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0.1 PROXIMITY SENSORS

The sensor which helps detect and measure distance of nearby objects without physical contact is called a proximity sensor. The maximum distance that a proximity sensor can detect is called its nominal range. Some sensors have adjustments of the nominal range or means to report a graduated detection distance. Apart from measuring roundness, straightness or surface roughness of at objects, proximity sensors are also used in monitoring the machine vibration or to measure the variation in distance between a shaft and its support bearing. This is common in large steam turbines, compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings. Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between the sensor and the target. Proximity detectors are generally of the following types: 1. 2. 3. 4. Inductive Capacitive Optical Ultrasonic

Inductive proximity sensors. The inductive proximity sensor generates an electromagnetic eld and detects the object, which must be metallic, by measuring the change in the eld produced by the object which is referred to as the proximity sensor's target. They are usually based on the following principles (see Section 1.2.2):
1. Variation of reluctance 2. Eddy-current generation

Capacitive proximity sensors. The capacitive proximity sensor, on the other hand, does the job by detecting the alteration in the electrostatic eld set up by the sensor. Therefore, the

capacitive proximity sensor is capable of detecting any dielectric target like plastic or paper over and above metallic targets. Parallel-plate capacitors are deployed for this purpose (see Change in x under Section 1.2.3). The sizes of the sensor and the target, and the intervening material are assumed to be constant. Therefore, any change in capacitance is a result of a change in the distance between the probe and the target. The sensing surface of a capacitive sensor is formed by two concentrically shaped metal electrodes of an unwound capacitor (Figure 1.57.
Guard ring Sensing area Body

Figure 1 Components of the capacitive proximity sensor probe.

When an object nears the sensing surface area, it enters the electrostatic eld of the electrodes and changes the capacitance in an oscillator circuit where the capacitive sensor is attached

INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

to. As a result, the oscillator begins oscillating. The trigger circuit reads the amplitude of oscillation and when it reaches a specic level the output state of the sensor changes. The block diagram of the electronic circuit and the schematic of the oscillation are shown in Figures 1.58 (a) and (b) respectively.
Electrostatic lines of force
Dielectric plate Oscillator Trigger Output Target

(a)

Oscillation amplitude (V)

Target absent

Target present (b)

Target absent

Figure 2 (a) Block diagram of the electronic circuit, and (b) the oscillation generation.

The electronic circuit is calibrated to generate specic voltage changes for corresponding changes in capacitance. These voltages are scaled to represent specic changes in distance. The amount of voltage change for a given amount of distance change is called the sensitivity. A common sensitivity setting is 1.0 V/100 m. That means that for every 100 m change in distance, the output voltage changes exactly 1.0 V. With this calibration, a +2.5 V change in the output means that the target has moved 250 m closer to the probe.

Focussing the eld. When a voltage is applied to a conductor, the electrostatic lines of force emanate from every surface. In a capacitive sensor, the sensing voltage is applied to the sensing area of the probe. For accurate measurements, the electrostatic eld from the sensing area needs to be restricted within the space between the probe and the target. If the eld is allowed to spread to other items or other areas on the target, then a change in the position of the other item will be measured as a change in the position of the target. This is known as fringing. A technique called guarding is used to prevent this from happening1 . To create a guard, the back and sides of the sensing area are surrounded by another conductor that is kept at the same voltage as the sensing area itself (Figure 1.59). When the voltage is applied to the sensing area, a separate circuit applies exactly the same voltage to the guard. Because there is no dierence in voltage between the sensing area and the guard, there exists no eld between them. Other conductors beside or behind the probe form a eld with the guard instead of the sensing area. Only the unguarded front of the sensing area is allowed to form an electrostatic eld with the target.
1 We have already discussed it in Section 1.2.3 under the heading Edge eects and the guard ring.

Guard Sensing area

(a)

(b)

Figure 3 Schematic diagrams showing electrostatic elds of (a) unguarded and (b) guarded capacitive proximity sensors.

Eects of target size. The target size is important when selecting a probe for a specic application. A slightly conical eld that is a projection of the sensing area, is produced when the sensing electrostatic eld is focussed by guarding. The minimum target diameter for standard calibration is 130% of the diameter of the sensing area. In case the probe is further away from the target, a larger the minimum target size is warranted. Range of measurement. The range in which a probe is useful is a function of the size of the sensing area. The greater the area, the larger the range. Therefore, a smaller probe should be closer to the target. Although it is adjustable, but there is a limit to the range of adjustment. In general, the maximum gap at which a probe is useful is approximately 40% of the diameter of the sensing area. Optical proximity sensors. The laser transducers (see Section 1.3.1) and bre-optic transducers (see Section 1.3.4) can be used as proximity sensors.

Ultrasonic proximity sensors. The ultrasonic transducer discussed in Section 1.4 actually
serves as a proximity sensor.