Electrical Substation components

A substation is a high-voltage electric facility containing equipment to regulate and distribute electrical energy. While some substations are small with little more than a transformer and associated switches, other substations are large and complex. Functions of a substation include receiving power from a generating facility, regulating distribution, stepping voltage up and down, limiting power surges, and converting power from direct current to alternating current or vice versa. Components in an electric substation Many electrical components work together in a substation to carry out its functions, these include Lightning Arresters protect a substation from voltage surges and are installed on power poles, towers, transformers and circuit breakers to protect them from damage during electrical storms. Lightning Arresters look similar to standoff insulators and bushings, but their unique characteristics is that they have earthing terminals at the bottom where a large ground cable is connected and runs down the structure that connects to the station ground. Switches - measure, regulate, and switch electrical transmissions within the substation as necessary. Switchers turn circuits on and off the grid. Distribution Bus - is an array of switches that direct power out of the substation. Distribution buses are usually pyramid-shaped or rectangular. Circuit Breakers - there are two forms of open circuit breakers, namely, dead tank and live tank. The form of circuit breaker influences the way in which the circuit breaker is accommodated, this may be as a ground mounting and plinth mounting, retractable circuit breaker and suspended circuit breakers. Current Transformers - may be accommodated in one of six manners, namely

Installed over circuit breaker bushings or on pedestals In separate post type housings Installed over moving bushings of some types of insulators Installed over power transformer or reactor bushings Installed over wall or roof bushings Installed over cables

In all except in separate post type housing, the current transformer occupies incidental space and does not affect the size of the layout. Installation of current transformers over isolator bushings, or bushings through walls or roofs, is usually confined to indoor substations. Isolators - are essentially off load devices although they are capable of dealing with small charging currents of busbars and connections. The design of isolators is closely related to the design of substations. Isolator design is considered in the following aspects, namely space factor, insulation security, standardisation, ease of maintenance and cost.

Some types of isolators include horizontal isolation, vertical isolation and moving bushing. Conductor Systems - The most suitable material for a conductor system is copper or aluminium. Steel may be used but has limitations due to poor conductivity and high susceptibility to corrosion. An ideal conductor may be flat surfaced, stranded or tubular. An ideal conductor should fulfil the following requirements:

Capable of carrying specified load currents and short time currents Able to withstand forces on it due to its situation. These forces comprise self weight, and weight of other conductors and equipment, short circuit forces and atmospheric forces such as wind and ice loading Corona free at rated voltage Have minimum number of joints Need minimum number of supporting insulators Be cost effective

Insulation - insulation security is of high importance in a well designed substation. Extensive research is done on improving flashover characteristics. Increased creepage length, resistance glazing, insulation greasing and line washing have been used with varying degrees of success. A standoff insulator is required to keep high voltage overhead conductors in position and at a certain distance from conductors in other phases or neighbouring equipment. It also insulates between a conductor and ground. An insulator is always mounted on an earthed support and contains a porcelain section that is mounted between a base plate and a top mounting plate. The base plate is fixed on the grounded support and the top mounting plate is equipped with bus support hardware, on which the overhead conductor is clamped. Power Transformers Transformers are large, box-shaped structures connected to multiple wires and are usually the largest single item in a substation. Transformers are usually located on one side of a substation, and the connection to switchgear is by bare conductors. Because of the large quantity of oil, it is essential to take precaution against fire hazards. Hence, a transformer is usually located around a sump used to collect excess oil. Power from a generating station is sent at a much higher voltage than required for home appliances. Step-down transformers decrease voltage of transmission lines en route to neighbourhoods. Auto transformers can offer advantage of smaller physical size and reduced losses. Overhead Line Terminations there are two methods used to terminate overhead lines at a substation, namely, tensioning conductors to substation structures or buildings and tensioning conductors to ground winches. The choice is influenced by the height of towers and the proximity to the substation. Bushings - This is the component that allows electricity to enter electrical equipments safely, preventing it from shorting to another phase. There are different types of bushings, namely oil filled, gas filled and dry solid porcelain. Unique characteristics of bushings are that the porcelain section is between an oil expansion chamber and a mounting flange

Capacitor voltage transformer

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A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT), or capacitance coupled voltage transformer (CCVT) is a transformer used in power systems to step down extra high voltage signals and provide a low voltage signal, for measurement or to operate a protective relay. In its most basic form the device consists of three parts: two capacitors across which the transmission line signal is split, an inductive element to tune the device to the line frequency, and a transformer to isolate and further step down the voltage for the instrumentation or protective relay. The tuning of the divider to the line frequency makes the overall division ratio less sensitive to changes in the burden of the connected metering or protection devices. [1] The device has at least four terminals: a terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal, and two secondary terminals which connect to the instrumentation or protective relay. CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one hundred kilovolts where the use of wound primary voltage transformers would be uneconomical. In practice, capacitor C1 is often constructed as a stack of smaller capacitors connected in series. This provides a large voltage drop across C1 and a relatively small voltage drop across C2. The CVT is also useful in communication systems. CVTs in combination with wave traps are used for filtering high frequency communication signals from power frequency. [2] This forms a carrier communication network throughout the transmission network.

Lightning Arresters
A Guide to Selection and Application
Surge protection has been a primary concern when connecting devices and equipment to low-, medium-, or high-voltage electrical systems. As the use of products and equipment with components and insulation systems vulnerable to voltage surges and spikes continues to increase, the requirement for surge arresters to protect against the effects due to lightning strikes, switching phenomenon, etc., continues to increase as well. From personal computers to HV transmission and distribution systems, everything is susceptible to these surges and their destructive effects. This subject is very broad with numerous conditions to address, such that it is possible to treat only the basic aspects of selection and application in a single article. Therefore, this article will concentrate on circuits/systems 1000V and greater and is intended to provide the reader with some general guidelines for the appropriate selection and application of lightning/surge arresters. Definition Per the NEC 2005, a surge arrester is defined as: A protective device for limiting surge voltages by discharging or bypassing surge current, and it also prevents the flow of follow current while remaining capable of repeating these functions. Types/Classifications Originally, there were three types of surge arresters. They are: 1. Expulsion type 2. Nonlinear resistor type with gaps (currently silicone-carbide gap type) 3. Gapless metal-oxide type. There are four (4) classifications of surge arresters. They are: Station class Intermediate class Distribution class (heavy, normal, and light duty) Secondary class (for voltages 999V or less)

1. 2. 3. 4.

Of the three types noted above, the expulsion types are no longer being used. The nonlinear resistor type with gaps was utilized through the middle of the 1970s and is currently being phased out. The conventional gap type with silicone-carbide blocks/discs are still being used and the gapless metal-oxide type are the most widely used today. We are not addressing the secondary class in this article. With respect to the four classes of surge arresters we are addressing as part of this article, the station class surge arrester is the best because of its cost and overall protective quality and durability. It has the lowest (best) available protection level and energy discharging capability with successively higher (poorer) protection levels for the other classifications. As noted above, the distribution class has several duty ratings, which are dependent upon the test severity. Heavy-duty arresters are more durable and have lower protective characteristics. The housing/enclosure construction of surge arresters can be of either polymer or porcelain. There are some basic considerations when selecting the appropriate surge arrester for a particular application: Continuous system voltage Temporary overvoltages Switching surges (more often considered for transmission voltages of 345KV and higher, capacitor banks, and cable applications) Lightning surges *System configuration (grounded or ungrounded/effectively ungrounded)

FERRANTI EFFECT
The ferranti effect is the phenomenon of electric engineering and usually takes place in the long distance transmissions of electricity. We know that in all electric transmissions, the voltage drop at the transmitting end is always greater (because production of electricity takes place here) than the voltage drop at the receiving end (as the consumption of electricity takes place here). A long transmission electric power lines draw a large quantity of charging current. Some time a receiving end become open circuited due to various reasons or it is very lightly loaded, then the voltage at receiving end become greater than at sending end. This phenomenon is called as Ferranti effect. The Ferranti effect takes place because of voltage drop across the line inductance ( which is responsible for charging current) being in phase with the sending end voltages. The capacitance also equally responsible to occur phenomenon of Ferranti effect in medium distance transmission lines. Hence the Ferranti effect always takes place in medium line and long line transmission of electricity due to both inductance and capacitance respectively, when the circuit is open or weakly loaded

Types of circuit breakers

Front panel of a 1250 A air circuit breaker manufactured by ABB. This low voltage power circuit breaker can be withdrawn from its housing for servicing. Trip characteristics are configurable via DIP switches on the front panel. Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.

Low voltage circuit breakers

Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application, and include:

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category. MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)rated current up to 2500 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings. Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in low-voltage switchboards or switchgear cabinets.

The characteristics of Low Voltage circuit breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that allow removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear. Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electric motor operators so they can trip (open) and close under remote control. These may form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power. Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct-current (DC) applications, such as DC for subway lines. Direct current requires special breakers because the arc is continuous unlike an AC arc, which tends to go out on each half cycle. A direct current circuit breaker has blow-out coils that generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc. Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in equipment, or are arranged in a breaker panel.

Photo of inside of a circuit breaker The 10 ampere DIN rail-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most common style in modern domestic consumer units and commercial electrical distribution boards throughout Europe. The design includes the following components:

1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip" operation. 2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart. 3. Contacts - Allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart. 4. Terminals 5. Bimetallic strip. 6. Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after assembly. 7. Solenoid 8. Arc divider/extinguisher

Magnetic circuit breakers

Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch, which lets the contacts open by spring action. Some magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. A spring restrains the core until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay permits brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting, energizing equipment, etc. Short circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker

Thermal magnetic circuit breakers

Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards, incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term over-current conditions. The thermal portion of the circuit breaker provides an "inverse time" response feature, which provides faster or slower response for larger or smaller over currents respectively.

Common trip breakers

Three pole common trip breaker for supplying a three-phase device. This breaker has a 2 A rating When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their operating handles. Two pole common trip breakers are common on 120/240 volt systems where 240 volt loads (including major appliances or further distribution boards)

span the two live wires. Three-pole common trip breakers are typically used to supply threephase electric power to large motors or further distribution boards. Two and four pole breakers are used when there is a need to disconnect multiple phase AC or to disconnect the neutral wire to ensure that no current flows through the neutral wire from other loads connected to the same network when workers may touch the wires during maintenance. Separate circuit breakers must never be used for live and neutral, because if the neutral is disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a dangerous condition arises: the circuit appears de-energized (appliances don't work), but wires remain live and RCDs don't trip if someone touches the live wire (because RCDs need power to trip). This is why only common trip breakers must be used when neutral wire switching is needed

Medium-voltage circuit breakers

Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into metalenclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 35 kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protective relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic overcurrent sensors. Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:

Vacuum circuit breakersWith rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. These are generally applied for voltages up to about 35,000 V,[7] which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers. Air circuit breakersRated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance. SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride gas.

Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to bus bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium-voltage circuit breakers in switchgear line-ups are often built with draw-out construction, allowing breaker removal without disturbing power circuit connections, using a motor-operated or hand-cranked mechanism to separate the breaker from its enclosure.

High-voltage circuit breakers

Main article: High-voltage switchgear

Russian 110 kV oil circuit breaker

115 kV bulk oil circuit breaker

400 kV SF6 live tank circuit breakers Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoidoperated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault. High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.

Bulk oil Minimum oil Air blast Vacuum SF6

Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric), Tavrida Electric, Alstom, Mitsubishi Electric, Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens, Toshiba, Konar HVS, BHEL, CGL, Square D (Schneider Electric). Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers use SF6 gas to quench the arc. Circuit breakers can be classified as live tank, where the enclosure that contains the breaking mechanism is at line potential, or dead tank with the enclosure at earth potential. Highvoltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765 kV. 1200kV breakers were launched by Siemens in November 2011.[8] High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single pole of a three-phase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and availability.

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-breakers

Main article: Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas.