RESEARCH WRITING & STATISTICS A Practical Guide Maria Soledad T.

Tubay Regardless of the discipline where it is applied and no matter what definition is given to the term, the nature of research remains the same. For the purpose of this discussion, research may be defined as a diligent and thorough investigation into a subject. This includes using ALL appropriate print and electronic sources, asking the reference librarians for help, and making use of bibliographies given by other authors. Research may also be defined as a search for knowledge or any systematic investigation to establish acts. Kerlinger (1973) defines research as a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. Research is systematic when it follows steps or stages 1) Identification of the problem, 2) Relating of this problem with existing theories, 3) Collection of data, 4) Analysis and interpretation of these data, 5) Drawing of conclusions, and 6) Integration of these conclusions into the stream of knowledge. To do research means to define the problem thoroughly, identify and select the variables, carefully select and construct the instruments, and draw conclusions only from the data gathered. Values of Research General Purposes The principal purpose of research is the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life. Some other large and basic values of research: 1) It reduces mans burden of work 2) Improves judgment 3) Increases satisfaction in multitudinous ways 4) Adds to his power Specific purposes 1) To discover new facts or new truths about known phenomenon for primal existence 2) To find answers to problems which are only practically solved by other fields of discipline 3) To improve existing methods and techniques 4) To discover the dangers of abusive use of unprescribed drugs and some poisonous substances 5) To provide the educational system order, related, valid generalizations substances 6) To provide basis for correct action and decision-making in education, business, industry, nursing, medical field, accountancy, law-enforcement, engineering and architecture, among others 7) To satisfy the researchers curiosity by searching again exhaustively new facts either for personal satisfaction, institutional benefit or societys gain

8) To find answers to queries by means of scientific studies, as to who comes first, the egg or the hen 9) To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon that can be known and understood better by research, such as why women are generally smaller than men 10) To expand or verify existing knowledge. This usually happens when researches replicate newly discovered facts that may be found to expand knowledge gained from a previous research or verify if the same facts are found 11) To improve educational practices, business practices, accounting practices, engineering practices, medical practices, among others, to raise the quality of mankind. Mankind found through experience that sufficient studies on practices do pay off in the hard, practical, concrete sense to more than compensate for the cost of undertaking research effort 12) To provide man with more of his basic and social needs. Throughout the hard, tedious search for new knowledge for basic and social needs, quality of life of mankind is improved 13) To determine as unambiguously as possible either to accept or reject the null hypothesis 14) To determine whether the assumptions of such problem is assumed to be true or false Essential Factors for Effective Research Three basic factors for research 1. Men 2. Money 3. Materials Characteristics of a good research 1. Research is systematic. It follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to the discovery of the truth or solution. 2. Research is controlled. All variables, except those that are tested or being experimented upon, are kept constant (not allowed changing or varying). 3. Research is empirical. All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same manner by all observers. 4. Research is analytical. The data of all researchers have to be analyzed, presented, and interpreted. 5. Research is objective, unbiased, and logical. All the findings and conclusions are logically based on empirical data. 6. Research employs hypothesis. Experimental research requires hypothesis that need to be tested. Descriptive research, as a general rule, does not contain hypotheses but assumptions based on specific questions answered in the conclusion section. 7. Research employs qualitative or statistical methods. Data are transformed into numerical measures and are treated statistically to determine their significance or usefulness. 8. Research is original work. Except in historical research, data are gathered from primary sources or first-hand sources and not from secondary sources. 9. Research is done by an expert. Only experts use valid data, carefully designed procedures, and valid research instrument. One can be an expert through rigorous training. 10. Research is a patient and unhurried activity. A research carelessly done due to racing against time may lead to incorrect findings and shaky conclusions. 11. Research requires an effort-making capacity. Research involves much work, time, personnel, and money. 12. Research requires courage. At times, the researcher encounters public disapproval, frustration, embarrassment, undergo hazards, discomforts, sleepless nights, lack of appetite, sometimes, cry especially among the women but despite 2

of these difficulties and problems, the researchers should be brave enough to finish and pursue the effort started. In Filipino usage, Kung walang tiyaga, walang nilaga. Steps in Preparing a Research Paper 1. Defining the Problem 2. Selecting a Method of Solution 3. Gathering, Analyzing and Interpreting the Data 4. Writing the Research Paper What is a research problem? A research problem is the main matter to be studied. The research problem may be referred to as the topic, or the thesis subject. But, it is always a situation that concerns or significantly affects a group of individuals. The quality of the problem determines the quality of the outcome of the research paper. Everything begins with a careful, wellthought out problem. The following situations may manifest a problem (McGuigan, 1978): 1) When there is an absence of information resulting in a gap in our knowledge. 2) When there are contradictory results. 3) When a fact exists and you intend to make your study explain it. After identifying a particular topic of interest, the researcher may begin the process of looking more closely into the topic by a preliminary search for literature that might help in identifying specific issues. The literature may include books about the topic or related topics, or even researches previously done on it or other related topics. This initial review will later help the researcher in the review of related literature and in developing a conceptual or theoretical framework. These previous works may also contribute in identifying and defining the problem. What are the sources of research problems? Most students of research find the task of choosing a problem one of the more challenging phases in writing a paper. What could be very good sources of research problems? 1. INTRODUCTION.. Review of Related Literature.. Conceptual or Theoretical Framework... Statement of the Problem/Objectives. Hypotheses (optional) Significance of the Study METHOD... Research Design/Method Participants . Instruments / Sources of Data Data Collection .. Data Analysis. RESULTS . Findings.

DISCUSSION Analysis and Interpretation of Data Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation Summary of the steps in preparing the research paper STEP 1. Defining the problem Formulate the problem in question form. This will make it easier for you to prepare to formulate the hypothesis, or the tentative answer to the question. Sample problems 1. How adequate are the local traffic ordinances in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite? (existence of an attribute) 2. What are the problems met by the police executives in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite? ( relationship or difference of an effect) 3. What is the relationship between the economy and peace and order situation? (relationship or difference of an effect) 4. What is the relationship between educational attainment and performance? (relationship or difference of an effect) 5. What are the problems met by the barangay captains in the five biggest municipalities of Cavite? The hypothesis gives direction to your research, guides about the procedure- what to do and how to go about solving a research problem. 2 types of hypothesis H0 null hypothesis; a denial of an existence of an attribute, a relationship or a difference of an effect, always stated in the negative form. Sample null hypothesis for the problems given a. The local traffic ordinances in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite are inadequate. b. There is no significant relationship in the problems met by the police executives in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite. c. There is no significant relationship between economy and peace and order situation. d. There is no significant relationship between educational attainment and performance. e. The barangay captains of the five biggest municipalities of the in the province of Cavite do not meet problems. H1 - alternative hypothesis, an affirmation of the existence of an observed phenomenon Sample alternative hypothesis for the same problems a. The local ordinances in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite are adequate. b. There is a significant relationship in the problems met by the police executives in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite. c. There is a significant relationship between economy and peace and order situation. d. There is a significant relationship between education attainment and performance. e. The barangay captains of the five biggest municipalities of the in the province of Cavite do not meet problems.

The problems as stated and the hypothesis will help also in working on the theoretical and conceptual framework. Theoretical framework is a symbolic construct, which uses abstract concepts, facts or laws, variables and their relations that explains and predicts how an observed phenomenon exists and operates. An investigator is required to formulate existing theories which link his study because theories are useful devise for interpreting, criticizing and unifying established scientific laws or facts that guide in discovering new generalizations. The conceptual framework presents specific and well-defined concepts, which are called constructs. Example Problem c What is the relationship between the economy and peace and order situation? Level Independent variable Dependent variable Theoretical Economy Peace and order Conceptual High Income, Mid Income, Excellent Low Income Very Good Satisfactory Fair Poor Problem d What is the relationship between educational attainment and performance? Level Independent variable Dependent variable Theoretical Educational Attainment Performance Conceptual None, Elementary, H.S., Outstanding College, Graduate, Post Very Satisfactory Graduate, etc. Satisfactory Fair Unsatisfactory

The solution of the main problem is possible only through identifying and solving sub problems. The researcher must identify first the sub problems that need to be solved. Statement of the Problem (Sample1) The main problem of the study is to determine the adequacy of the local traffic ordinances in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite. Specifically, the study will seek (sought- for the research paper) answers to the following questions: 1. What local traffic ordinances have been passed in the municipalities of Noveleta, Rosario, Imus, Baccor and the City of Cavite for the past five years? 2. What is the status of the traffic situation in the subject municipalities as perceived by the traffic enforcers in the selected municipalities? 3. How adequate are the local traffic ordinances as perceived by the traffic enforcers in the selected municipalities? 4. What are the implications of the findings? Statement of the Problem (Sample 2) The main problem of the study is to determine the problems met by the police executives in selected municipalities in the province of Cavite? Specifically, the study will seek answers to the following questions: 1. What are the problems met by the police executives in the municipalities of Tanza, Noveleta, Bacoor, Dasmarias, and the City of Cavite?

2. How do the police executives in the subject municipalities and city rank these problems? 3. Is there a significant difference in the mean rank levels of the problems met by the police executives in the province of Cavite? 4. What are the implications of the findings? Statement of the Problem (Sample 3) The main problem of the study is to determine the relationship between economy and the peace and order situation. Specifically, the study will seek answers to the following questions: 1. What is the economic situation in the municipalities of Tanza, Noveleta, Bacoor, Dasmarias, and the City of Cavite? 2. What is the peace and order situation in the subject municipalities as perceived by the: a. Law enforcers b. The citizenry 3. Is there a significant difference in the relationship between economy and the peace and order situation on the basis of the findings? 4. What are implications of these findings? Statement of the Problem (Sample 4) The main problem of this study is to determine the relationship between educational attainment and performance. Specifically, the study sought answers to the following questions: 1. What are the rankings of the barangays in the city of Cavite on the basis of development during the past four years? 2. Which barangays are on the top 10 ranks and which are on the lowest 10 ranks? 3. What is the educational attainment of each of the leaders in these identified barangays? 4. Is there a significant relationship in between the educational attainment of the leaders in these barangays and their performance of their duties? 5. What are the implications of the findings? Statement of the Problem (Sample 5) The main problem of the study is to determine the problems met by the barangay captains in the five biggest municipalities of Cavite. Specifically, it attempts to answer the following questions: 1. What are the problems met by the barangay captains in the five biggest municipalities in the province of Cavite in relation to (a) sanitation, (b) peace and order, and (c) livelihood programs? 2. Is there a significant difference on the problems met by the barangay captains in the five municipalities in the province of Cavite in relation to (a) sanitation, (b) peace and order, and (c) livelihood programs? STEP 2. Choosing the method/s of Solution The researcher will be able to identify the method to be used in gathering the data after defining the main problem and the sub problems. It is just a matter of identifying what data or information is required to answer the question, where the data or the information can be obtained and how the information may be obtained. For example, looking at sample no. 1, sub problem no. 1 What local traffic ordinances have been passed in the municipalities of Noveleta, Rosario, Imus, Baccor and the City of Cavite for the past five years? The data required are the local traffic ordinances (what). This 6

can be obtained from the records of the municipal office, particularly, the Sangguniang Bayan, (where). The researcher may request the Mayors office or the Vice Mayors office for the information (how). This step involves methodology. Methodology is found in Chapter 3 of a thesis and dissertation. In a thesis proposal, methodology is placed as Part IV which includes the: a. Research design b. Determination of sample size (if sample survey) c. Sampling design and techniques (if sample survey) d. The subject e. The research instruments f. Validation of the instrument g. Data gathering procedure h. Data processing methods i. Statistical treatment Research Design There are four kinds of research design: Historical, descriptive, experimental and case study. The historical design is for studies focused on the past (what was); the descriptive design for studies focused on the present condition (what is); experimental design for studies focused on the future (what will be); and case study design, for studies focused on the past, present, and future. Historical Design A study that is focused on the past, or what was lends itself to the historical design. Historical research is a systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events using the critical method in the understanding and the interpretation of facts. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Use the historical design if you want to: Look for solutions to contemporary problems and needs through past experience. Throw light on the present Give people a sense of continuity of the past to the present Enable communities to grasp their relationship with the past to the current issues Chronicle events of enduring worth which confers upon the individual consciousness of unity and a feeling of the importance of human achievement.

Major Steps of Historical Research 1. Collection of Data, with consideration of documents and remains or relics of primary and secondary sources, of bibliographical procedure, and organization of materials. 2. Criticism of the data collected, including the processes of external criticism and internal criticism, and 3. Presentation of the facts in readable form involving problems of organization, composition, exposition, and interpretation. Sources of historical Research 1. Primary sources 2. Secondary sources Primary sources a. Documentsi. Directives like 1. Orders 2. Memorandums 3. Circulars 4. Constitution 5. Laws 7

6. Charters 7. Court decisions ii. Executive and other official records 1. Proceedings of administrative offices and bodies 2. Reports of school surveys 3. Annual reports 4. Courses of study 5. Catalogs and procedures iii. Newspapers and periodicals 1. Personal materials 2. Autobiographies 3. Biographies 4. Legal instruments 5. Contracts 6. Wills 7. Deeds b. Remains i. Physical plant ii. Equipment, apparatus, teaching aids and devices, picture of building or furnishings, forms of diplomas and certificates, textbooks and reference books Secondary Sources a. Histories/historical Studies b. Bibliographies c. Encyclopedias d. Books Descriptive Design In descriptive design, the study focuses at the present condition. The purpose is to find new truth. The truth may have different forms such as increased quantity of knowledge, a new generalization or a new law, an increased insight into factors which are operating, the discovery of a new causal relationship, a more accurate formulation of the problem to be solved and many others. Purpose: To find new truth Types of data-gathering instruments 1. Tests 2. Questionnaires 3. Interviews 4. Observation schedules 5. Check lists 6. Score cards 7. Rating scales 1. Descriptive-survey- appropriate wherever the object of any class vary among themselves and one is interested in knowing the extent to which different conditions obtain among theses objects. Instrument: Questionnaire Statistical tool: Weighted arithmetic mean 2. Descriptive-normative survey- surveys are made to ascertain the normal or typical condition (or practice), or to compare local test results with a state or national norm.

3. Descriptive-status- a technique of quantitative description which determines the prevailing conditions in a group of cases chosen for the study; Stress current conditions with the assumption that things will change 4. Descriptive-analysis- the method determines or describes the nature of an object by separating it into its parts. Purpose: to discover the nature of things What are they composed of? What is their structure? What are the substructures of the special organizations that occur here and there as units within the larger structure? How are all these individual parts and unit assembled or integrated into an internal system? What are the forces that hold them together, and the strains that tend to tear the system apart? What makes the system work? How is it regulated? And, from the point of view of continuing research, what new questions are brought to light by analytical work, which will serve as guides for future research? The researcher should determine: a. The composition, structure, substructure that occur as units within the larger structure b. The individual parts and units integrated into an internal system c. The forces that hold them together d. The strains that tend to destroy the system apart e. What makes the system work 5. Descriptive-classification-employed in natural sciences 6. Descriptive-evaluative- to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current study 7. Descriptive-comparative-the researcher considers at least two entities (not manipulated) and establishes a formal procedure for obtaining criterion data on the basis of which he can compare and conclude which of the two is better 8. Correlational survey-designed to determine the relationship between two variables (X and Y) whether the relationship is perfect, very high, high, marked or moderate, slight, or negligible. 9. Longitudinal survey- involves much time allotted for investigation of the same subjects as two or more points in time

Experimental Design Experimental design is a problem-solving approach that the study is described in the future on what will be when certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated. Likewise, if experimental research is used, he has to choose one of the nine types of experimental design, which is most appropriate to his proposed study. These nine types are (1) single-group design, (2) two-group design, (3) two-pair group design, (4) parallel-group design, (5) counterbalanced design, (6) pretest-posttest design, (7) complete randomized design, (8) randomized block design, and (9) correlational design. If the proponent has selected the most appropriate design, he has to explain why he uses such design. Case Study Design A case study design is a problem solving technique that the study is described from the past, present, and future. It is an intensive investigation of a particular individual, constitution, community, or any group considered as a unit which includes the developmental, adjustment, remedial, or corrective procedures that suitable follow the diagnosis of the causes of maladjustment or of favorable development. The Cycle of Case Study 1. Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be investigated. 2. Collection of data related to the factors or circumstances associated with the given phenomenon. 3. Diagnosis or identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial or developmental treatment. 4. Application of remedial or adjustment measures. 5. Subsequent follow-up or developmental measures applied.

STEP 3. Gathering, organizing and analyzing the data Gathering data From secondary sources a. Direct quotation

reaching a solution to the problem

A direct quotation is a clear quotation said by a person and generally involves a whole sentence; it is absolutely verbatim in the order and is specific.

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Example: Calmorin and Calmorin states that a research process starts with a research problem which the researcher has identified as researchable and has implication to government thrusts. b. Paraphrasing Example: Calmorin and Calmorin states that researches begin with problems the researcher considers researchable and has much to do with government plans. Paraphrasing is the act in which a statement or remark is explained Characteristics of a well-done paraphrase 1. It is not a summary. 2. It does not contain words or phrases from the original (plagiarism). 3. It includes all minor details from original. 4. The meaning of the writing being paraphrased is clearer to the reader than in the original text. 5. It restates the thesis. 6. It is usually as long as, or longer than, the original. c. Summary A summary is a brief restatement of all major, significant points, usually reducing the original by at least half or more. For note cards, a summary may be written in abbreviated formats such as outlines and fragments; however, all other summaries are written in paragraph and essay form. Example: Calmorin and Calmorin states that researches begin with researcher identified problems that are both researchable and are important to the government. From primary sources (Tests, Questionnaires, Interviews, Observation schedules, Check lists, Score cards and Rating scales) The Research Instrument: Validity, Reliability, and Usability The qualities of a good research instrument are: (1) validity, (2) reliability, and (3) usability. Validity Validity means the degree to which a test or a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure. The validity of a measuring instrument has to do with its soundness, what the test or questionnaire measures, its effectiveness, how well it could be applied. Generally, no test or research instrument can be said to have a high or low validity in the abstract. Its validity must be determined with reference to the particular use for which the test is being considered. The validity of test must always be considered in terms of the purpose it serves. Validity is always specific in relation to some definite situation. Likewise, a valid test is always valid. Types of validity

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1. Content validity. Content validity means the extent to which the content or topic of the test is truly representative of the content of the course. 2. Concurrent validity is the degree to which the test agrees or correlates with a criterion set up as an acceptable measure. 3. Predictive validity. Predictive validity is determined by showing how well predictions made from the test are confirmed by evidence gathered at some subsequent time. 4. Construct validity. The construct validity of a test is the extent to which the test measures a theoretical construct or trait. Reliability Reliability means the extent to which a test is dependable, self-consistent and stable. In other words, the test agrees with itself. It is concerned with the consistency of responses from moment to moment. Even if a person takes the same test twice, the test yields the same result. However, a reliable test may not always be valid. For instance, a research student receives a grade of 1.25 in Methods of Research. When asked by his friends, he says his grade is only 1.5. In statistical sense, the story is reliable for it is consistent, but not valid because there is no veracity or truthfulness to the story. Hence, it is reliable but not valid. Likewise, a reliable test or measuring instrument is not always valid even if it may be reliable. Methods in Testing Reliability 1. Test-retest method The same research instrument is administered twice to the same group of subjects and the relation coefficient is determined. Limitations a. When the time interval is short, the subject may recall his previous responses and this tends to make the correlation coefficient high; b. When the time interval is long, such factors as unlearning, forgetting, among others may occur and may result in low correlation of the test; c. Regardless of the time interval separating the two administrations, other varying environmental conditions such as noise, temperature, lighting, and other factors may affect the correlation coefficient of the research instrument. Statistical tool: Spearman rho or Spearman rank correlation of coefficient 6D2 rs = 1 3-N N where D2 rs = Spearman rho = sum of the squared differences between ranks N= total number of cases

Steps Step 1. Rank the scores of subjects from the highest to the lowest in the first set of administration (x), and mark these ranks as Rx. The highest score receives the rank of 1; the second highest, 2; third highest, 3; and so on. Step 2. Rank the second set of scores (Y) in the same manner as in Step 1 and mark as Ry. Step 3. Determine the difference in ranks for every pair of ranks.

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Step 4. Square each difference to get D2. Step 5. Sum the square difference to find D2 Step 6. Compute Spearman rho by applying the formula.

Sample
Respondents 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 X 90 43 84 86 55 77 84 91 40 75 86 89 48 77 Y 70 31 79 70 43 70 75 88 31 70 80 75 30 43

Rx
2 13 6.5 4.5 11 8.5 6.5 1.0 14.0 10.0 4.5 3.0 12.0 8.5

Ry
7.5 12.0 3 7.5 10.5 7.5 4.5 1.0 12.5 7.5 2.0 4.5 14.0 10.5

D -5.5 1.0 3.5 -3.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 0 1.5 2.5 2.5 -1.5 -2.0 -2.0

30.25 1.00 12.25 9.00 0.25 1.00 4.00 0.00 2.25 6.25 6.25 2.25 4.00 4.00

D2= 82.00

6D2 rs = 1 3-N N 6(82) = 1 143-14

= 0.82 (High relationship) 2. Parallel-forms method Parallel or equivalent forms of a test may be administered to the group of subjects, and the paired observations correlated. The two forms of the test must be constructed so that the content, type of item, difficulty, instructions for administration, and many others, are similar but not identical. 3. Split-half method The test in this method may be administered once, but the test items are divided into two halves. The common procedure is to divide a test into odd and even items. The two halves of the test must be similar but not identical in content, number of items, difficulty, means and standard deviations. Each student obtains two scores, one on the odd and the other on the even items in the same test. The result is the reliability coefficient of a half test. Use the Spearman-Brown formula: rwt = 2(rht) 13

1+ rht Sample
Respondents 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 X (Odd) 23 25 27 35 48 21 25 50 38 55 Y (Even) 30 24 30 40 55 24 35 51 38 55 D
2

Rx
9 7.5 6 5 3 10 7.5 2.0 4.0 1.0

Ry
7.5 9.5 7.5 4 1.5 9.5 6 3.0 5 1.5

D 1.5 -2 -1.5 1 1.5 0.5 1.5 -1 -1 -0.5

2.25 4.00 2.25 1.00 2.25 0.25 2.25 1.00 1.00 0.25 16.50

6D2 rht = 1 N3-N 6 (16.5) =1 3 10 -10 = 0.90

rwt = 2(rht) 1+rht = 2(0.90) 1+0.90 = 0.95 very high relationship

4. Internal-consistency method This method is used with psychological tests consisting of dichotomously scored items. The examinee either passes or fails in an item. A rating of one is assigned for a pass and for 0 (zero) a failure. Formula used: Kuder-Ricahrdson formula rxx = [ N ] [SD2 - PiQi] N -1 SD2 _ SD = (X X) N-1 Step1. Compute the variance (SD2) of the test scores for the whole group. Step 2. Find the proportion passing each item (pi) and the proportion failing each item (qi). For instance, twelve of the fourteen students passed or got the correct answer for item 1, (pi=12/14 = 0.86); and two students failed in item 1, (qi= 2/14 = 0.14 or qi =1 pi) 10.86=.14 Step 3. Multiply pi and qi for each item, i.e. 0.86 x 0.14 = 0.1204; and sum for all items. This gives the PiQi value. Step 4. Substitute the calculated values in the formula.
2

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Items

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 7

2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 9

3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10

4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 9

5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 9

6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10

Students 7 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 9 9

9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 9

10 11 12 13 14 f 1 1 1 0 0 12 1 1 1 0 0 12 1 1 0 0 0 11 1 0 0 0 0 10 1 0 0 0 0 10 1 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 4 6 4 2 0 0

pi 0.86 0.86 0.79 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.64 0.57 0.50 0.29

qi 0.14 0.14 0.21 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.36 0.43 0.50 0.71

piqi 0.1224 0.1224 0.1684 0.2041 0.2041 0.2041 0.2296 0.2449 0.25 0.2041 1.9541

Variance (SD2) Computation _

Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 X 7 9 10 9 9 10 9 9 10 6 4 2 0 0 94 (X X) 0.29 2.29 3.29 2.29 2.29 3.29 2.29 2.29 3.29 -0.71 -2.71 -4.71 -6.71 -6.71

(X X)2 0.0841 5.2441 10.8241 5.2441 5.2441 10.8241 5.2441 5.2441 10.8241 0.5041 7.3441 22.1841 45.0241 45.0241 178.8574

_
X = X

N = 94/14 = 6.71 Kuder-Richardson Formula 20

_ SD = (X X)2 N-1 = 178.8754 14 1

2

= 13.76

rxx = [ N ] [SD2 PiQi ] N -1 SD2 = [ 10 ] [13.76 1.9541] 10.1 13.76 = [1.11] [11.8042/13.76] = 1.11(0.857862) = 0.952 or 0.95 High relationship

N = 10 items SD2 = 13.76 PiQi = 1.9541

Usability

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Usability means the degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily used by teachers, researchers, supervisors and school managers without undue expenditure of time, money, and effort. In other words, usability means practicability. Factors that Determine Usability There are five factors that determine usability, namely: 1. Ease of administration, 2. Ease of scoring, i. Construction of the test is in the objective type; ii. Answer keys are adequately prepared; and iii. Scoring directions are fully understood. 3. Ease of interpretation and application, 4. Low cost, and 5. Proper mechanical make-up.

Sampling Designs Whether a research design is descriptive or experimental, sampling is necessary, especially if the population of the study is too large where the 4 Ms (Man, Money, Material and Machinery) resources of the investigator are limited. It is advantageous for him to use sample survey rather than the total population. Sampling- the method of getting a representative portion of a population. Advantages of Sampling 1. It saves time, money and effort. 2. It is more effective. 3. It is faster and cheaper 4. It is more accurate. 5. It gives more comprehensive information. Limitations of Sampling 1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed sub classifications because of a small number of subjects. 2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results may be misleading. 3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is lacking, the results could be erroneous. 4. The characteristics to be observed may occur rarely in a population, e.g., teachers over 30 years of teaching experience. 5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare. Planning a Sample Survey 1. State the objectives of the survey; 2. Define the population; 3. Select the sampling individual; 4. Locate and select the source list of particular individuals to be included in the sample; 5. Decide the sampling design to be used; 6. Determine the sample size to be used; 7. Select the method in estimating the reliability of the sample; 8. Test the reliability of the sample in a pilot institution; and 9. Interpret the reliability of the sample. 16

The target population is the entire group a researcher is interested in; the group about which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions. Example Suppose we take a group of men aged 35-40 who have suffered an initial heart attack. The purpose of this study could be to compare the effectiveness of two drug regimes for delaying or preventing further attacks. The target population here would be all men meeting the same general conditions as those actually included in the study Determination of Sample Size If sample survey is used because N (total number of cases or population) is too large, he has to determine the sample size by using this formula:

Ss = NV + [(Se)2x (1-p)] NSe + [(V)2 x p(1-p)] Where: Ss = Sample size N = Total number of population V = Standard value (2.58) of 1 percent level of probability with 0.99 reliability Se = Sampling error (0.01) p = Larger possible proportion (0.50)
To substitute the

For instance, the total number of population (N) is 3074. foregoing formula, consider the following computation:

Ss = NV + [(Se)2x (1-p)] NSe + [(V)2 x p(1-p)] = 3074 (2.58) + (0.01)2 x (1-0.50) 3074(0.01) + (2.58)2 x 0.50 (1-0.50) = = Ss = 7658 + 0.0001 x (0.50) 30.74 + 6.6564 x (0.50(0.50) 7658 + 0.00005 30.74 + 1.6641 236

Hence, the sample size is 236 from 3074 total number of population.

Sampling Design and Technique

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There are two kinds of sampling designs: (1) Scientific sampling-where every member of the population is given equal chance of being included for a sample (2) Non scientific sampling Types of scientific sampling (1) Random sampling (Convenience) Random sampling is a sampling technique where we select a group of subjects (a sample) for study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has a known, but possibly non-equal, chance of being included in the sample. By using random sampling, the likelihood of bias is reduced. (2) Simple random sampling Simple random sampling is the basic sampling technique where we select a group of subjects (a sample) for study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. Every possible sample of a given size has the same chance of selection; i.e. each member of the population is equally likely to be chosen at any stage in the sampling process. (3) Stratified random sampling* There may often be factors, which divide up the population into sub-populations (groups / strata) and we may expect the measurement of interest to vary among the different sub-populations. This has to be accounted for when we select a sample from the population in order that we obtain a sample that is representative of the population. This is achieved by stratified sampling. A stratified sample is obtained by taking samples from each stratum or sub-group of a population. When we sample a population with several strata, we generally require that the proportion of each stratum in the sample should be the same as in the population. Stratified sampling techniques are generally used when the population is heterogeneous, or dissimilar, where certain homogeneous, or similar, sub-populations can be isolated (strata). Simple random sampling is most appropriate when the entire population from which the sample is taken is homogeneous. Some reasons for using stratified sampling over simple random sampling are: the cost per observation in the survey may be reduced; estimates of the population parameters may be wanted for each sub-population; increased accuracy at given cost. Example Suppose a farmer wishes to work out the average milk yield of each cow type in his herd which consists of Ayrshire, Friesian, Galloway and Jersey cows. He could divide up his herd into the four sub-groups and take samples from these. (4) Systematic random sampling* All individuals in the population are arranged in a methodical manner, i.e., alphabetical or chronological (age, experience, academic, academic rank), and the nth name may be selected in the construction of the sample.

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(5) Multi-stage random sampling Done in several stages. The population individuals are grouped into a hierarchy of units, in a region-wide study, the provinces are chosen as the first stage; municipalities in each of the selected provinces constitute the second stage; barangays within the sample municipalities as the third stage; and sample rural folks within the selected sample barangays as the fourth stage. (6) Cluster sampling Cluster sampling is a sampling technique where the entire population is divided into groups, or clusters, and a random sample of these clusters are selected. All observations in the selected clusters are included in the sample. Cluster sampling is typically used when the researcher cannot get a complete list of the members of a population they wish to study but can get a complete list of groups or 'clusters' of the population. It is also used when a random sample would produce a list of subjects so widely scattered that surveying them would prove to be far too expensive, for example, people who live in different postal districts in the UK. This sampling technique may well be more practical and/or economical than simple random sampling or stratified sampling. Example Suppose that the Department of Agriculture wishes to investigate the use of pesticides by farmers in England. A cluster sample could be taken by identifying the different counties in England as clusters. A sample of these counties (clusters) would then be chosen at random, so all farmers in those counties selected would be included in the sample. It can be seen here then that it is easier to visit several farmers in the same county than it is to travel to each farm in a random sample to observe the use of pesticides. (7) Quota sampling Quota sampling is a method of sampling widely used in opinion polling and market research. Interviewers are each given a quota of subjects of specified type to attempt to recruit for example, an interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult men and 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could interview them about their television viewing. It suffers from a number of methodological flaws, the most basic of which is that the sample is not a random sample and therefore the sampling distributions of any statistics are unknown. Questionnaires Questionnaires are written lists of questions that you distribute to your users. Questionnaires differ from surveys in that they are written lists, not ad hoc interviews, and as such require more effort on the part of your users to fill out the questionnaire and return it to you. Three parts of a questionnaire 1. Introduction a. Reveal identity b. Identify purpose c. Give instruction on what to do with the questionnaire after accomplishing d. Discuss anonymity e. Discuss importance of response

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Six thoughts 1) Identifies the purpose of the questionnaire 2) Discusses anonymity 3) Tells respondents what to do with the questionnaire once they have completed it 4) May explain why a response is important 5) Indicate the amount of time required to complete the questionnaire 6) Identify yourself

2. Instructions a. General if one category of questions are asked b. General and before every new category of question
When asking only one major category of questions, include one set of instructions at the beginning of the questionnaire In more complex situations, include one set of instructions at the beginning and additional instructions as you move from a series of rank order questions to multiple choice questions.

3. Questions Questions are the basic components of a questionnaire. They are designed to collect specific pieces of information related to the general research question. The quantity and quality of information collected really depends on the quality of specific questions included in the questionnaires. If the questions are not well written, you may not get what you want, or the information may be insufficient to answer your research question. The information collected will be irrelevant and your effort, money, and time will be wasted. Well-written questions should be relevant and contribute to your study. The structure of the questions should be suitable for the kinds of information sought and the choice of words should be precise to maximize the validity of data collected. Keep those factors in mind when formulating your questions:

The Kind of Information Sought The Question Structure The Choice of Words

KINDS OF INFORMATION SOUGHT Questions can usually be classified as requesting one or more of the following types of information. 1. 2. 3. 4. Attitudes Attitudes describe how people feel about something. Attitudes are evaluative in nature and reflect respondents' views about the desirability of something. Attitude questions require respondents to show positive or negative feelings about the "attitude object" (good vs. bad, favor vs. oppose, prefer vs. not prefer, should vs. should not, right vs. wrong, and desirable vs. undesirable). Attitude questions can be asked in a variety of ways, sensitive to wording variations and interpretation by the respondent; consequently, a series of questions (statements) is often used to provide a composite assessment of an attitude. Examples of three ways to state an attitude item: What people say they want: Attitudes. What people think is true: Beliefs. What people do: Behavior. What people are: Attributes.

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a. Should land use planning be implemented on a countywide basis in Sunshine County? (1) YES (2) NO b. In general, how do you feel about land use planning? (1) Strongly oppose (2) Mildly oppose (3) Neither oppose nor favor (4) Mildly favor (5) Strongly favor

c. Do you tend to agree or disagree with this statement? "Land use planning is primarily for the benefit of developers." (1) AGREE (2) DISAGREE Beliefs Beliefs are assessments of what one thinks are true or false. There is no implied goodness or badness, only an assessment of what exists or does not exist (correct vs. incorrect, accurate vs. inaccurate, what happened vs. what did not happen). Belief questions can be expressed in a variety of ways: a. They can test knowledge of specific facts.

Is this statement true or false? "The R-value of a material is a number that indicates how much 'resistance' a material presents to heat passing through it." (1) TRUE (2) FALSE

b. They can ascertain perceptions about something (no "correct" answer).

Do you think that the outlook on hog prices will result in a decrease in the number of pigs furrowed next year? (1) TRUE (2) FALSE

There is often a gray area between attitudes and beliefs. The following question is an example: To what extent is the use of illegal drugs a problem in our community? (1) No problem (2) A slight problem (3) A moderate problem 21

(4) A serious problem Some might respond "a serious problem" because of beliefs that illegal drugs are widely used and produce many medical problems. Others might possess no knowledge about extent of illegal drug use, but respond "a serious problem" because they feel that drug use is morally wrong. It is likely that responses would reflect both an assessment of the prevalence of illegal drug use and feelings about the moral aspects of their use. Although sometime gray areas may be unavoidable, it is generally desirable to try to phrase questions to fall clearly into either the attitude or belief categories. Behavior Questions on behavior tend to elicit answers based on respondents' beliefs about their behavior. Behavioral questions may concern what people have done in the past, are currently doing, or plan to do in the future. Examples: a. Past behavior (1)YES (2)NO b. Present behavior (1) YES (2) NO c. Plans for future (1) NO (2) PROBABLY NO (3) PROBABLY YES (4) YES Attributes Attributes are often referred to as personal or demographic characteristics. People tend to think of attributes as something they possess, rather than something they do. The usual purpose for collecting the information is to explore how the other types of information (beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors) differ for people with various attributes. Examples: a. What is your present age?

Were you ever a 4-H member?

Are you currently feeding silage to your dry cows?

Do you plan to add additional insulation to your home before next winter?

____ years

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b. How many brood cows do you have?

______

c. What percent of your total farm income is derived from swine production? (1) Less than 10 percent (2) 10 to 25 percent (3) 26 to 50 percent (4) Over 50 percent

QUESTION STRUCTURE Question structure is based on the nature of the response behavior asked of the respondent. Questions may be (1) open-ended, (2) closed-ended with ordered response options, (3) close-ended with unordered response options, and (4) partially close-ended with unordered response options. 1. Open-ended Respondents "create" their own answers and state them in their own words. Example: "What should be done to improve the community?" Using open-ended questions allows people to say something they could not say otherwise, but the responses are difficult to summarize, especially if ambiguous, and difficult to quantify, since others may have felt the same way but did not express it. Also, the questions demand of the respondents time and effort. 2. Close-ended with ordered response options Answer choices are provided, each a graduation of a single dimension of some thought or behavior. Respondent's task is to find the most appropriate place on an implied continuum for his or her response. This type of question is used for many items, to determine attitude, belief, behavior, or attributes. Example:

"What is your present age?" (1)Under 25 years (2)26-50 years (3)51-75 years (4)Over 75 years 23

3. Close-ended with unordered response options Answer choices are provided, but no single dimension underlies them. Respondents must choose from among distinct, unordered categories by independently evaluating each choice and selecting one that best reflects their situation. They are generally more difficult for respondents than ordered answer choices, because they often have to balance several ideas in the mind at the same time. Example: "What best describes the kind of house in which you live?" (1) Single family dwelling (2) Duplex or triplex (3) Apartment (4) Condominium (5) Mobile Home 4. Partially close-ended questions Although options are provided, respondents also have the choice of creating their own responses. This provides for options that may have been overlooked by the researcher. However, this also creates some problems in analyses. Example: "Please indicate your role as a 4-H leader." (1) Organizational leader (2) Project leader (3) Activity leader (4) Other _______________________ Partially close-ended questions are easy for the respondent to complete and the responses they elicit provide specific information and are easy to quantify. However, the questions cannot capture the unique responses that open-ended questions can. THE ACTUAL CHOICE OF WORDS Writing questions would be a lot easier if we did not have to use words! The wrong choice of words can create any number of problems from excessive vagueness to too much precision, from being misunderstood to not being understood at all, from being too objectionable to being too uninteresting and irrelevant. There are no simple answers, but there are some guidelines. Writing questions for a particular questionnaire means doing them for (1) a particular population, (2) a particular purpose, and (3) for placement next to other questions in the questionnaire. Words that are too difficult for use with some populations may be perfectly acceptable to others. A question that is fairly vague may satisfy the exploratory objectives 24

of one study, but not satisfy the analytic ones of another. A question that makes little sense by itself may be quite clear when asked after ones preceding it in the questionnaire. The following guidelines may be helpful when wording questions. 1. Select words that are uniformly understood. People who do surveys are more likely to overestimate than underestimate the vocabularies of respondents. Thus, it is usually important to keep wording as simple as possible. When a word exceeds six or seven letters, chances are that a shorter word can be substituted. However, shorter words can turn simple sentences into complex ones. Some groups have a particular vocabulary or "jargon," and the use of simpler words would only confuse them. Again, one must consider the audience and the type of terminology they are used to.

Example of some words that might be substituted:

"honest" for "candid" "most important" for "priority" "free time" for "leisure" "work" for "employment" "help" for "assistance" "correct" for "rectify" "stomach ache" for "gastroenteritis"

2. Avoid abbreviations or unconventional phrases. Usually avoid abbreviations or unconnected phrases unless they are a part of the common vocabulary of a specific respondent group. Most farmers would understand PCA, ASCS, SCS, DDT, etc., especially when used in context. However, people might not understand AMA, HUD, HRS, i.e., e.g., etc. 3. Avoid words with vague meanings. Vague questions usually produce vague answers. People interpret vague terminology in so many different ways that their responses are equally varied. However, vagueness is a matter of degree. The issue is often deciding how much of it is useful.

Examples of vague terms:

majority (more than one half or what?) regularly (daily, weekly, monthly?) government (state, local, federal?) older people (how old?) policies (what policies?)

4. Avoid questions that are too precise. People may not be able to recall exact information.

Example:

How many books did you read last year? ________ Number

People are more likely to be able to relate to broad categories.

Example:

How many books did you read last year? 1. None

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2. 1-10 3. 11-25 4. 26-50 5. More than 50

5. Avoid biased questions. A biased question is one that influences people to respond in a manner that does not accurately reflect their position in the investigation. A question may be biased if (1) it implies that the respondent should be engaged in a particular behavior, (2) unequal categories may be represented, and/or (3) it contains words with strong positive or negative emotional appeal (freedom, justice, socialist, bureaucrat).

Examples of biased questions: "The 4-H Horse Show should be held on Wednesday night of fair week, shouldn't it? (1) YES (2) NO "More farmers in Florida are using Braxton than any other variety of soybean. Are you using Braxton?" (1) YES (2) NO "How would you rate the housing in which you live?" (1) Excellent (2) Good (3) Satisfactory (4) Poor

In this last example, (4) Poor is the only negative option provided. 6. Avoid objectionable questions. Certain information may be considered quite personal. Or, a question may convey implications about which the respondents have very negative feelings or feel incriminates them. Only one or two such questions may result in a complete refusal to answer a questionnaire. Eliminate or revise the question. Example of an objectionable question: "What was your gross income in 1979?"

_____ Pesos

Example of a less objectionable question: 26

"Which of the following categories best describes your gross income in 1979?" (1) Less than P50, 000 (2) P50, 000 to P59, 999 (3) P60, 000 to P69, 999 (4) P70, 000 to P79, 999 (5) P80, 000 or above 7. Avoid questions that are too demanding. Examples of demanding questions: a. "Listed below are 25 programs carried out by Extension in Sunshine County in 1979. Please rank them from first to 25th in terms of their importance." b. "What percent of your citrus acreage is irrigated?" _________________________ Examples of less demanding questions: a. b. "What is your total citrus acreage?" ________ "How many acres are irrigated?" ________

8. Avoid a double question. Double questions ask for more than one piece of information in one question. The result confuses the respondent or makes it impossible to answer the question. Example:

Do you like dogs and cats?

This question asks whether respondents like dogs and cats. Suppose they like only one of them. How can they answer the question? A better way to ask the question would be to separate it into two questions: a. Do you like dogs? b. Do you like cats? Example:

Is the text informative and interesting?

If "informative" and "interesting" mean the same thing, then one of them should be eliminated. If they mean different things, the question is a double question. When analyzing data, it is hard to decide whether the answers given refer to both parts or only one part. Interpretation of the information collected is ambiguous. 9. Avoid a double negative.

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Sometimes respondents are asked to say "yes" when the answer really means "no." Example:

"Should our 4-H advisory committee not meet quarterly?" 1. NO 2. YES The following example avoids the double negative:

"How often should our 4-H advisory committee meet?" 1. BIMONTHLY 2. QUARTERLY 3. SEMI-ANNUALLY 4. ANNUALLY

10. Don't assume too much knowledge. Most questions assume that the respondent possesses a certain amount of knowledge. Respondents may be too embarrassed to admit their lack of knowledge and take a wild guess. One solution is to ask them to indicate their understanding before asking if they agree or disagree. An "uncertain" or "don't know" or doesn't apply category may be desirable. Example of a question that assumes too much knowledge by the respondent:

The respondent may not know the operating hours of the cannery. The following question avoids the assumption of too much knowledge by the respondent:

"Are the current operating hours of the county cannery satisfactory for your (1) YES (2) NO

needs?"

"The current operating hours of the county cannery are 1-5 p.m. Monday through Friday. Is this schedule satisfactory to you?"

(1) YES (2) NO 11. Word the questions technically correctly. It is important that the information in the question be accurate, leaving no doubt that the researcher accurately comprehends the topic under investigation and that the respondent has appropriate response options to choose from. 28

Example of inappropriate response options to the question: "Which of the following herbicides do you use most often in your farming operation?"

a. ROUNDUP b. DUAL c. CAPTAN d. MALATHION SUMMARY When writing questions it is important to give much consideration to (1) the kind of information one is seeking; (2) the question structure, and (3) the choice of words used. Data Processing and Statistical Treatment Data processing involves input, throughput, and output mechanisms. Input involves the responses to the measuring instrument of the subjects of the study Throughput includes the statistical procedures and techniques Output, the results of the study which are presented in data matrix form Both quantitative and qualitative forms are involved in data processing to arrive at precise analysis and interpretation of the results. A numerical value (quantitative) is useless without descriptive interpretation (qualitative) of the former. Example Research Question: What is the relationship between performance in the Pre Board Exam (X) and the Professional Board Exam (Y) based on the grades obtained by 10 BSCRIM students of SSC-R? The results are the following based on their scores in X and Y:
X 30 43 53 45 70 Y 35 44 57 44 80 X 45 68 48 38 45 Y 47 75 47 35 46

Tool: Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient of correlation (Because N-total number of cases- is less than 30. If N is equal to or greater than 30, a scattergram is used to get the correlation of X and Y. Formula: rxy = NXY (X)(Y)
2 2 2

[NX - (X) (NY

Where: rxy = Correlation between X and Y

(Y)2]

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X = Sum of Test X Y = Sum of Test Y XY = Sum of the product of X and Y N = Number of cases X2 = Sum of the squared X score Y2 = Sum of the squared Y score Steps Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Find the sum of X and Y scores. Square all X and Y scores. Compute the sum of X2 and Y2. Multiply X and Y. Get the sum of the XY product for every pair of scores. Apply the formula.
X 30 43 53 45 70 45 68 48 38 45 485 Y 35 44 57 44 80 47 75 47 35 46 510 X2 900 1849 2809 2025 4900 2025 4624 2304 1444 2025 24905 Y2 1225 1936 3249 1936 6400 2209 5625 2209 1225 2116 28130 XY 1050 1892 3021 1980 5600 2115 5100 2256 1330 2070 26414

rxy =

NXY (X)(Y)
2 2 2

[NX - (X) (NY

=

(Y)2]

10(26414) (485)(510)

[10 (24905)- (485) (10 (28130) (510) ]

2 2

264140 247350

(249050-235225) (281300 260100]

= 16790

(13825) (21200)
= 16790)

17119.87149
= 0.98 (Very high relationship) Data Processing

Converting information either manually or by machine into quantitative and qualitative forms for use in research analysis.

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Steps in Data Processing 1. Categorization 2. Coding 3. Tabulation of data Categorization of data- the grouping of subjects under study according to the objectives or purposes of the study. For example, the main purpose of the study is to determine the problems met by the PNP chief executive of a certain municipality in Cavite in relation to (a) administration and supervision, (b) tools and equipment, (c) police personnel, and (d) the public. The subjects may be categorized (1) as a whole, (2) as Criminologists and nonCriminologists, (3) according to age, and (4) in terms of experience (1-5 years, 6-10 years, 11-15 years, 16- 20 years, 21 and above0. The five rules in categorizing research information are: 1. Categories are set up according to the research problem. 2. The categories are exhaustive. 3. The categories are mutually exclusive and independent. 4. Each category (variable) is derived from one classification principle. 5. Any categorization scheme must be on one level of discourse. Coding of Data Information from the questionnaires, interview schedules, rating scale, etc., must be transformed into coded items to facilitate tabulation of the data. The codes may be either numerical or alphabetical. Tabulation of Data Once the raw data have been given numerical codes, they are ready for tabulation, which means tallying and counting the raw data to arrive at a frequency distribution and to facilitate in organizing them in a systematic order in a table or several tables. Data Matrix Presentation of Data is usually in tabular form. This is called data matrix and the data processing output is either quantitative or qualitative. Three types of data matrices 1. Univariate- involving only one variable Example: Problem: To find out the teacher-perceived adequacy of instructional materials in certain institutions of SUCs. Variable: the level of SUC Table X.1. Teacher Perceived Adequacy of Instructional Materials at Four Levels of SUC Level of SUC 1 2 3 4 Mean ( X ) 3.6 3.4 2.9 2.8 Descriptive Interpretation Very Adequate Adequate Adequate Adequate

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Scale: 4 3 2 1

Very Adequate Adequate Fairly Adequate Inadequate

3. Bivariate matrix- involves two variables Example: Problem: The science and mathematics teachers may be categorized into qualified and nonqualified

Table X.2. Adequacy of Instructional Materials at Four Levels of SUC as Perceived by Qualified and Nonqualified Teachers in Science and Mathematics Level of SUC 1 2 3 4 Qualified Mentors Verbal Interpretation Very adequate Adequate Adequate Adequate Very adequate Adequate Fairly adequate Adequate Nonqualified Mentors Verbal Interpretation Very adequate Adequate Adequate Adequate

X 3.6 3.4 2.8 2.7 Scale: 4 3 2 1 -

X 3.8 3.4 3.0 2.5

3. Multivariate matrix has three or more variables in the table. Example: Problem: The acceptability of canned milkfish in Salmon, Spanish, French and Japanese styles. Variables: Salmon, Spanish, French and Japanese styles Table X.3. The Acceptability of Canned Milkfish in Salmon, Spanish, French and Japanese Styles. Canning Styles
Salmon Quality Attributes Spanish French Japanese

X 7.2 7.4 7.1 7.3 7.3 Extremely like Like very much Like moderately Like slightly

X 8.0 7.9 8.1 8.0 8.0

X 7.4 8.4 8.0 8.0 8.1

X 7.0 8.3 8.4 8.2 8.3

Color Odor Flavor Texture General Acceptability Scale: 9 8 7 6

Statistical Treatment Computing the Mean ( X ) 32

Scales:

5- Excellent; 4 Very Satisfactory; 3- Satisfactory; 2- Fair; 1- Poor

f= frequency; x= weight (5, 4, 3, 2, 1) X = fx f

5 Criteria 1 2 3 4 5 Teachers
Excellent

4
Very Satisfactory

3
Satisfactory

2
Fairly Satisfactory

1
Poor

Total no.

4 3 2 0 4

2 1 4 3 0

5 6 7 8 7 _ X

3 3 2 2 3

1 2 0 2 1

15 15 15 15 15

5 20 15 10 0 20

4 8 4 16 12 0

3 15 18 21 24 21

2 6 6 4 4 6

1 1 2 0 2 1

?
50 45 51 42 48

3.3 Satisfactory 3.0 Satisfactory 3.4 Satisfactory Very 2.8 Satisfactory 3.2 Satisfactory 15.7 3.1 Satisfactory

1.00-1.79 1.80-2.59 2.60-3.39 3.40-4.19 4.20-5.00

Poor Fairly Satisfactory Satisfactory Very Satisfactory Excellent

f= 15 Statistical Tools to Test the Significant Difference of the Variables Testing the significant difference of variables is applicable when 2 or more variables are involved in the study as in bivariate and multivariate matrices. Example: Is there a significant difference in the mean rank levels of the adequacy of instructional materials a perceived by the qualified and nonqualified science and mathematics instructors and professors in SUCs in a certain region? Statistical Tool: Friedmans Two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) F-test

Xr2 Where: Xr2 N K Ri

12 NK (K + 1)

Ri2 3N(K + 1)

= Friedmans two-way analysis of variance = Number of rows = Number of Columns = Ranks in the ith column 33

Steps 1. Rank the mean responses of the subjects where the lowest mean value ranks 1. 2. Total the ranks of each variable to get R. 3. Compute by using formula. 4. Compute the degrees of freedom (df) by using the formula, df = K-1. 5. Choose the level of probability, either 0.01 or 0.05 and refer to the chi-square table to determine if the obtained computed value of is significant or not. If the obtained value is X equal to or greater than the tabular value in the table, it is significant, if the computed value is less than the tabular value in the table, it is insignificant. Table X.4. Mean Rank Levels Differences of Responses on the Adequacy of Instructional Materials as Perceived by Qualified and Nonqualified Science and Mathematics Teachers in Different SUC Levels in a Certain Region. Qualified Teachers FR X 3.6 1.0 3.4 1.5 2.8 1.0 2.7 1.0 4.5 12 NK (K + 1) Ri2 3N(K + 1) Nonqualified Teachers FR X 3.8 2.0 3.4 1.5 3.0 2.0 2.9 2.0 7.5

Levels of SUC 1 2 3 4 Total ( R ) Xr2 = = = = 12 24

[(4.5)2 + (7.5)2 ] 3(4)(2 + 12 (4)(2) (2 + 1) 1) 12 (8) (3) [20.25+ 56.25] (12)(3)

(76.25) 36 df= k-1 = 2-1 =1 df1(0.05) = 3.841

= .5(76.5)-36 = 38.25 36 = 2.25 (Not significant)

The Friedmans value (Xr2) obtained is 2.25 which is insignificant at 5 percent level of probability. This means that the adequacy of instructional materials in the different levels of SUCs as perceived by the qualified and nonqualified science and mathematics instructors and professors are almost the same.

To test the significant difference of the multivariate matrix sample in the table below, the research question is: Is there a significant difference on the acceptability of canned milkfish in Salmon, Spanish, French, and Japanese styles? Analysis of Variance (ANOVA0 is the right statistical tool to be used. The formula is:

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Where;

MS= Mean Square

F= MS/MSe M Se= Mean Square Error CANNING STYLE

Scale

9 X 8 7 Salmon 7.2 7.4 7.1 7.3

Extremely like X Like very much Like moderately Spanish 8.0 7.9 8.1 8.0

X French 7.4 8.4 8.0 8.0

X Japanese 7.0 8.3 8.4 8.2

Quality Attributes Color Odor Flavor Texture General Acceptability Table x.x

7.3 8.0 8.1 8.3 6 Like slightly The Acceptability of Canned Milkfish, Salmon, Spanish, French, Japanese Styles

STEP 4. Writing the report

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