overcome the problem in enterprise management. Nagaraja (1989) developed a scale for measuring risk orientation of farmers. The scale contained six statements. The same scale was used in the present study. First and fourth statements were negatively keyed and all other were positively keyed. In the case of positive statements a score of one was assigned for the positive response (agree) and zero score for negative (disagree) response. This was reverse in the case of negative statements. The scores were added to get total score of the respondents. Minimum and maximum score one can get is 0 and 6, respectively. Later the respondents were grouped into the three categories based on total risk orientation scores using mean and standard deviation. Category Low Medium High Score < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD)

3.8 DATA COLLECTION

A draft of interview schedule against set objectives of measuring the variables of the study was first prepared and pre-tested with respondents in the non-sample area. In the light of pre-testing, necessary changes were incorporated in the format of items. The final total of structured interview schedule was used to elicit the required information from the respondents. The data collection was done by personal interview with the respondents during April, May 2008 at their homes /farms.

3.9 STATISTICAL TOOLS USED IN THE STUDY

Percentages Frequency and percentages were calculated for making simple comparison wherever needed. Mean and standard deviation This was used to classify the respondents into three categories as follows. Category Low Medium High Score < (X 0.425SD) (X 0.425 SD) > (X + 0.425 SD)

t test Paired t- test was used to assess the impact of income generating activities on sustainable rural livelihoods of KAWAD project beneficiaries. The formula used was given below. d-o t = Sd 2 / n di = x2 i - x1 i X2 = Status of the assets after implementation of the project X1 = Status of the assets before implementation of the project Pearsons Correlation Coefficient (r) Pearsons correlation coefficient (r) was computed in order to know the nature of relationship between the dependent and independent variables. The values of the correlation coefficients were then tested for statistical significance.

XY (X) (Y) /n r = (X2 (X) 2/n) (Y2) (Y) 2/n) Where, r X Y XY X2 Y2 n = Co-efficient of correlation between x and y = Sum of scores of variable X = Sum of scores of variable Y = Sum of product of X and Y variable = Sum of the squares of X variable = Sum of the squares of Y variable = Size of the sample

4. RESULTS
The findings of the present investigation are presented in this chapter. The results are presented under following headings. 4.1 Distribution of livelihood status of respondents 4.2 Income and employment generation through income generating activities 4.3 Impact of income generating activities on livelihoods of beneficiaries 4.4 Personal, socio-economic and psychological characteristics of beneficiaries 4.5 Relationship of independent variables with various capital acquisitions by the beneficiaries, and 4.6 Problems and suggestions of beneficiaries in sustaining rural livelihoods

4.1 DISTRIBUTION RESPONDENTS

OF

LIVELIHOOD

STATUS

OF

4.1.1 Status of livelihood practices before intervention of the project

A cursory look at Table 1 and Fig. 1 showed that, relatively higher percentage of the respondents (34.17%) had wage earning as their livelihood practice, followed by agriculture (25.83%), agriculture + wage earning (21.67%) and lesser percentage of the beneficiaries had agriculture + livestock (11.66%) and wage earning + livestock (6.67%) as their livelihood source before implementation of the KAWAD project.

4.1.2 Income generating activities supported under KAWAD project

The results in Table 2 and Fig. 2 revealed that, out of the total respondents, 25.83 per cent of the respondents had preferred cow rearing as their income generating activity, followed by buffalo rearing (20.83%), sheep rearing (17.50%) and goat rearing (10.83%). Relatively less percentage of the respondents had taken up goat + sheep rearing (7.50%), buffalo + goat rearing (6.67%), kirani shop (6.67%) and cow + buffalo rearing (4.17%) activities under the project. In Bellary district, over 38.57 per cent of the respondents had taken up cow rearing as their income generating activity, followed by sheep rearing (25.71%), buffalo rearing (12.86%) and kirani shop (7.14%) relatively less equal percentage (4.29%) of respondents had opted for cow + buffalo, buffalo + goat and goat + sheep rearing and only 2.86 per cent of respondents had taken up goat rearing. While in case of Bijapur district, over 32.00 per cent of the respondents had taken up buffalo rearing, followed by goat rearing (22.00%), goat + sheep rearing (12.00%), buffalo + goat rearing (10.00%) and cow rearing (8.00%) and kirani shop (6.00%), sheep rearing (6.00%). Only 4.00 per cent of respondents had opted for cow rearing.

4.1.3 Distribution of beneficiaries involved in various income generating activities with respect to their earlier livelihood practices
A cursory glance in to the Table 3 shows that, the respondents with agriculture as their earlier main livelihood source have choosed cow rearing (41.94%) as their income generating activity, followed by buffalo rearing (29.03%), cow + buffalo rearing (9.68%) and kirani shop (9.68%). Wage earning respondents had opted for sheep rearing (26.83%) as their income generating activity, followed by goat rearing (21.95%), cow and buffalo rearing (14.63%), buffalo + goat rearing (12.20%) and kirani shop (9.76%).

Table 1. Status of livelihood practices before intervention of the project (n=120) Categories Agriculture Wage earning Agriculture+ Wage earning Agriculture + livestock Wage earning+ livestock TOTAL Frequency 31 41 26 14 8 120 Percentage 25.83 34.17 21.67 11.66 6.67 100.00

Table 2. Income generating activities supported under KAWAD project (n=120) Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 income generating activities Cow rearing Buffalo rearing Cow+ Buffalo rearing Buffalo + Goat rearing Sheep rearing Goat rearing Goat+ Sheep rearing Kirani shop Total F : Frequency Bellary district F 27 9 3 3 18 2 3 5 70 % 38.57 12.86 4.29 4.29 25.71 2.86 4.29 7.14 100.00 Bijapur district F 4 16 2 5 3 11 6 3 50 % 8.00 32.00 4.00 10.00 6.00 22.00 12.00 6.00 100.00 F 31 25 5 8 21 13 9 8 120 Total % 25.83 20.83 4.17 6.67 17.50 10.83 7.50 6.67 100.00

35 30 Percentage 25 20 15 10 5 0
Agriculture Agriculture+ Wage earning Wage earning+ livestock

Categories
Fig 1.: Status of livelihood practices before intervention of the project

40 35 30
Percentage

Bellary district Bijapur district

25 20 15 10 5 0
Cow rearing Buffalo rearing Cow+ Buffalo rearing Buffalo + Goat rearing Sheep rearing Goat rearing Goat+ Sheep rearing Kirani shop

Categories
Fig.2. Income generating activities supported under KAWAD project

Respondents with both agriculture and wage earning as their earlier livelihood practice have chosen buffalo rearing (30.77%), followed by sheep rearing (26.92%), cow rearing (23.08%), goat + sheep rearing (11.54%). And less percentage buffalo + goat rearing (3.85%) and kirani shop (3.85%). Respondents with both agriculture and livestock as their earlier livelihood practice have opted cow and goat + sheep rearing (28.57% each), followed by sheep rearing (21.43%), cow + buffalo rearing (14.29%) and goat rearing (7.14%). Respondents with both wage earning and livestock as their earlier livelihood practice have undertaken goat rearing (37.80%), followed by cow rearing (25.00%), goat + sheep rearing (25.00%) and buffalo rearing (12.50%).

4.2 INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT GENERATION THROUGH INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES

A critical analysis of contents of Table 4 indicated that, the average annual income of beneficiaries was increased from Rs.13590 before to Rs.25697 after undertaking income generating activity. The average incremental income and employment generated was Rs.12107 and 119 mandays per annum, respectively. Among various income generating activities highest average differential annual income was generated in case of cow rearing (Rs.14686) with additional 136 mandays of employment, followed by cow + buffalo rearing (Rs.13566), with additional 135 mandays of employment and buffalo + goat rearing (Rs.12493) with additional 126 mandays of employment. Further, by kirani shop average differential annual income and employment generated was Rs.12107 and 134 mandays, respectively. Relatively low benefits were observed in case of goat + sheep rearing Rs.11751 average differential annual income and 103 mandays of employment, buffalo rearing Rs.11237 average differential annual income and 116 mandays of employment, sheep rearing Rs.10738 average differential annual income and 103 mandays of employment and goat rearing Rs.8771 average differential annual income and 98 mandays of employment generated annually.

4.3 IMPACT OF INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES ON LIVELIHOODS OF KAWAD PROJECT BENEFICIARIES

The impact of income generating activities on livelihoods of KAWAD project beneficiaries was analyzed by considering the criteria of capital creation which encompassed five components viz., human capital, physical capital, social capital, financial capital and food security. The impact of the livelihood status of beneficiaries before and after undertaking various income generating activities was documented. The data relating to the impact of income generating activities was presented under sub-heading as follows.

4.3.1 Impact on human capital

The Table 5 and Fig. 3 vividly explains that, the number of respondents with high human capital category was increased from 15.80 per cent before to 49.20 per cent after undertaking income generating activities and respondents with medium human capital category was increased from 31.70 per cent before to 38.32 per cent after undertaking income generating activities. While in case of respondents with low human capital category, there was decrease from 52.50 per cent before to 17.80 per cent after undertaking income generating activities. The t-value calculated was 16.58 which is significant at 1 per cent level (Table 11).

Table 3. Distribution of beneficiaries involved in various income generating activities with respect to their earlier livelihood practices (n=120) Earlier livelihood practices Income generating activities Agriculture F Cow rearing Buffalo rearing Cow+ Buffalo rearing Buffalo + Goat rearing Sheep rearing Goat rearing Goat+ Sheep rearing Kirani shop Total F : Frequency 13 9 3 2 1 3 31 9.68 100.00 % 41.94 29.03 9.68 6.45 3.23 Wage earning F 6 6 5 11 9 4 41 % 14.63 14.63 12.20 26.83 21.95 9.76 100.00 Agriculture+ Wage earning F 6 8 1 7 3 1 26 % 23.08 30.77 3.85 26.92 11.54 3.85 100.00 Agriculture + livestock F 4 1 2 3 1 4 14 % 28.57 7.14 14.29 21.43 7.14 28.57 100.00 Wage earning + livestock F 2 1 3 2 8 % 25.00 12.50 37.50 25.00 100.00 F 31 25 5 8 21 13 9 8 120 Total

% 25.83 20.83 4.17 6.67 17.5 10.83 7.5 6.67 100.00

Table 4. Income and employment generation through income generating activities (n=120) Income generating activities Average man days Befor e 128 After Additional man days/annu m Average annual income(Rs.) Before After Average differential annual income (Rs.) 14686

SI. No.

1 2

Cow rearing Buffalo rearing

264

136

15513

30199

122 3 Cow+ Buffalo rearing Buffalo + Goat rearing 107 5 6 Sheep rearing Goat rearing 102 7 Goat + Sheep rearing Kirani shop Average 108

238

116

12413

23650

11237

111

246

135

21142

34708

13566

233 211

126 103

18355 12853

30848 23643

12493 10790

200

98

10314

20085

9771

99 103 110

202 237 229

103 134 119

9432 8700 13590

21183 21260 25697

11751 12560 12107

Cow rearing

Buffalo rearing

Sheep rearing

Goat rearing

Kirani shop Plate 1: Different income generating activities undertaken by KAWAD project beneficiaries

4.3.2 Impact on physical capital

It can be seen from the Table 6 and Fig. 4 that, the respondents with high physical capital category was increased from 13.33 per cent before to 46.67 per cent after taking up income generating activities and in case of respondents with medium physical capital category was increased from 38.33 per cent to 44.17 per cent. There was decrease in percentage of low physical capital category respondents from 48.33 per cent before to 9.17 per cent after undertaking income generating activities. The t-value calculated was 12.45which is significant at 1 per cent level (Table 11).

4.3.3 Impact on social capital

It is observed from the Table 7 and Fig. 5 that, respondents with high social capital category was increased from 22.80 per cent to 56.67 per cent after undertaking income generating activities. Subsequently medium and low social capital category respondents decreased from 40.00 per cent and 37.50 per cent before to 36.67 per cent and 6.67 per cent after taking income generating activities, respectively. The t-value calculated was 13.58 which is significant at 1 per cent level (Table 11).

4.3.4 Impact on financial capital

A cursory look at the Table 8 and Fig. 6 showed that, the respondents of high financial capital category was increased from 6.67 per cent before to 59.17 per cent after involving in income generating activities and respondents under medium financial asset category increased from 27.50 per cent before to 29.17 per cent after involving in income generating activities. And in case of respondents with low financial capital category decreased from 65.83 per cent before to 11.67 per cent after involving in Income generating activities. The t-value calculated was 15.71 and it was significant at 1 per cent level (Table 11).

4.3.5 Impact on food security

The data projected in Table 9 and Fig. 7 indicated that, respondents with high food security category was increased from 55.00 per cent before to 90.83 per cent after taking income generating activities and respondents with medium food security category was decreased from 29.17 per cent to 9.17 per cent after involving in income generating activities. After taking income generating activities, none of the respondents belonged to low food security category. The t-value calculated was 7.77 and it was significant at 1 per cent level (Table 11).

4.3.6 Impact of income generating activities on overall livelihood status

It can be observed from the Table 10 and Fig.8 that, the percentage of respondents under high overall livelihood status category was increased from 22.67 per cent before to 60.50 per cent after undertaking income generating activities. Subsequently there was a decrease in the percentage of respondents in both medium and low overall livelihood status category from 83.33 per cent before to 31.50 per cent after and 44.00 per cent before to 8.00 per cent before, respectively. The t-value calculated was 6.13 and it was significant at 1 per cent level (Table 11). It is clear from the data that, the overall impact of income generating activities on livelihood status of the beneficiaries was positive.

4.4 PERSONAL, SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BENEFICIARIES

The personal, socio-economical and psychological characteristics of sample respondents are presented below.

Table 5. Change in human capital due to income generating activities (n=120) Sl. No. 1 2 3 Category Low Medium High Mean SD 63 38 19 15.88 3.21 Before Frequency Per cent 52.50 31.70 15.80 After Frequency 15 46 59 21.23 4.70 Per cent 12.50 38.30 49.20

Table 6. Change in physical capital due to income generating activities (n=120) Sl. No. 1 2 3 Category Low Medium High Mean SD 58 46 16 4.65 0.92 Before Frequency Per cent 48.33 38.33 13.33 After Frequency 11 53 56 7.12 2.13 Per cent 9.17 44.17 46.67

Table 7. Change in social capital due to income generating activities (n=120) Sl. No. 1 2 3 Category Before Frequency Low Medium High Mean SD 45 48 27 12.23 3.28 Per cent 37.50 40.00 22.50 After Frequency 8 44 68 25.53 2.95 Per cent 6.67 36.67 56.67

Before
60 50 Percentage 40 30 20 10 0 Low Medium Categories High

After

Fig.3. Change in human capital due to income generating activities

Before
50 Percentage 40 30 20 10 0 Low Medium Categories High

After

Fig.4. Change in physical capital due to income generating activities

Before
60 50 Percentage 40 30 20 10 0 Low Medium Categories High

After

Fig.5. Change in social capital due to income generating activities

Table 8. Change in financial capital due to income generating activities

(n=120)
Sl. No. Category Before Frequency Per cent After Frequency Per cent

1 2 3

Low Medium High Mean SD

79 33 8 4.60 1.37

65.83 27.50 6.67

14 35 71 7.33 1.88

11.67 29.17 59.17

Table 9. Change in food security due to income generating activities

(n=120)
Sl. No. Category Before Frequency Per cent After Frequency Per cent

1 2 3

Low Medium High Mean SD

19 35 66 7.72 1.74

15.83 29.17 55.00

0 11 109 10.90 1.05

0.00 9.17 90.83

Table 10. Change in overall livelihood status due to income generating activities (n=120) Sl. No. Category Before Frequency Per cent After Frequency Per cent

1 2 3

Low Medium High Mean SD

53 40 27 47.08 5.33

44.00 33.33 22.67

10 38 73 72.11 8.45

8.00 31.50 60.50

Before
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Low Medium Categories High

After

Fig.6. Change in financial capital due to income generating activities

Percentage

Before
100 Percentage 80 60 40 20 0 Low Medium Categories High

After

Fig.7. Change in food security due to income generating activities

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Low Medium Categories

Before

After

Percentage

High

Fig.8. Change in overall livelihood status due to income generating activities

Table 11: Impact of income generating activities on capital acquisition in respondents

(n=120)
Index (%) Capitals Before After t value

Human Capital Physical Capital Social Capital Financial Capital Food Security Overall *- Significant at 5% ** - Significant at 1% NS-Non significant

52.76 41.57 46.15 41.07 74.82 51.27

87.94 70.00 76.52 71.91 88.06 78.89

16.58** 12.45** 13.58** 15.71** 7.77** 6.13**

Table 12: Distribution of respondents according to their age

(n=120)
Age (years) Frequency Percentage

Young (<18-30) Middle (31-50) Old (>50) Total

41 67 12 120

34.17 55.83 10.00 100.00

4.4.1 Age
The data projected in Table 12 and Fig. 9 indicated that, majority (55.83%) of the respondents belonged to middle age group, followed by 34.17 per cent and 10.00 per cent of respondents belonged to young age and old age categories, respectively.

4.4.2 Education
It is revealed from the Table 13 and Fig.10 that, 35.00 per cent of the respondents were educated up to primary school and 24.17 per cent were illiterate. While 23.33 per cent of them were educated up to middle school level and 8.33 per cent were educated up to high school. Whereas, 7.50 per cent were with PUC education and negligible (1.67%) were educated up to degree level.

4.4.3 Land holding

It was witnessed from Table 14 and Fig.11 that, 40.83 per cent of beneficiaries were landless, followed by 19.17 per cent were small farmers and 18.33 per cent belonged to marginal land holding category. Whereas, 13.33 per cent and 8.33 per cent of beneficiaries had semi medium and medium land holding, respectively.

4.4.4 Annual income

It could be observed from the Table 15 and Fig.12 that, 49.17 per cent of the beneficiaries had semi-medium level of annual income (Rs.17,000-34,000), followed by 20.00 per cent and 15.83 per cent of beneficiaries had low level of annual income (up to Rs.17,000/) and high level of income (above Rs.51,000/-), respectively, remaining 15.00 per cent of beneficiaries had medium level of income (Rs.34,000-51,000).

4.4.5 Family size

It is clear from the Table 16 and Fig.13 that, majority (60.83%) of the beneficiaries belonged to small family (5 and below members) and remaining 39.17 per cent belonged to large family (above 5 members).

4.4.6 Urban contact

It could be observed from the Table 17 and Fig.14 that, nearly half of the beneficiaries (49.17%) had low urban contact, followed by 38.33 per cent and 12.50 per cent of beneficiaries had medium and high urban contact, respectively.

4.4.7 Source of information

The data recorded in Table 18 showed that, among informal information sources, family members, friends/relatives and other entrepreneur were the frequently consulted sources of information for 85.00 per cent, 70.00 per cent and 64.17 per cent of the beneficiaries, respectively. Whereas, the same information sources were occasionally consulted by 15.00 per cent, 25.83 per cent and 21.33 per cent of the respondents. Only 4.17 per cent and 7.50 per cent of the respondents never consulted friends and neighbours as information sources, respectively. Neighbours were occasional source of information for 57.50 per cent of the respondents, while 26.17 per cent and 15.83 per cent of them were frequently and never consulted the same source. Among formal sources 60.83 per cent and 40.83 per cent and 38.33 per cent of the respondents were used to get information occasionally from NGO officials, village panchayat and bank officials, respectively, followed by 31.67 per cent, 56.67 per cent and 48.33 per cent of them were never consulted same information sources. Among mass media information sources 25.83 per cent, 35.00 per cent and 46.67 per cent newspaper, radio and TV occasionally as information sources, respectively, followed by 12.50 per cent, 23.33 per cent and 35.83 per cent of them were frequently used the same sources for information.

Table 13. Distribution of respondents according to their education

(n=120)
Education Frequency Percentage

Illiterate Primary Middle school High school PUC Degree Total

29 42 28 10 9 2 120

24.17 35.00 23.33 8.33 7.50 1.67 100.00

Table 14. Distribution of respondents according to their land holding

(n=120)
Category Frequency Percentage

No land (Land less farmers) Less than 2.5 acres (Marginal farmers) 2.6 to 5 acres (Small farmers) 5.1 to 10 acres (Semi medium farmers) 10.1 to 25 acres (Medium farmers) Total

49 22 23 16 10 120

40.83 18.33 19.17 13.33 8.33 100.00

Table 15. Distribution of respondents according to their annual income

(n=120)
Annual Income Frequency Percentage

Low income (up to Rs.17,000) Semi-medium income (Rs.17,001-34,000) Medium income (Rs.34,001-51,000) High income (above 51,000) Total

24 59 18 19 120

20.00 49.17 15.00 15.83 100.00

10 34.17

Young (<18-30) Middle (31-50) Old (>50)

55.83

Fig.9. Distribution of respondents according to their age

Illiterate
7.5 8.33 1.67

Primary
24.17

Middle school High school PUC Degree

9 23.33 35

Fig.10. Distribution of respondents according to their education

No land (Land less farmers) 2.6 to 5 acres (Small farmers) 10.1 to 25 acres (Medium farmers) 8.33 13.33

Less than 2.5 acres (Marginal farmers) 5.1 to 10 acres (Semi medium farmers)

40.83

19.17 18.33
Fig.11. Distribution of respondents according to their land holding

Table 16. Distribution of respondents according to their family size

(n=120)
Family size Frequency Percentage

Small size (Below 5) Big size (5 and above) Total

73 47 120

60.83 39.17 100.00

Table 17. Distribution of respondents according to their urban contact

(n=120)
Urban contact Frequency Percentage

Low (Mean 0.425 SD) Medium (Mean 0.425 SD) High (Mean + 0.425 SD)

59 46 15

49.17 38.33 12.50

15.83 15

20

Low income (up to Rs.17,000) Semi-medium income (Rs.17,001-34,000) Medium income (Rs.34,001-51,000)

49.17

High income (above 51,000)

Fig.12. Distribution of respondents according to their annual income

Small size (Below 5)

39.17

Big size (5 and above)

60.83

Fig.13. Distribution of respondents according to their family size

Low (Mean 0.425 SD) Medium (Mean 0.425 SD) 12.5 High (Mean + 0.425 SD) 49.17

38.33

Fig.14. Distribution of respondents according to their urban contact

Table 18. Distribution of respondents according to their source of information

(n=120)
Sl. No. Sources Frequently F % Occasionally F % F Never %

1. Informal sources a. b. c. d. Family Members Friends/Relatives Neighbours Other entrepreneurs 102 84 19 77 85.00 70.00 15.83 64.17 18 31 69 34 15.00 25.83 57.50 28.33 0 5 32 9 0.00 4.17 26.67 7.50

2. Formal Sources a. b. c. d. Bank officials Agrl. /Hort. Dept. staff NGO officials Village Panchayat 16 2 9 3 13.33 1.67 7.50 2.50 46 13 73 16 38.33 10.83 60.83 13.33 58 105 38 101 48.33 87.50 31.67 84.17

3. Mass media a. b. c. News paper Radio Television 15 28 43 12.50 23.33 35.83 31 42 56 25.83 35.00 46.67 74 50 21 61.67 41.67 17.50

F : Frequency

Table 19. Distribution of respondents according to their Economic motivation

(n=120)
Economic motivation Frequency Percentage

Low (Mean 0.425 SD) Medium (Mean 0.425 SD) High (Mean + 0.425 SD) Mean: 8.58 SD: 1.42

33 48 39

27.50 40.00 32.50

Table 20. Distribution of respondents according to their Achievement motivation

(n=120)
Achievement motivation Frequency Percentage

Low (Mean 0.425 SD) Medium (Mean 0.425 SD) High (Mean + 0.425 SD) Mean: 8.85 SD: 1.11

32 46 42

26.67 38.33 35.00

Table 21. Distribution of respondents according to their Risk bearing ability

(n=120)
Risk bearing ability Frequency Percentage

Low (Mean 0.425 SD) Medium (Mean 0.425 SD) High (Mean + 0.425 SD) Mean: 8.68 SD: 1.7

21 65 34

17.50 54.17 28.33

32.5

27.5

Low (Mean 0.425 SD) Medium (Mean 0.425 SD) High (Mean + 0.425 SD)

40

Fig.15. Distribution of respondents according to their economic motivation

Low (Mean 0.425 SD)

26.67 35

Medium (Mean 0.425 SD) High (Mean + 0.425 SD)

38.33

Fig.16. Distribution of respondents according to their achievement motivation

Low (Mean 0.425 SD) Medium (Mean 0.425 SD) 28.33 17.5 High (Mean + 0.425 SD)

54.17

Fig.17. Distribution of respondents according to their risk bearing ability

4.4.8 Economic motivation

The results in Table 19 and Fig.15 indicated that, 40.00 per cent of the respondents had medium achievement motivation, whereas 32.50 per cent and 27.50 per cent of them had high and low level of economic motivation, respectively.

4.4.9 Achievement motivation

Table 20 and Fig.16 indicates that, 38.33 per cent of the respondents had medium achievement motivation, whereas 35.00 per cent and 26.67 per cent of them had high and low level of achievement motivation.

4.4.10 Risk bearing ability

Risk bearing ability of the respondents indicated in the Table 21 and Fig.17 Majority (54.17%) of the respondents had medium risk bearing ability, whereas 28.33 per cent and 17.50 per cent of the respondents had high and low level of risk bearing ability, respectively.

4.5 RELATIONSHIP OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES WITH CAPITAL IMPROVEMENT IN BENEFICIARIES

The data in Table 22 represents the relationship of independent variables with capital creation in KAWAD beneficiaries involved in various income generating activities. It is observed from the table that, there was non-significant relationship between independent variables and overall asset improvements among beneficiaries. As indicated by correlation coefficient values, annual income has shown significant relationship at 5 per cent level of probability with human capital, whereas source of information of the respondents had significant relationship at 5 per cent level of probability with social capital and human capital. Economic motivation of respondents was shown significant relationship at 5 per cent level of probability with financial capital. Further, other variables such as age, education, land holding, family size, urban contact and risk bearing ability had not shown significant relationship with acquisition of any of the assets studied.

4.6 PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTIONS OF BENEFICIARIES IN SUSTAINING RURAL LIVELIHOODS

4.6.1 Problems associated with sustaining rural livelihoods
The major problems of the respondents are presented in Table 23. Majority (84.17%) of respondents expressed that, lack of veterinary facilities in the village, followed by difficult bank loan procedure (81.67%), lack of transportation facilities (80.00%) and lack of remunerative prices for farm produce and high price fluctuation(69.17%). About 54.17 per cent of respondents expressed that, improper supply of electricity to villages, followed by lack of hospital facilities in the village (45.83%), susceptibility of animals to diseases (39.17%), lack of trainings on skilled work performance (39.17%) and problem in marketing milk (37.50%).

4.6.2 Suggestions of beneficiaries for sustaining rural livelihoods

The information presented in Table 24 indicated the suggestions given by beneficiaries for improving their livelihoods. It was revealed from the table that, majority (82.50%) of the beneficiaries suggested to provide veterinary hospital facilities in the village, followed by 77.50 per cent of the beneficiaries suggested to simplify the bank loan procedures and 71.67 per cent of the respondents suggested to supply sufficient electricity to villages. Further, 65.83 per cent of respondents suggested that, there should be more encouragement from the government to undertake livelihood development projects in rural areas, followed by 55.83 per cent of the respondents suggested to improve the transportation facilities to the villages and 54.17 per cent of respondents suggested to construct schools for their children and hospital in the study area.

Table 22. Relationship of independent variables with various dimensions of capital improvement

(n=120)
Independent variables Human capital Physical capital Social capital Financial capital Food security Overall

Age Education Land holding Annual income Family size Source of information Urban contact Achievement motivation Economic motivation Risk bearing ability

0.124 NS 0.100 0.096

NS

0.117 NS -0.137 -0.049

NS

0.014 NS 0.034 0.001

NS

0.027 NS 0.014 0.034

NS

-0.006 NS -0.041 -0.008

NS

-0.097 NS -0.122 -0.036

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

0.162* 0.093
NS

-0.058 NS -0.086
NS

-0.004 NS 0.032
NS

0.003 NS 0.035
NS

0.023 NS 0.040
NS

-0.041 NS -0.057
NS

0.157* -0.051
NS

-0.039 NS 0.049
NS

0.153* -0.140
NS

0.134 NS -0.029
NS

0.042 NS -0.122
NS

0.042 NS -0.031
NS

-0.085 NS
NS

0.132 NS
NS

0.057 NS
NS

0.011 NS

0.037 NS
NS

0.074 NS
NS

-0.005

0.004

0.003

0.155*
NS

-0.122

-0.064

-0.012

NS

0.087

NS

-0.049

NS

0.003

-0.030

NS

-0.018

NS

*- Significant at 5% ** - Significant at 1% NS-Non significant

Table 23. Problems associated with sustaining rural livelihoods

(n=120)
Sl. No. Problems Frequency Percentage

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Lack of veterinary facilities in the village Difficult bank loan procedure Lack of transportation facilities Lack of remunerative prices for farm produce and high price fluctuation Improper supply of electricity Lack of hospital facilities Susceptibility of animals to diseases Lack of trainings on skilled work performance Problem of marketing milk

101 98 96

84.17 81.67 80.00

83 65 55 47 47 45

69.17 54.17 45.83 39.17 39.17 37.50

Multiple responses obtained

Table 24. Suggestions of respondents for sustaining rural livelihoods

(n=120)
Sl. No. Suggestions Frequency Percentage

Veterinary facilities should be provided in the village

99

82.50

Procedure for loan should be simplified

93

77.50

Sufficient supply of electricity

86

71.67

More encouragement from the government to undertake livelihood development projects in rural areas

79

65.83

Transportation facility should be improved

67

55.83

Construction of schools and hospitals

65

54.17

Multiple responses obtained

5. DISCUSSION
The discussion of the findings of the present study is presented in this chapter under the following headings. 5.1 Distribution of livelihood status of respondents 5.2 Income and employment generation through income generating activities 5.3 Impact of income generating activities on livelihoods of beneficiaries 5.4 Personal, socio-economic and psychological characteristics of beneficiaries 5.5 Relationship of independent variables with various capital acquisitions by the beneficiaries, and 5.6 Problems and suggestions of beneficiaries in sustaining rural livelihoods

5.1 DISTRIBUTION OF KAWAD PROJECT BENEFICIARIES

5.1.1 Status of livelihood practices before intervention of the project
It could be seen from Table 1 that, 34.17 per cent of the respondents were dependent on wage earning for their livelihood prior to the project, followed by agriculture (25.85%), both agriculture and wage earning (21.67%) and agriculture along with livestock (11.67%). As indicated in Table 14 majority of beneficiaries of the programme were mostly landless, marginal farmers and they were economically weak. Hence, wage employment was the main source of their livelihood. In some cases, where farmers owned small piece of land, followed both agriculture and wage earning. Because of the constraints like failure and erratic rain, high cost of inputs, labour problem etc., some respondents had taken subsidiary occupations like livestock for their livelihood.

5.1.2 Income generating activities supported under KAWAD project

The results in Table 2 revealed that, 25.83 per cent of the respondents had preferred cow rearing as their income generating activity, followed by buffalo rearing (20.83%), sheep rearing (17.50%) and goat rearing (10.83%). In Bellary district over 31.57 per cent of the respondents had taken up cow rearing as their income generating activity, followed by sheep rearing (25.71%). While in case of Bijapur district, over 32.00 per cent of the respondents had taken up buffalo rearing, followed by goat rearing (22.00%). Cow or buffalo rearing is traditionally practiced in the villages and it is convenient for them. As a result, majority of members opted for dairy with cows. The study area is also having more irrigated land by which they could get sufficient fodder all round the year. Majority of cow rearing beneficiaries were found in villages like Hulikeri, Hosur and Alur. In these villages the SHG members have also established co-operative milk collection centres. These reasons might have contributed to rear cows by more number of beneficiaries in Bellary district. Most of the landless beneficiaries had undertaken goat and sheep rearing due to establishment of more number of water points and check dams in the study area under KAWAD project activities.

5.1.3 Distribution of beneficiaries involved in various income generating activities with respect to their earlier livelihood practices
About 41.94 per cent of respondents who possessed land, have undertaken cow rearing, followed by buffalo rearing (24.13%). Among the respondents who did not possess land, 26.83 per cent of respondents have undertaken sheep rearing, followed by goat rearing (21.95%). The respondents who were wage earners along with farming have undertaken buffalo rearing (30.77%), followed by sheep rearing (26.92%). The respondents who were

practicing farming along with livestock have undertaken equal percentage of cow and goat + sheep rearing (28.51% each). Almost of the respondents who were wage earners along with livestock have undertaken goat rearing (37.50%), followed by goat + sheep rearing (25.00%). It clearly indicates from the observation that, those who possessed land went for cow rearing, buffalo rearing and cow + buffalo rearing and those who did not possess any land, resorted to sheep rearing, goat rearing, sheep + goat rearing, buffalo + goat rearing and kirani shop. It implies that, KAWAD project had encouraged the appropriate income generating activities based on their resources and their interest, ability to manage and also motivation level.

5.2 INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT GENERATION THROUGH INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES

The findings revealed that, on an average income and employment generated due to various income generating activities in the study area was Rs.12,107 and 119 mandays per annum, respectively. Among all income generating activities highest annual incremental income was generated by cow rearing because beneficiaries were rearing high yielding cross breed cows and also had cooperative milk collection centres at villages through which they could able to get good prices for milk produced. Thus, compare to beneficiaries who have undertaken other income generating activities, cow rearing beneficiaries were getting high annual incremental income. These reasons might have contributed to generate more income by cow rearing beneficiaries. Further other income generating activities such as buffalo rearing, sheep rearing, goat rearing and kirani shop have also generated considerably higher income when compared to income earned by their earlier livelihood practices. This incremental income could have contributed to creation of different assets such as human asset, physical asset, financial asset and ultimately to food security.

5.3 IMPACT OF INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES ON LIVELIHOODS OF BENEFICIARIES

The findings of the study with respect to impact of income generating activities presented in Table 10 indicated that, the overall livelihood status was high after undertaking income generating activities by most of the beneficiaries which is reflected by improvement in human capital, physical capital, social capital, financial capital and food security. The income earned by the members of the family was not sufficient for two square meals before undertaking the income generating activities. However, after undertaking Income generating activities they could earn more and utilize the increased income for other purposes. The findings implied that, overall livelihood development interventions of KAWAD project had produced positive results which indicating significant different int values. It had also established field reality that, beneficiaries had realized higher benefits of income generating activities. The results are in line with the study conducted by Dolli (2006), which revealed the impact of NRM was positive and significant on livelihood of participating families in two watershed projects studied. The significant impact was also seen with respect to human, physical, natural, social, financial capitals and also food security of the participating farmers both in case of SHG and non-SHG members. The acquisition of various capitals by the sample respondents is discussed below. Human capital

This includes education and employment opportunities to the family members. Due to intensive KAWAD project livelihood development programmes, there was enough employment and income generation was seen. Further, it was observed that, all beneficiaries were the members of SHGs promoted under KAWAD project, so most of the members were not facing problem in borrowing money for providing education to their children. Being a member of SHG, beneficiaries had participated in various developmental activities and also improved their skills through trainings organized during the project. The present study reveals that, on an average 119 man days of additional employment was generated due to various IGAs; here increased employment means increased income which enabled the respondents to send their children to school both within the village and outside. The importance of imparting education to their children was made clear through trainings and other informal meetings conducted by KAWAD project staff, which might have motivated beneficiaries to educate their children. As earlier said being a SHG member beneficiaries had higher benefits as their financial problems were solved and also got support of fellow members. Reddy (2001) found that, improvement in household income and employment are statistically significant in all the sample villages with the total livelihood capitals (financial capital), while fuel wood and water availability was not found significant in all villages except Mallapuram, human capital indicators have improved significantly whereas, social capital has not changed significantly due to watershed intervention. De Hann (2002) observed that, human capital interms of education, skills, knowledge and health determines access to economic opportunities. Physical capital There was significant improvement in physical capital. It includes improvements in farm energy in the form of number of bullocks and tractor or other farm machineries, construction or renovation of dwelling house and improvement in entertainment materials such as radio, TV etc. It was observed that, farm energy in the form of number of bullocks was improved, whereas no beneficiaries purchased tractor or other farm machineries. The probable reason might be majority of them were landless, less land holding and semi-medium income group beneficiaries. On the other hand renovation of the house and construction of the house were undertaken with the assistance of KAWAD project. Most of the beneficiaries had purchased radio and TV as entertainment materials which also added to improvement of physical capital. The probable reason for overall improvement in physical capital might be due to increase in income level of beneficiaries by various income generating activities. Social capital This includes social interaction, respect at home and outside and also leadership opportunities. There was significantly improvement in the social capital of beneficiaries. One of the key interventions contributed was development of social infrastructure through formation of self-help groups and village level federations. Due to membership in self help groups and village level federations the interaction among the members improved, it was also due to exposure trainings conducted by KAWAD project. These self-help groups not only empowered them economically through various IGAs but also improved their social interaction, respect at house and outside and also leadership opportunities. Hence, the improvement in the social capital acquisition was more visible irrespective of their different livelihood activities. Sherin (1999) found that, 82.69 per cent of the functional SHG respondents had expressed empowerment in terms of authority in planning, decision making, implementation and evaluation of the SHGs programmes, while only 55.17 per cent of the respondents of the non-functional SHGs claimed that had been empowered, which support the findings of the study.

Financial capital Financial capital acquisition was found significantly increased among beneficiaries who followed various income generating activities, financial capital was more increased compared to other capitals of the beneficiaries, the probable reasons might be due to more savings, because money was borrowed from SHGs at low interest rate for investing in income generating activities. So, this helped them to save more money and to a great extent driven away the village money lenders and rich man. Some of the major benefits realized by the beneficiaries were saving habit, easy access to loan, loan at low interest rate, bank contacts etc., which are related to financial capital. In addition to their savings, they have got bank loan, which further strengthened their financial capital position resulting in improved financial status. ETC, India (2004) in its report indicated that, income generation programme launched through SHGs in all the watersheds have been able to make good impact on the income levels of the landless and the marginal farmers. Training in entrepreneurial activities has been able to increase the income level and bring out the entrepreneurial abilities of women. This is true in case of those women beneficiaries who owned kirani shops and hotel. Food security Food security refers to the availability of the sufficient food for family consumption either self produced or purchased. It means sufficient production of food grains or improved purchasing power. Increased purchasing power depends upon the employment opportunities and increased income, where there was significant increase in the employment opportunities and income sources, the financial status and the food security ought to improve. Increased food security was attributed to intensive use of land for food grains, fruits, fodder and fuel wood production, which was achieved through various land based activities of KAWAD project in the study area. Further, it was clearly observed that, most of the beneficiaries undertook livestock practices as their income generating activities. This had contributed significantly towards food security as most of these animals are reared to raise capital or meet contingent expenditures and self consumption. On the other hand increased number of buffalo and cow especially among landless and low land holding beneficiaries, they can assure good milk supply in the absence of market for milk.

5.4 PERSONAL, SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BENEFICIARIES

5.4.1 Age
Majority (55.84%) of the KAWAD project beneficiaries involved in income generating activities belonged to middle age group, followed by young age (34.17%) and old age (10.00%), respectively. It can be inferred from the above results that, most of the middle age and young age group people are the key generators of income which occupy the main work force in different occupation. The findings were in conformity with the results of Murthy (2000), Samuel (2000), Geetha (2002), Sarah (2004) and Bevenahalli (2005).

5.4.2 Education
The findings indicated that, considerable pr cent of the beneficiaries (35.00%) were educated up to primary school, followed by illiterates (24.17%) and middle school (23.33%) level of education. This situation might have arised due to low financial position of the beneficiaries and non-realization of importance of education. However, few beneficiaries had education upto high school, PUC and degree level. The findings are in line with the research results of Ingle and Kubde (1991); Bharati (2005).

5.4.3 Land holding

The data presented in Table 14 indicated that, 40.83 per cent of them were landless respondents, followed by 19.17 per cent and 18.33 per cent belong to small and marginal land holding category, respectively. Whereas, 13.33 per cent and 8.33 per cent of the respondents belong to semi-medium and medium land holding category, respectively. The livelihood development programmes of KAWAD project specifies that, the beneficiaries of the programme should be poor and down trodden. The present findings confirms to this norm. The finding is in line with the research results of Rangi et al. (2002) and Devalatha (2005).

5.4.4 Annual income

Nearly half (49.17%) of the beneficiaries were belonged to semi-medium level of annual income group, followed by low and high level of income group. This was due to their better socio-economic conditions after taking income generating activities. The above findings got support from the studies conducted by Deepak (2003) and Savita (2004).

5.4.5 Family size

The data presented in Table 16 indicated that, majority (60.85%) of beneficiaries belonged to small family and remaining (39.17%) belonged to large family size. The possible reason for finding small size families would be that, acceptance of small family norms by family to lead considered life with limited earnings and another reason might be due to awareness among beneficiaries about problem of large family size. The results are in conformity with Joseph and Easwaran (2006).

5.4.6 Source of information

Family members, friends/relatives and other entrepreneur were the frequently consulted and neighbours were occasionally consulted source of information. In families, every member share their views for betterment of the family activities. Good relation with the relatives and also with the friends was the reason to consult them frequently. To seek technical information other entrepreneurs are next best important source of information so they might have consulted other entrepreneurs frequently for seeking technical information. Among formal sources, NGO officials and Bank Officers were consulted occasionally for the source of information, which shows the good relationship between NGO officials and respondents. Majority of the respondents had no land so they have rarely consulted the formal sources and agri/horticulture department officials. Mass media sources such as television, radio and newspaper occasionally used as source of information by majority of the respondents, followed by news paper and radio were never used as source of information by most of the respondents. The findings of the study are in conformity with the findings of Tripathi (2001), Sonaware et al. (2001) and Jayalatha (2003).

5.4.7 Urban contact

The contents of the Table 17 clearly shows that, nearly half (49.17%) of the beneficiaries had low urban contact, followed by medium and high urban contact.

This trend might be due to villages interior to urban areas and less transportation facilities for the purchase of inputs and other tools. Another reason might be due to majority of the respondents were wage earners their poor financial condition might have stopped them to expose more to urban areas.

5.4.8 Achievement motivation

The contents presented in Table 20 indicates that, 38.33 per cent of the beneficiaries had medium achievement motivation, whereas 35.00 per cent and 26.67 per cent of them had high and low level of achievement motivation, respectively. Achievement motivation forces the individual towards reaching goals, which they set for themselves. The reason for above result was progress of majority of beneficiaries in their income generating activities might have motivated them to achieve more in their life. The above findings are in conformity with the results reported by Chatterjee (2000) and Ravichandra Prasad (2002).

5.4.9 Economic motivation

The results in Table 19 indicated that, 40.00 per cent of respondents had medium economic motivation, followed by 32.50 per cent and 27.50 per cent of them had high and low economic motivation, respectively. Medium and high economic motivation might be due to high returns from their income generating activities along with their earlier livelihood practice. Also, trainings provided during KAWAD project might have motivated them to earn more by subsidiary occupations to sustain their life. The above result gained support from Reddy (1997) and Reddy Prasad (2003).

5.4.10 Risk bearing ability

Majority of the beneficiaries (54.17%) had medium risk bearing ability, while 26.33 per cent and 17.50 per cent of them had high and low risk bearing ability, respectively. High risk bearing ability was due to better economic condition and high social participation. Proper training and encourage from the KAWAD project have contributed considerably in this regard. The above findings are in agreement with the findings of the studies conducted by Vijaykumar (2001) and Bhagyalaxmi et al. (2003).

5.5 RELATIONSHIP OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES WITH CAPITAL IMPROVEMENT IN BENEFICIARIES

The findings related to the relationship of independent variables with capital creation among beneficiaries is presented in Table 22 which revealed that, there was no significant relationship observed between independent variables and overall improvement in livelihoods of the beneficiaries. Further, it is revealed that, annual income of the beneficiaries had significant relationship with the improvement in human capital. Whereas, economic motivation of beneficiaries had significant relationship with improvement in financial capital. Source of information of beneficiaries had significant relationship with improvement in social capital and human capital. There was no significant relationship with other independent variables such as age, education, family size, urban contact, land holding and risk bearing ability level with any of the dimensions of capital improvement in beneficiaries. Annual income and human capital Annual income of beneficiaries was increased due to income generating activities which enabled them to send their children to school both within the village and outside. It was also identified in the study that, increase in annual income not only improved education level, but also beneficiaries were enabled to get nutritious food and consulting doctors in district

head quarters for major ailments. Hence, annual income has positively correlated with the improvement in human capital of the beneficiaries. Economic motivation and financial capital Economic motivation refers to the value or attitude for which an individual attached greater importance to profit maximization, whereas financial capital includes available stock such as cash, bank deposits or liquid assets such as livestock and gold, when individual having high economic motivation he tries to earn more and goes for savings, he may also purchase liquid assets like gold, livestock etc. Hence, there is positive correlation between economic motivation and financial capital. Source of information and human capital Human capital represents the skill, knowledge, capacity to work and good health that together enable people to pursue different livelihood strategies and achieve their livelihood outcomes. When information seeking sources such as friends/relatives, other entrepreneurs, bank officials, mass media, etc., increases the individuals knowledge, skill and working ability (human capital) would also increases by getting aware of new happenings and opportunities in the society. Hence there is positive correlation between source of information and human capital. Source of information and social capital Social capital represents social relationships, networks, associational and institutional linkages. As individuals information seeking sources increases, the social networks and affiliations with such sources will also increases, it was also identified in the study that, majority of the beneficiaries used to get information frequently from family members, friends/relatives and other entrepreneurs, and occasionally from formal sources such as NGO officials, village panchayat and bank officials. This might be due to well established good relations with informal sources and affiliation towards formal sources. Hence, source of information is positively significant with social capital.

5.6 PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTIONS OF BENEFICIARIES IN SUSTAINING RURAL LIVELIHOODS

5.6.1 Problems associated with sustaining rural livelihoods
The data presented in Table 23 reveals the problems faced by beneficiaries in sustaining rural livelihood. Majority of the respondents (84.17%) expressed that, lack of veterinary facilities in the village, because more susceptibility of sheep and goats to disease and pests it may cause to lose their animals frequently. Lack of transportation facilities, because villages are interior to main roads and cities, and frequent power cut offs are major problems in most of the villages. Majority (81.67%) of the respondents expressed that, there is difficult to get loan from the banks because lengthy procedure to avail loan, Almost seventy per cent respondents who involved in farming expressed that, lack of remunerative prices for farm produce and high price fluctuation. Those who have undertaken dairy activity, especially villages which comes under Bijapur district expressed that, there is problem in marketing the milk, so they are getting low prices for milk produced. About 45.83 per cent of the respondents expressed that, lack of hospital facility in the study area because majority of them were need to go for cities even for minor ailments, so they need adequate government hospital facilities. They also expressed that, lack of training on skilled work performance, because in case of cross breed cow rearing and buffalo rearing, skill is required interms of identifying diseases, preparation of concentrate feeds etc.

5.6.2 Suggestions of respondents for sustaining rural livelihoods

Majority of the respondents (82.50%) have strongly suggested that, to create veterinary facilities in the study area because majority of the beneficiaries have undertaken cow, buffalo, sheep and goat rearing activities in which sheep and goats are more susceptible to pest and diseases so, they need regular vaccination and other treatments. Almost seventy-eight per cent of the respondents suggested to simplify the lean procedure, because of difficult loan procedure most of the beneficiaries had no contact or occasional contacts with bank officials and there is also need to reduce the interest rate on bank loans. Nearly seventy-two per cent of the respondents suggested that, there should be sufficient supply of electricity to villages; respondents who were having irrigated land strongly felt that, sufficient electricity should be provided to improve the livelihoods of the farmer. Almost sixty-six per cent of the respondents have suggested that, there should be more encouragement from the government to undertake such livelihood development projects, even though KAWAD project has brought smile in the faces of several rural poor, still there are lot of developments should be taken place in terms of creating infrastructure facilities such as roads, hospital, schools etc. About fifty-six per cent of beneficiaries suggested for creation of good transportation facilities to those villages which are interior to main roads and cities, and constructing schools and hospitals in the study area to improve the human capital.

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

'India lives in its villages' - this axiom is as true today as it was when the country became independent 60 years ago. Over 67 per cent of the population lives in rural areas. Agriculture and related activities in rural India contribute to 20 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and is responsible for the employment of over 60 per cent of the workforce. Hence, when one talks of socio-economic progress in India, what is mostly relevant is how the lives of the rural people have changed. Many projects have undertaken livelihood development programmes for rural people however, there are hardly empirical evidences on the impact of programmes on capital improvement. DFID assisted KAWAD was one such project has undertaken livelihood development programmes in North Karnataka. Hence, the present study was conducted with following specific objectives. 1. To study the impact of income generating activities on rural livelihoods of KAWAD project beneficiaries 2. To analyze the profile of KAWAD project beneficiaries involved in income generating activities 3. To ascertain association between personal, socio-economic and psychological characteristics and sustainable rural livelihoods of KAWAD project beneficiaries, and 4. To enlist the problems and suggestions in sustaining the rural livelihoods of KAWAD project beneficiaries The present study was conducted in Bijapur and Bellary districts of Karnataka during the year 2007-08. Bijapur and Bellary districts were purposively selected for the study where maximum number of households benefited by the KAWAD project. KAWAD project was implemented in Indi and Kudligi taluks of Bijapur and Bellary districts, respectively. So, in Indi taluk four villages and in Kundligi taluk five villages were selected. These villages were selected purposively based on the criteria of maximum number of beneficiaries undertaken income generating activities. Finally sample size of 120 beneficiaries were randomly selected. The interview schedule used for data collection was pre-tested in non-sample area and modified to reduce ambiguity in the questions. The data was collected, compiled and analyzed using frequency, percentage, mean standard deviation, simple correlation andt test. The major findings of the study are Considerable 25.83 per cent of the respondents had taken up cow rearing as their income generating activity, followed by buffalo rearing (20.83%), sheep rearing (17.50%) and goat rearing (10.83%). In Bellary district, majority (31.57%) of the respondents had taken up cow rearing as their income generating activity, followed by sheep rearing (25.71%).Whereas in Bijapur district majority (32.00%) of the respondents had taken up buffalo rearing followed by goat rearing (22.00%) and goat + sheep rearing (12.00%). On an average, annual income of beneficiaries was increased from Rs.13590 before to Rs.25697 after undertaking income generating activity. The average incremental income and employment generated was Rs.12107 and 119 man days per annum, respectively.

Respondents with high human capital category was increased from 15.8 per cent before to 49.20 per cent after undertaking income generating activities and respondents with medium human capital category were increased from 31.70 per cent before to 38.32 per cent after undertaking income generating activities. While in case of respondents with low human capital category, there was decrease from 52.50 per cent before to 17.80 per cent after undertaking income generating activities. The t-value calculated was 16.58 which is significant at 1 per cent level. Respondents with high physical capital category were increased from 13.33 per cent before to 46.67 per cent after being beneficiary for income generating activities and in case of respondents with medium physical capital category were increased from 38.33 per cent to 44.17 per cent. There was decrease in percentage of low physical capital category respondents from 48.33 per cent before to 9.17 per cent after undertaking income generating activities. The t-value calculated was 12.45 which is significant at 1 per cent level. Respondents with high social capital category were increased from 22.80 per cent before to 56.67 per cent after undertaking income generating activities. Subsequently medium and low social capital category respondents decreased from 40.00 per cent and 37.50 per cent before to 36.67 per cent and 6.67 per cent after taking income generating activities, respectively. The t-value calculated was 13.58 which is significant at 1 per cent level. Respondents of high financial capital category were increased from 6.67 per cent before to 59.17 per cent after involving in income generating activities and respondents under medium financial asset category increased from 27.50 per cent before to 29.17 per cent after involving in income generating activities. And in case of respondents with low financial capital category decreased from 65.83 per cent before to 11.67 per cent after involving in Income generating activities. The t-value calculated was 15.71 and it was significant at 1 per cent level. Respondents with high food security category was increased from 55.00 per cent before to 90.83 per cent after taking Income generating activities and respondents with medium food security category was decreased from 29.17 per cent before to 9.17 per cent after involving in Income generating activities . After taking Income generating activities none of the respondents belonged to low food security category. The t-value calculated was 7.77 and it was significant at 1 per cent level. Respondents with high overall livelihood status category were increased from 22.67 per cent before to 60.50 per cent after undertaking income generating activities. Subsequently there was a decrease in the percentage of respondents in both medium and low overall livelihood status index category from 83.33 per cent before to 31.50 per cent after and 44.00 per cent before to 8.00 per cent after, respectively. The t-value calculated was 6.13 and it was significant at 1 per cent level. Majority (55.83%) of the respondents belonged to middle age followed by 34.17 per cent young age category. Thirty five per cent of the respondents were educated up to primary school and 24.17 per cent were illiterate. As many as 40.83 per cent of beneficiaries were landless followed by 19.17 per cent were small farmers and 18.33 per cent belonged to marginal land holding category. Nearly half (49.17%) of the beneficiaries had semi-medium level of annual income (Rs.17, 000-34,000). Majority (60.83%) of the beneficiaries belonged to small family (5 and below members). Nearly half of the beneficiaries (49.17%) had low urban contact.

Among informal information sources, family members, friends/relatives and other entrepreneur were the frequently consulted sources of information. Among formal sources the respondents were used to get information occasionally from NGO officials, village panchayat. Among mass media information sources the respondents were used newspaper, radio and TV occasionally as information sources. Forty per cent of the respondents had medium economic motivation. Nearly 38.33 per cent of the respondents had medium achievement motivation Majority (54.17%) of the respondents had medium risk bearing ability. Annual income has shown significant relationship with improvement of human capital at 5 per cent level of probability, whereas source of information of the respondents had significant relationship with improvement of social capital and human capital at 5 per cent level of probability. Further, economic motivation shown significant relationship with improvement of financial capital at 5 per cent level of probability. Majority (84.17%) of the respondents expressed that, lack of veterinary facilities in the village, followed by improper supply of electricity, difficult bank loan procedure, lack of remunerative prices for farm produce and high price fluctuation and lack of hospital facilities in the village Majority (82.50%) of the beneficiaries suggested to provide veterinary hospital facilities in the village followed by 77.50 per cent of the beneficiaries suggested to simplify the bank loan procedures and 71.67 per cent of the respondents suggested to supply sufficient electricity to villages.

Implications of the study In the light of findings of the study and from the personal experiences of researcher gained by the respondents, following implications are made for the effective improvement of income generating activities in rural area, to the extension and field level personal and policy makers. The study revealed certain positive impact of KAWAD project on its beneficiaries undertaken various IGAs. Hence, such livelihood development projects should be implemented in other areas and it should focus on whole community concerning various dimensions of development like human capital, natural capital, social capital, physical capital and food security. The present study revealed that, most of the respondents were studied up to primary school, followed by illiterate and used to get information occasionally from formal sources and mass media. So, there is a need to educate not only in the sense of teaching them to read and write but also to impart better skills and technical know how to increase their confidence about income generating activities and to improve their social status. Even though beneficiaries had undergone some trainings during KAWAD project, majority of the them expressed lack of trainings on skilled work performance in dairy and performing service business, which would improve the efficiency of the human resource. Hence, training programmes should be organized by district rural development agencies, NGOs and village level organizations.

In the present study, certain variables shown positive significant relationship with improvement of various dimensions of capitals such as annual income with improvement of human capital, sources of information and achievement motivation with social capital, and economic motivation with improvement of financial capital, so the extension agencies should aim at manipulating these variables to their advantage for promoting income generating activities in rural area. Majority of the beneficiaries were middle aged, this group should be imparted training, so that they can act as catalyst in motivating others through communication networks. Though livestock activity emerged as an important activity, the loans spared for the activities by the SHGs were relatively less. So external funding agencies should develop SHG friendly schemes to encourage the activities other than livestock to keep them engaged throughout the year by diversification and to increase the income level. Proper and structural livestock funding policy with training on livestock management by the bank, NGOs and other development agencies would encourage to take up livestock activities for generating additional income. There are number of suggestions suggested by the beneficiaries, such as, to provide veterinary hospital facilities in the villages, simplify the bank loan procedures, supply sufficient electricity to villages and creation of good transportation facilities to the villages. These suggestions should be kept in mind before formulating the projects for rural beneficiaries.

Suggestions for future line of work The study was conducted in only two taluks with refers to only one project. Hence, it is necessary to have studies on other livelihood development projects in order to generalize the findings. A more detailed investigation on individual income generating empowerment of rural poor etc., with larger sample can be taken up. activities,

The study was conducted with considering only few income generating activities, further studies could be conducted by considering all the activities undertaken by the project with comparing each other. Probe into other variables apart from those that are studied in the present investigation may be identified and their influence on sustainable rural livelihoods may also be studied.

REFERENCES
Adams, R.H., 1993, The economic and demographic determinants of International migration and rural Egypt. J. Dev. Studies, 30(1): 146-167. Anonymous, 2005, Quick evaluation of beneficiary oriented (Sc/St) Programme of SGRY; Annual Report. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi. Arunkumar, T.D., 2004, Profile of SHGs and their contribution for livestock development in Karnataka. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Bardhan, D., Srivastava, R.S.L. and Dabas, Y.P.S., 2005, A study of constraints perceived by farmers in rearing dairy animals. Indian J. Dairy Sci., 58(3): 214-218. Bevenahalli, A., 2005, A critical analysis of swa-shakti programme in Karnataka. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. Bhagyalaxmi, K., Gopalkrishna Rao, V. and Sundarshan Reddy, M., 2003, Profile of the rural women micro entrepreneurs. J. Res., Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric. Univ., Hyderabad, 31(4): 51-54. Bharathi, R.A., 2005, Assessment of entrepreneurial activities promoted under NATP on empowerment of women in agriculture. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Bhattacharya, P.C., 2000, An Analysis of Rural-to-Urban Migration in India, J. International Devpt., 12: 655-667. Bird, K. and Shepherd, A., 2003, Livelihoods and chronic poverty in semi-arid Zimbabwe. World Dev., 31(3): 591-610. Carney, D., 1998, Sustainable rural livelihoods: What contributions can we make? DFID, London. Chambers, R. and Conway, G. R., 1992, Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts
st

for the 21 London.

Century. Discussion Paper 296, Institute of Development Studies,

Chatterjee, R. K., 2000, A study on the impact of National watershed development project for rainfed areas (NWDPRA) in Burdwan district of west Bengal. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric. Univ. Hyderabad. Chaudhari, R., Ajitva and Biwas, R., 1996, Integrated Rural Development Programme, poverty alleviation and development : A comparative study of West Bengal. J. Rural Dev., 15: 283-286. Choudary, G. C. M., 1997, A study on Krishi Vignana Kendra (KVK) in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, ANGRAU, Hyderabad. Dasaratharamaiah, K., Naidu, M. C. and Jayaraju, M., 2006, Womens empowerment through DWCRA An empirical study. Social Welfare, 52(12): 33-38. De Haan, A., 1999, Livelihoods and poverty: The role of migration A critical review of the migration literature. J. Dev. Stud., 36(2): 1-47. De Haan, A., 2000, Migrants, livelihoods and rights : The relevance of migration in development policies. Soc. Dev. Dept. Work., Paperi, Jan. 2000, DFID. De Haan, A., 2002, Migration and livelihoods in historical perspective : A case study of Bihar. India, J. Dev. Stud., 38(5): 115-142.

Deepak, M.P., 2003, A study on perception of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries towards WYTEP programme in Dharwad district. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Devalatha, C.M., 2005, Profile study of women SHGs in Gadag district of northern Karnataka. M.Sc. (Agri.)Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Dolli, S.S., 2006, Sustainability of natural resources management in watershed development project. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Ellis, F., 2000, Rural livelihoods and diversity in developing countries, Oxford Univ. Press. ETC India, 2004, Report on environmental impact assessment of KAWAD watersheds. ETC consultants India Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore. Gaikwad, I.G., Inamke, N.M. and Kadam, K.R., 1997, Involvement of women in decision making. Maharashtra J. Extn. Edu., 16: 359-369. Gangaiah, C., Nagaraja, B. and Vasudevulu Naidu, C., 2006, Impact of Self help groups on income and employment: A case study. Kurukshetra, 54(5): 18-23. Geetha, B., 2002, An analytic study on diversified farming in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric.Uni. Hyderabad. Hari, S. and Kumawat, R.C., 2006, Impact of Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) in Jhunijhuna (Rajasthan). Rural India, 69(8-9): 164-168. Hemalatha Prasad, C. and Omprakash, 1997, Sustainable employment for women-Mahila Chetana Monch shows the way. Gramin Vikas News., 13(6): 13-15. Hommes, T. D., 1997, Self help group in Vietnam. Development and Cooperation, 5: 25-26. Ingle, P. O. and Kubde, N. R., 1991, Comprehensive watershed development programme : An Evaluation. Yojana. 35 (5): 1-15. Jayachandra, K. and Gurappa Naidu, 2006, Impact of dairy cooperatives on income, employment and creation of assets of marginal and small farmers- A case study. Indian Cooperative Review, 43(4): 719-724. Jayalatha, J., 2003, Impact of commercial bank schemes on the growth of entrepreneurs. Southern Economist, 42: 19-22. Joseph, L. and Easwaran, K., 2006, SHGs and tribal development in Mizoram. Kurukshetra, 54(3): 37-48. Kalakannavar, G., 1999, Role performance and training need identification of panchayat women members. M.H.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Knox, McCulloch, Meinzen-Dick and Hazell, P., 1998, Property rights, collective action and technologies for natural resource management : A conceptual framework. SPCRA working paper No.1 www.capri.cgian.org/pdf/ capriwpol.pdf. Lucas, R.E., 1997, International Migration in developing countries. Handbook of Population and Family Economics, 1B: Amsterdam, Elsevier, Sci., Publishing. Manay, S., and Farzana, C., 2000, Socio-economic characteristics of rural family. Maharashtra J. Extn. Edu., 19: 325-328. Mavi, K.S., Chauhan, J.P.S. and Das, B.C., 2006, Impact of Self Employment Programme on Dairy Farming. Rural India, 70(3): 47-49. Monica, B. and Talukdar, T.K., 1997, Variables influencing entrepreneurship of women entrepreneurs. Indian J. Extn. Edu., 33(1&2): 25-34.

Mosse, D., Gupta, S., Mehta, M., Shan, V., Rees, J. and Kribp, T., 2002, Brokened livelihood : Debt. Labour migration and development in Tribal western India. J. Dev. Stud., 38(5): 59-88. Mrutyunjayam, N., 1987, A critical analysis of farm telecast programme-An experimental study. Ph.D. Thesis, Andhra Pradesh Agric. Univ., Hyderabad. Murthy, V.S., 2000, A study on Janmabhoomi programme in Chittur district of Andhra Pradesh. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric. Univ., Hyderabad. Nagaraja, N., 1989, A study on management efficiency and economic performance of sericulture in Karnataka. Ph.D. Thesis (Unpub.), Univ. Agric. Sci., Bangalore. Ningareddy, 2005, A study on knowledge, extent of participation and benefits derived by participant farmers of the watershed development programme in Raichur district of Karnataka state. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Pandey, A.K and Brijbala, 2000, Constraints in adoption of dairy husbandry. Rural India, 63(9): 165-169. Paul K., Chandra, 1998, A study on entrepreneurial behaviour of vegetable growers in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric.Uni. Hyderabad. Planning Commission, 2000, Evaluation of Implimention of social sector Programmes. A Study on Selected Panchayats Raipur and Bilaspur District. Annual Report, Government of India, Madhya Pradesh. Prasad, M. V., 1996, A critical analysis of diffusion and adoption of maize production recommendations in Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh. Ph. D. Thesis, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric. Uni. Hyderabad. Praveen, D., 1997, A study on role perceptions and role performance of mitrakisans in transfer of watershed technology in Ranga Reddy district of Andhra Pradesh. Prita, 2001, A study on the performance of SHGs in Dharwad district. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad Puhazhendi, V. and Jayaraman, B., 1999, Increasing womens participation and employment generation among rural poor- An approach through informal groups. National bank News Review, 15(4): 55-62. Purnima, K. S., 2004, Women self help group dynamics in the North Coastal zone of Andhra Pradesh. Ph.D. Thesis Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric.Uni. Hyderabad. Rais Uddin Mian, Jamatul Fatema and Habibur Rahman, 2007, Impact of dairy farming on livelihood of participating women under Grameen Bank in a selected area of Rangpur district in Bangladesh. Indian J. Agric. Econ., 62(2): 259-271. Rajan S. L., 1982, A study of certain aspects of season wise programmes of Ag. Extension Officers in Coimbatore region, Tamil Nadu. Ph.D Thesis Tamil Nadu Agric. Uni., Coimbatore. Rangi, P.S., Sidhu, M.S. and Harjit Singh, 2002, Economic empowerment of rural women through self help groups: A case study of Fategarh Sahib district (Punjab). Man and Development, 24(3): 65-78. Rao, V.G.K., 1985, A prediction analysis of farming performance of farmers through their entrepreneurial behavioural factors. Ph.D. Thesis, Andhra Pradesh Agric. Univ., Hyderabad.

Ravichandra Prasad, 2002, A study on the impact of on farm extension demonstration (OFEPs) in Rice in Nelore district of Andhra Pradesh. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric.Uni. Hyderabad. Ray, G.L. and Mandal, S., 1996, Gram panchayat organization: Effective management for Rural Development, Naya Prakash, Calcutta, Publ. Book, pp.11-30. Reddy Gurava, K. 1998, Knowledge of agricultural officers on sustainable agricultural practices. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric. Univ., Hyderabad. Reddy M. R., 1997, A critical analysis on adoption of improved practices of diversified farming among farmers in Mahaboobnagar district in Andhra Pradesh. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric. Univ. Hyderabad. Reddy Prasad, T. S, 2003, Differential Innovation Decision and Attitude of Rice Growing Farmers Towards Eco-Friendly Technologies In Andhra Pradesh - A Critical Analysis. Ph.D. Thesis Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric. Uni., Hyderabad. Reddy, V.R., 2001, Watershed development and livelihood security: An assessment of linkage and Impact Project Report Centre for Economic and Social Studies, Hyderabad. Rex, M.G. and Subbarao, T., 1993, Income generating programmes training materials for continuing education personnel, Bangkok, 5: 121. Samuel, G., 2000, A study on the impact of integrated rural development programme (IRDP) in Medak district of Andhra Pradesh. Ph.D. Thesis, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric. Univ., Hyderabad. Sarah Kamala, T., 2004, A critical analysis of pro-poor initiatives for empowerment of rural women through south Asia poverty alleviation programme (SAPAP). Ph.D. Thesis, Andhra Pradesh Agric. Univ., Hyderabad. Sarma, E.A. S. 2004, Is Rural Economy Breaking Down?-Farmer's suicides in Andhra Pradesh. Economic and Political Weekly, July 10, 2004, pp.3087-3089. Satyanarayana, M., Chandargi, D.M. and Mankar, D.M., 2002, Profile of swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana Beneficiaries. Maharashtra J. Ext. Educ., 21(2): 48-50. Satyavathi, S., 2001, A study on knowledge and adoption of sustainable cultivation practices in sugarcane and cotton by farmers in Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Uni. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Savitha, S.S., 2004, Role of rural woman in Animal husbandry. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Scoones, I., 1998, Sustainable rural livelihoods : A frame work for analysis, working paper No. 72, Institute of Development Studies, Univ of Sussex. Sheela, B., 1991, A study on knowledge and adoption of improved dairy practices by dairy practicing women in Bidar district, Karnataka. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric.. Sci., Dharwad. Sherin, K.J., 1999, Dynamics of self help group formation A case study in Thrissur district. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, Kerala Agric. Univ., Thrissur. Shivalingaiah, Y.N., 1996, Participation of rural youth in farm activities. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Bangalore. Singh, M., 1991, Tackling poverty through sheep rearing. Kurukshetra, pp.29-32. Singh, M., Verma, N.C. and Sitalakshmi, S., 1994, Extent of participation of women in agriculture, allied and household activities. Maharahstra J. Extn. Edu. 13: 71-74.

Singh, S., 1978, Achievement motivation, decision making orientation and work values of fast and slow progressing farmers in India. J. Soc. Psychol. 106: 153-160. Snehalatha, M. and Reddy, M.N., 1998, Impact of thrift and credit groups in income generation of rural women. J. Extn. Edu., 9(2): 2031-2032. Sonawane, S.D., Chikhalikar, P.J. and Nirban, A.J., 2001, Utilization of communication sources by the farmers for seeking farm information. Maharastra J. Extn. Edu., 10: 61-62. Soundarapandian, M., 1991, Impact of TRYSEM and VSR on poverty education in Kamaraja district of Tamil Nadu. Khadi Gramodyog, 37(7): 266-271. Sultana, T. D., 2001, Impact of selected non-governmental organization on rural women. M.H.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Supe, S.V., 1969, Factors related to different degree of rationality in decision making among farmers, Ph.D. Thesis, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. Tejaswini, A. and Veerabhadraiah, S., 1996, Knowledge assessment of rural women on DWCRA and their problems. Kurukshetra, 51(4): 46-47. Tranthi, O. and Mahabub Hossain, A.J., 2001, Modern farm technology and infrastructure in Vietnam : Impact on income distribution and poverty. Econ. Pol. Weekly, 33(52&55): 4638-4643 Tripathi, H., 2001, Information receiving behaivour of rural women influencing productivity of milch animals. Agric. Extn. Rev., pp.12-17. Usharani, R., 1999, A study on opinion of women beneficiaries towards DWCRA and benefits derived in Vijianagaram district, AP. M.Sc.(Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad. Vasudeva Rao, D., 2003, SHGs and social change. Social Welfare, 50(2): 33-34. Veena, S., Yadav, A. and Singal, S., 1987, Availability, awareness and utilization of community facilities by rural women for participating in income generating activities. Haryana Agric. Univ. J. Res., 15(1): 86-92. Vijayachandran, P.B and Harikumar V., 2006, Self Help Groups in kerala. Kurukshetra, 54: 30. Vijayakumar, K., 2001, Entrepreneurial behaviour of floriculture farmers in Ranga Reddy district of Andhra Pradesh. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agric.Uni. Hyderabad. Vyas, H.U. and Patil, K. F., 2001, Constraints faced by milk producers in adoption of dairy technology. Agricultural Extension Review, 12(1): 23-26. Wallman, S., 1984, Eight London households, London Tavistock.

APPENDIX
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Respondent No: PART-I
A. General information: 1) Name of the respondent : 2) Village : 3) Taluk : 4) District : B. Personal, Socio-economic and Psychological background of Respondents 1. Age : 2. Education Level: a) Illiterate b) Functional literate c) Primary School d) middle school e) High School f) College g) Graduate 3. Land holding: Type of Land Dry land Irrigation Garden Land Area (acres) Crops 4. Annual family income (Rs.) : Main source : Subsidiary : Other sources: Total : Children Total

5. Size of the family: Sex Male Female Total 6. Source of information Sl. Sources No. 1. Family Members 2. Friends 3. Neighbours 4. Other entrepreneurs 5. Bank officials 6. Agrl. /Hort. Dept. staff 7. NGO officials 8. Village Panchayat 9. News paper 10. Radio 11. Television 12. Others 7. Urban contact

Adult

Frequently

Occasionally

Never

1) How often do you visit neighboring town /city?? a. Occasionally b. Fortnightly c. Weekly d. Frequently e. Daily 2) What is the purpose of your visit to the urban centre? a. Income generating activities b. Others

8. Economic motivation Please give your opinion about the following statements Sl. Statements Agree No. 1. A farmer should work towards larger yields and economic profits 2. The most successful farmer is one who makes the most profit 3. A farmer should try any new farming idea which may earn him more money 4. A farmer should grow cash crops to increase monetary profits in comparison to growing of food crops for home consumption 5. It is difficult for the farmers children to make good start unless he provides them with economic assistance 6. A farmer must earn his living but the most important thing in life cannot be defined in economic terms 9. Achievement motivation Please give your opinion about the following statements Sl. Statements Agree No. 1. Work should come first even if one cannot get proper rest in order to achieve ones goals 2. It is better to be content with whatever little one has, than to be always struggling for more 3. No matter what I have done I always want to do more 4. I would like to try hard at something which is really difficult even if it proves that I cannot do it 5. The way things are now-a-days, discourage one to work hard 6. One should succeed in occupation even if one has to neglect his family 10. Risk orientation Undecided Disagree

Undecided

Disagree

Sl. No. 1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

Please indicate whether you agree or disagree with the following six statements. Response Statements Agree Disagree A farmer should grow large number of crops to avoid greater risks involved in growing one or two crops A farmer should rather take more of a change in making a big profit than to be content with a smaller but less risky profits A farmer who is willing to take greater risks than the average farmer usually have better financial condition It is good for a farmer to take risks when he knows his chance of success is high It is better for a farmer not to try new farming methods unless most other farmers have used them with success Trying an entirely new method in farming by a farmer involves risk, but it is worth

PART-II A1.Income generating activities followed. Before Sl. IGAs Empl. No. Returns Unit size Gener. 1. 2. 3. A2.To which programme /s you are the beneficiary? 1. 2. 3.

After Unit size Returns Empl. Gener.

B. Indicate improvements you have observed on following aspects Indicate your capacity as High/ medium/ low (Indicate the Areas/Aspects quantity wherever possible) Before the After the project project I. Human capital 1. Education of family members 1.1 Ability to educate members as desired by the family 1.2 Encouraging the women members for education/continuation of education 1.3 Ability to send children to send to Dt. Hqs for studies 1.4 Functional literacy of the members 2. Health 2.1 Food intake as per the requirement 2.2 Nutritious food consumption 2.3 Consulting doctors in tq/dt. Hqs for minor ailments 2.4 Consulting doctors in tq/dt. Hqs for major ailments 3.Employment generation a. Man days of employment/annum a. Head of the family b. Women members c. Other members b. Skilled work performance a. Head of the family b. Women members c. Other members 4.Understanding of improved technology about 4.1 Improved farming 4.2 Income generating activities II. Physical capital 1. Farm energy 1.1 Number of bullocks 1.2 Tractor/other farm machineries 2. Dwelling place 2.1 Renovation of the house 2.2 Construction of the house 3 Entertainment material 3.1 Radio/TV 3.2 Others specify III. Social capital 1. Organizational participation Membership 1.1 SHG

Areas/Aspects

Indicate your capacity as High/ medium/ low (Indicate the quantity wherever possible) Before the After the project project

1.2 G.P 1.3 Others Office bearer 1.1 SHG 1.2 G.P 1.3 Others 2. Social status 1.1 At Home 1.2 Outside home 3.Extent of trust 3.1 In self 3.2 In peer group 3.3 In society 3.4 In local leader IV. Financial capital 1. Savings 1.1 In cash 1.2 In banks 1.3 In SHG 1.4 In the form of gold 2. Debt. 1.1 Local SHG/finance 1.2 In Banks/co-op society 1.3 Money lenders 1.4 Others V. Food security 1.Grains availability 1.1 During the production season 1.2 During the slack season 2. Feed availability 1.1 During the production season 1.2 During the slack season 3. Vegetables/milk and other items 1.1 During the production season 1.2 During the slack season VI. Have you observed any other improvements C. Enlist the problems associated with sustaining rural livelihoods 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. D. Enlist the suggestion for sustaining rural livelihoods 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

A STUDY ON IMPACT OF INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES ON SUSTAINABLE RURAL LIVELIHOODS OF KAWAD PROJECT BENEFICIARIES
BASAVARAJ BIRADAR 2008
ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted during 2007-08 in Bijapur and Bellary districts of Karnataka State to analyze the impact of income generating activities on rural livelihoods of Karnataka Watershed Development (KAWAD) project beneficiaries. The data was collected from randomly selected 120 beneficiaries. The percentage of respondents belonging to high overall livelihood status category (includes, human capital, physical capital, social capital, financial capital and food security) were increased from 22.67 to 60.50 per cent after undertaking income generating activities. Subsequently, there was a substantial decrease in the percentage of respondents in both medium and low overall livelihood status index category (83.33 to 31.50 per cent and 44.00 to 8.00 per cent, respectively). The calculated t-value was (6.13) significant at 1 per cent level. In general, annual income of beneficiaries was increased from Rs.13590 to Rs.25697 after undertaking income generating activities. The average incremental income and employment generated was Rs.12107 and 119 man days per annum, respectively. Among various income generating activities, highest average differential annual income was generated from cow rearing (Rs.14686) with additional 136 man days of employment. Very high percentage of the respondents (84.17%) expressed the problems of lack of veterinary hospital facilities in the villages, followed by lengthy bank loan procedure (81.67%), lack of transportation facilities (80.00%), lack of remunerative prices for farm produce and high price fluctuation (69.17%), respectively. Majority of the beneficiaries (82.50%) suggested for providing veterinary hospital facilities in the villages, followed by simplification of procedures to get loans from the bank (77.50%) and supply of adequate electricity to villages (71.67%).

Dr. L. MANJUNATH MAJOR ADVISOR