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Electrodeposition for the synthesis of microsystems

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J. Micromech. Microeng. 10 (2000) 101107. Printed in the UK

PII: S0960-1317(00)09306-2

Electrodeposition for the synthesis of microsystems

W Ruythooren, K Attenborough, S Beerten, P Merken, J Fransaer, E Beyne, C Van Hoof, J De Boeck and J P Celis
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Dept. Metaalkunde en Toegepaste Materiaalkunde (MTM), de Croylaan 2, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium IMEC, Dept. Microsystems, Components and Packaging (MCP), Kapeldreef 75, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium RMA, Avenue de la Renaissance 30, B-1000 Bruxelles, Belgium Received 10 December 1999
Abstract. Electroplating is an emerging technique for the production of microsystems. This is due to advantages such as high rate of deposition, high resolution, high shape delity, simple scalability, and good compatibility with existing processes in microelectronics. Materials ranging from high-conductivity metals over soldering connections to ferromagnets can be deposited. In this paper the basics of electroplating are reviewed and examples of recent applications of electroplating in the processing of microsystems are presented.
(Some gures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version; see www.iop.org)

1. Introduction

In recent years, electrodeposition has become a mature technology for materials deposition in microelectronics fabrication and for related applications. Whereas 1015 years ago, electrodeposition was looked upon as a dirty, low-cost method, it is now considered to be a clean technique while it has maintained its cost advantage over more traditional methods such as sputtering or evaporation. Various materials with widely diverse properties such as composition, crystallographic orientation and grain size can be obtained through electroplating. High-conductivity copper or gold for interconnects and multi-chip applications, soldering materials based on indium or tinlead required for ip-chip, and even soft or hard magnetic materials based on nickel, iron and cobalt are possible. In the following section, the basic aspects of electrochemistry will be introduced rst. Thereafter, an overview of current applications of electrodeposition in microelectronics production will be given.
2. Electrodeposition process

an electrolyte solution containing the metal ions that will be deposited in the form of salts (e.g. CuSO4 ), supporting chemicals such as acids or salts (e.g. H2 SO4 or NaCl) and additives (e.g. saccharine); a counter electrode either consisting of an insoluble metal (mostly Pt, but stainless-steel is used in some instances) or of a soluble metal with a composition similar to the deposited material; an electric current or voltage source for controlling the deposition; various peripherals for contacting the electrodes, stirring and heating the solution, etc. For more precise control of the deposition process, a reference electrode can be employed. The electrodeposition process and the most important components are schematically represented in gure 1. The actual geometry of the electrochemical cell used in a practical situation can be very different depending on the application. Cells with horizontal, vertical or slanted substrate positioning, with stirring or pumping of the electrolyte, with or without bubbling of air or nitrogen can all be used. The efciency of the deposition process can be dened as the ratio of the current used for the reduction of the ions for the intended deposit to the total current passed through the cell. From thermodynamics it follows that only copper and more noble metals can be expected to deposit with 100% efciency from a water-based electrolyte. For all other elements, at least a part of the current will be consumed in the formation of hydrogen gas. Usually one wants to reduce this effect as much as possible, not only to increase the deposition efciency and hence the deposition rate but also because 101

2.1. General description In electrodeposition, metal ions present in a solution, the electrolyte, are reduced at the surface of an electrode to form a metal layer. This process essentially consists of: an electrically conducting substrate such as a wafer or another substrate; on insulating or highly-resistive substrates, a thin metal lm (i.e. several tens of nanometers) deposited by sputtering or other means has to be applied rst;
0960-1317/00/020101+07$30.00 2000 IOP Publishing Ltd

W Ruythooren et al
E lectrica l con trol circu itry

 '

of materials on various substrates (wafer, polymer, etc either with a seed layer or directly on semiconductor [46]). For microelectronics related applications, electrochemical deposition has the following advantages over vacuum techniques: room-temperature process, thus reducing problems with thermal stress; low cost of equipment, no vacuum required; high rate of deposition; articial material structuring such as multilayers; conformal deposition or deposition through resist masks; great reliability for high aspect ratio structures and excellent shape delity. 2.3. Possible materials and their uses

R eferen ce electrod e


C onducting substrate

  


C ounter electrod e S olu tion recycling and cond ition ing equipm ent

 

E lectrolyte containing m etal and other ions

Figure 1. Schematic representation of a set-up for electrochemical deposition.

the formed gas bubbles can be difcult to remove from the sample surface and can locally hinder further deposition. Most practical electroplating systems operate at an efciency of 90% or higher although in some cases it can be as low as 20%. The deposition rate in electroplating can be determined from Faradays law: m= or I tM nF (1)

h IM iM = = t nFA nF

(2)

with m the mass of deposited material, the current efciency dened earlier, I the total current, t the duration of the deposition, n the charge of the deposited ions, F Faradays constant, h and A the thickness and area of the deposit, the density of the deposit, M the molar mass and i the current density. For metal deposition under typical operation conditions, this amounts to a deposition rate of the order of 1 m min1 . Other electrochemical processes based on similar principles as the electroplating of metals are also employed in microelectronics fabrication. Electroless deposition of metals, for example nickelphosphorous alloy, is mainly used to obtain thin layers for protection of contacts. Some materials such as aluminum and tantalum are electrochemically oxidized in order to obtain electrically insulating layers. These methods are outside the scope of the present overview as is electrodeposition from nonaqueous solutions. For some metals, e.g. aluminum [1], the use of these types of electrolytes is the only option and the applicability of the technique seems currently very limited. A further detailed description of the electrodeposition process can be found in many text books, reference works or dedicated papers, for example [2, 3]. 2.2. Advantages of electrodeposition Similar to more classical evaporation or sputtering techniques, electroplating allows one to deposit a broad range
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Many materials can be obtained through electroplating. The most commonly used processes for microelectronics are limited to deposition of metals from aqueous electrolytes. Pure metals, can usually be deposited from rather simple plating baths. Copper is probably the easiest, most widely used and most thoroughly studied material for electrodeposition. Its main use in microelectronics is as lowresistivity electrical connections. Gold and silver are used for similar applications whereas indium is deposited as a soldering material. Not only single-element deposits are achievable; alloys are also possible. Alloys are obtained from electrolytes containing salts of the individual constituents such as in the case of tinlead soldering materials or the soft magnetic material Permalloy, consisting of nickel and iron. Non-metallic elements such as phosphorous or boron can be co-deposited together with metals from baths containing specic acids (e.g. hypo-phosphoric acid for phosphorous). Typically, this type of deposition process has a relatively low current efciency, i.e. it is accompanied by a considerable formation of hydrogen gas. Electrodeposition allows a precise control of the material, including its composition, its crystallographic structure, texture and grain size. Articial material structures such as multi-layers, i.e. a stacking of thin layers with different compositions, can be obtained with relative ease. Although metals are the most easy to obtain and by far the most widely applied, some semiconductor materials can also be deposited, for example gallium arsenide [7]. These techniques may become important for the fabrication of optoelectronic devices, but will not be treated here as they are of minor relevance to microelectromechanical systems.
3. Examples

3.1. Copper for interconnects In recent years, a new process has been introduced by IBM to reduce the electrical resistance of the interconnects in their chip to one-third of the values possible with aluminum and at the same time increasing the resistance against electromigration [8, 9]. This was achieved by implementing electrodeposition of copper in a Damascene process. The processing ow is presented in gure 2.

Electrodeposition for the synthesis of microsystems

D a m ascen e
P attern in g o f d ie lec tric

T h ro u g h -m ask
D e p o sitio n o f se ed la y er

S u b tractiv e
D e p o sitio n w ith u n ifo rm th ick n e ss

T h ro u g h -m ask
S h a p e & w id th d e te rm in e d b y re sist p ro ce ss

D e p o sitio n o f se ed la y er

P attern in g o f resist

W id th d e te rm in ed b y re sist p ro ce ss

E le c tro d e p o sitio n

E lec tro d ep o sitio n

E lec tro d ep o sitio n

E tc h u n til su b stra te e x p o se d R e p ro d u ctio n o f re sist lim ita tio n s

P la n a riz atio n

R e m o v al o f re sist E tch in g o f see d la y e r

M a jo r in c re a se in se p a ratio n w id th M in o r in cre a se d u e to se e d la y e r etc h

Figure 2. Comparison of processing sequence for the Damascene process and through-mask plating for copper interconnects. Figure 4. Comparison of minimal feature separation for a subtractive technique and electrodeposition.

Figure 3. Optical micrograph of microwave inductor with an electroplated copper spiral.

Copper is deposited on a thin seed layer on top of an oxide layer which contains trenches and vias that connect to lower levels. Material is deposited to a thickness of about 1 m, both inside the features and on the rest of surface. After the plating, the wafer is polished using CMP (chemicalmechanical polishing) to remove the excess copper. In this application, an electrodeposition process was introduced rather than a sputtering or evaporation step since with these latter techniques, it would be impossible to obtain properly lled features of only a few tenths of micrometer across and aspect ratios of one or more. The electrodeposition process starts at the seed layer and through the use of well chosen additives in the electrolyte, the plating process can be adjusted to super-ll the cavities, i.e. the growth at the bottom of the trenches and vias proceeds more rapidly than at the top or the edges. Such control is not possible in sputtering or evaporation where the deposits would soon start to obstruct the features and make further lling unachievable, which would result in voids within the interconnects. An alternate approach is used for interconnects on multichip modules (MCM) or microwave circuitry such as the

Figure 5. SEM picture of copper mushroom structures grown on top of nanowires (height 700 nm, diameter 130 nm).

example in gure 3. In this case, the electrodeposition is limited to the actual conductor geometry only. The required process ow is quite different from the Damascene-based procedure as can be seen in gure 2. Through the application of a resist layer, only selected areas of the seed layer are exposed to the plating solution. The thickness of the resist should be at least equal to the nal thickness that has to be obtained for the conductors. Since the deposition process requires electrical conductivity of the surface, it will only take place at these uncovered places. A fairly thick copper layer (typically 320 m) is deposited. The resist is then removed and the seed layer etched away. Although the electrodeposited structures are usually also exposed during this etching, this is of little importance since their dimensions (some micrometers in all directions) are many times larger than the thickness of the seed layer (typically 30100 nm).
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In addition to the general advantages of electroplating given earlier, its application in this instance is preferable over sputtering due to the subtractive nature of a process based on the latter. The control over lateral dimensions and the density of features that can be obtained by electrodeposition are much better than that achievable by the non-selective deposition of a thick layer followed by an etching step (gure 4). In a similar fashion to the copper deposited for MCM interconnects, even smaller structures can be obtained. Figure 5 shows an example of 130 nm wires deposited in resist. In this case the deposition was allowed to continue after the patterns had completely lled, creating a mushroom shaped structure. This example very clearly shows the scalability of the electrodeposition process using resist masks. Except for the resist itself, the process is identical for both the 100 m sized features for MCM applications and for the 100 nm nanowires. 3.2. Gold Electrodeposited gold layers are used on electrical connectors to ensure low-resistive connections and corrosion resistance [10]. In microelectronics it is applied to bonding pads for the same reasons. Gold can be deposited in resist patterns in a similar fashion as copper [11]. As a related application, gold is also used as the absorber metal in x-ray masks. Using the high shape delity of the plating process, masks with minimal feature sizes of 0.25 m have been demonstrated [12]. 3.3. Tinlead solder Tin-lead alloys are widely used for soldering purposes, both for printed circuit boards and recently increasingly on the chip level. The most frequently used alloys are those close to the eutectic composition of 40% Pb and the 95% Pb alloy with higher melting temperature. In microelectronics, soldering bumps are used for ipchip bonding of circuitry integrated on wafer substrates. The main steps of this process are briey schematized in gure 6. Contrary to the deposition of copper discussed earlier, the material thickness in this case is not limited to the resist height. This can be understood by looking at the rest of the processing sequence: the shape is not determined by the plating step itself but by reow of the material to ensure the spherical prole of the bumps (gure 6). Also, since quite large volumes of material are required, the resist would have to be impracticably thick to contain all plated material. Vapor deposition of the tinlead material system has been demonstrated by IBM and others [13] for use in the C4 (controlled collapse chip connection) process. This deposition is however quite difcult due to the large difference in vapor pressures of tin and lead. Lead can be electrodeposited quite easily, but tin needs special care since its ions show a tendency of oxidizing from a 2+ to a 3+ state in the solution. These Sn3+ ions are an obstacle to the plating. SnPb therefore has traditionally been deposited from uoroborate solutions (containing Pb(BF4 )2 and Sn(BF4 )2 ) in the printed circuit board industry [14]. Because of environmental and safety concerns, these uoroborate solutions are being replaced by other types of solutions [15]. An example of the outcome of such a successfully adopted procedure is shown in gure 7.
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S u b stra te w ith B L M an d resist m ask E le c tro p la tin g so ld er m ate ria l R e flo w o f so ld e r

F lip c h ip o n o th e r c irc u it

F in a l g e o m e try

Figure 6. Flip-chip process using electroplated soldering bumps on chip. The ball limiting metallurgy (BLM) is a specic layer stack that contains the solder material during reow.

Figure 7. Tinlead soldering bump on a silicon substrate after

reow.

3.4. Indium solder Instead of a tinlead alloy, indium metal can be used as a soldering material. Actually, for certain low-temperature applications indium is the only option since the pure metal shows less tendency for brittle fracture and thus improves reliability. Indium solder bumps are employed for the ip-chip bonding of infrared detectors (embedded in GaAs substrates) to their control circuitry (in silicon technology). The processing sequence includes resist patterning, electrodeposition and reowing of the bumps and is very similar to that presented in gure 6 for tinlead connections. However, as can be seen from the SEM images shown in gure 8, the dimensions of the bumps are much smaller. When state of the art processes are applied, the diameter for the soldering bumps can be as small as 1025 m. Also, since individual detectors are connected to individual parts on the silicon chip, the density of the structures is very high

Electrodeposition for the synthesis of microsystems

coni2 2 [5/6]*50

lo g (c o u n ts /s e c )

10

10

10

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

2theta

Figure 9. X-ray diffraction scan of a sample containing 50 bilayers of 4 nm Co and 5 nm Cu. The two orders of satellite peaks (indicated by the arrows) either side of the main CoCu superlattice peak indicate a good compositional layering structure within the material.

3.6. Hard magnetic material

Figure 8. Indium solder bumps after reow (top) and after

ip-chip bonding (bottom).

with the distance between the bumps being of the same order as their sizes. As discussed earlier, such a density is not possible with a subtractive technique (see gure 4). 3.5. Nickel-iron and other soft magnets Soft magnetic micro-actuators or inductive components (most notably tape or disk read-heads) can be deposited electrochemically. Most of these applications require large volumes of magnetic material and therefore electroplating is the technique of choice because of its high deposition rate and efciency. The most widely employed material in this class is the nickeliron alloy Permalloy (19% Fe, 81% Ni). Controlling the deposition of this system to obtain sufciently narrow distribution of the composition is not trivial (less then 1% deviation can change the magnetic properties quite dramatically). Due to the interaction of nickel and iron, the system shows anomalous co-deposition [16, 17] characterized by the preferential deposition of the less noble metal (in this case iron) over the more noble one (nickel). Thus, even though the electrolyte contains ten times less iron ions than it contains nickel ions, the main constituent of the deposit will still be iron. This makes monitoring of the iron content very important, but also rather difcult due to the relatively small quantities involved. However, good results have been obtained and structures and inductances with magnetic material permeability of several hundreds have been demonstrated [1820]. Other soft magnetic materials based on nickel, iron or cobalt or on any combination of these are also possible. Amorphous soft magnetic alloys can also be obtained through electrodeposition, for example cobalt containing over 12% phosphorous. Although the current efciency of such a deposition system is typically rather low due to the formation of hydrogen gas, (e.g. 3050%), the rate of deposition can still be high, since high current densities are used [2123]. Very high relative permeabilities are reported for the as-deposited material (e.g. 10 000 [24]).

Recent publications indicate the possibility of achieving hard magnetic material by electroplating. An ongoing Brite/Euram project (a novel method for the synthesis of microsize permanent magnets, BE97-4130) investigates a system based on cobalt, platinum and tungsten. Another electrodeposited permanent magnet material is CoNiMnP [25]. As with the previous electrodeposition processes, these materials can be deposited in structures and to substantial thickness such that they can be used in micromechanical systems or, for example, to introduce a biasing eld in sensors. 3.7. Multilayers On top of the possibilities in simple metals or alloys, electrodeposition allows one to obtain synthetic microstructures such as multilayers [26]. Electrodeposited multilayers can be created by alternatingly exposing the substrate to the two (or more) individual plating solutions (double-bath technique) or by combining the two deposition systems into a single electrolyte and choosing proper deposition conditions (singlebath technique). Using the rst method in which either the sample is physically moved from one solution to the other or the area to be plated is periodically contacted by the separate solutions, virtually any combination of the materials discussed earlier can be obtained: NiPSn [27], CoCu [28] and CuNi [29]. For the single-bath method, the materials involved have to have behaviors that are sufciently distinct from an electrochemical point of view. More precisely, their deposition potential should be far enough apart; this is the case for CoCu [5, 28], AgCu [30], AuCo [30], CoPt [31]. High-quality multilayers can be obtained through this technique, as testied by the x-ray diffraction spectrum of gure 9. Most of these multilayers are used for their specic electro-magnetic properties such as giant magneto resistance [32, 33], with applications as magnetic eld sensors [5] while others nd application as wear-resistant over-layers (NiPSn).
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Figure 10. Calculated height distribution for a pattern of 28 28 small circular features.

application is the deposition of solder bumps. Soft magnetic materials are deposited for use in inductive components and magnetic eld sensors, while the deposition of permanent magnets is being developed. The frequency with which new applications for the electroplating process are surfacing, proves that the technique is very viable, and is gaining a foothold beside PVD and CVD techniques in the production of microelectronics and microcomponents.
References
[1] Frazier A B and Allen M G 1997 Uses of electroplated aluminum for the development of microstructures and micromachining processes J. Microelectromech. Syst. 6 918 [2] Roos J R, Celis J P and De Bonte M 1991 Electrodeposition of metals and alloys Processing of Metals and Alloys (Materials Science and Technology vol 15) ed R W Cahn (Weinheim: VCH) ch 11, pp 481537 [3] Celis J P, De Bonte M and Roos J R 1994 Electroplating technology Trans. Inst. Met. Finish. 72 8993 [4] Gao L J, Ma P, Novogradecz K M and Norton P R 1997 Characterization of Permalloy thin lms electrodeposited on Si(111) surfaces J. Appl. Phys. 81 75959 [5] Attenborough K, Boeve H, De Boeck J, Borghs G and Celis J P 1999 Electrodeposited spin valves on n-type GaAs Appl. Phys. Lett. 74 22068 [6] Cerisier M, Attenborough K, Fransaer J, Van Haesendonck C and Celis J P 1999 Growth mode of copper lms electrodeposited on silicon from sulfate and pyrophosphate solutions J. Electrochem. Soc. 146 2156 [7] Yang M C, Landau U and Angus J C 1992 Electrodeposition of GaAs from aqueous electrolytes J. Electrochem. Soc. 139 34808 [8] Andricacos P C 1999 Copper on-chip interconnections Interface (The Electrochemical Society) Spring 327 [9] Andricacos P C, Uzoh C, Dukovic J O, Horkans J and Deligianni H 1998 Damascene copper electroplating for chip interconnections IBM J. Res. Dev. 42 56774 [10] Roos J R, Celis J P, Van Vooren W and Buelens C 1987 Electroplating of hard gold structural characteristics vs. deposition parameters Proc. 11th Int. Precious Metals Institute Conf. (Brussels, Belgium, 1987) [11] Kondo K, Miyazaki T and Tamura Y 1994 Shape formation of electrodeposited gold bumps J. Electrochem. Soc. 141 16448 [12] Lochel B, Maciossek A, Trube J and Huber H L 1990 Pulse plating of quarter micron gold patterns on silicon x-ray masks Microelectron. Eng. 11 27982 [13] Haji-Sheikh M J, Ulz D and Campbell M 1997 The effect of varying the Cu/Au ratio on the thermal-cycle fatigue life of 95/5 PbSn bumps IEEE Trans. Components, Packag. Manufact. Technol. A 20 491 [14] Celis J P, Roos J R and Pierkaska A 1990 Electrodeposited composite tin-lead coatings Trans. Inst. Met. Finish. 68 1248 [15] Datta M et al 1995 Electrochemical fabrication of mechanically robust PbSn C4 interconnections J. Electrochem. Soc. 142 377985 [16] Matlosz M 1993 Competitive adsorption effects in the electrodeposition of ironnickel alloys J. Electrochem. Soc. 140 22729 [17] Sasaki K Y and Talbot J B 1995 Electrodeposition of binary iron-group alloys J. Electrochem. Soc. 142 77582 [18] L chel B and Maciossek A 1996 Electrodeposited magnetic o alloys for surface micromachining J. Electrochem. Soc. 143 33438 [19] Ahn C H and Allen M G 1994 A new toroidal-meander type integrated inductor with a multilevel meander magnetic core IEEE Trans. Magn. 30 739

4. Remaining challenges

Although electrochemical deposition is in principle a simple process and electroplating for micromechanical systems has been studied extensively in the last decade, quite a few problems remain to be tackled. The uniformity of deposits, i.e. their thickness and, for alloys, their composition, can be difcult to obtain as it is inuenced not only by the electrolyte composition but also by the pattern conguration [34] (gure 10), the electrode geometry [35] and the electrolyte hydrodynamics [11, 36, 37]. Efforts to obtain reliable numerical models are required. During the plating process, some components of the solution are consumed. Of course, metal ions are deposited but also organic additives are oxidized at the counter electrode or incorporated in the deposit. Since these additives are in some instances crucial to the proper operation of the plating process [8, 38], it is of prime importance to monitor their evolution. This monitoring is a difcult task and needs further study because the concentrations involved are very small. The properties of electrodeposited material can differ from those of similar material, i.e. with the same composition, deposited by other means or manufactured in bulk. For example, plated copper is preferable for the Damascene process since room-temperature annealing decreases its electrical resistance. This effect does not occur in sputtered structures. On the other hand, for other materials, most notably the magnetic materials, the properties obtained are generally worse. Improvements are certainly possible since, as stated earlier, material characteristics such as grain size or preferred crystal orientation can be steered through the electrodeposition process parameters. However, for some materials this is not yet fully understood. While electroplating generally is a high-efciency process, recycling of the electrolyte components needs to be further investigated to further reduce the techniques impact on the environment. Recycling in a closed system can lead to an additional cost advantage over vacuum deposition techniques.
5. Conclusions

At present, electroplating is used in the eld of microelectronics and in the production of MEMS. Most of the activity is generated by the replacement of the CVD process of AlCu with the electroplating process of Cu for low-resistivity interconnects on chips. Another important
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Electrodeposition for the synthesis of microsystems [20] Park J Y and Allen M G 1997 High current integrated microinductors and microtransformers using low temperature fabrication processes Microelectron. Int. 14 8 [21] Brenner A 1950 Electrodeposition of alloys of phosphorus with nickel or cobalt J. Res. NBS 44 10922 [22] Riveiro J M and Rivero G 1981 Multilayered magnetic amorphous CoP lms IEEE Trans. Magn. 17 30824 [23] Fukunaka Y, Aikawa S and Asaki Z 1994 Fundamental study on electrodeposition of Co and CoP lms J. Electrochem. Soc. 141 178391 [24] Lanotte L, Matteazzi P and Tagliaferri V 1990 Structural order and magnetism of CoP alloys produced by electrochemical deposition Mater. Sci. Technol. 6 14650 [25] Liakopoulos T M, Wenjin Z and Ahn C H 1996 Micromachined thick permanent magnet arrays on silicon wafers IEEE Trans. Magn. 32 51546 [26] Haseeb A, Blanpain B, Wouters G, Celis J P and Roos J R 1993 Electrochemical deposition: a method for the production of articially structured materials Mater. Sci. Eng. A 168 13740 [27] Milis S and Celis J P 1996 Investigation of the properties of NiP/Sn multilayers using a mechanical microprobe Thin Solid Films 288 20211 [28] Blondel A, Doudin B and Ansermet J P 1997 Comparative study of the magnetoresistance of electrodeposited Co/Cu multilayered nanowires made by single and dual bath techniques J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 165 347 [29] Celis J P, Haseeb A and Roos J R 1992 Electrodeposition of Cu/Ni compositionally modulated multilayers by the dual-plating bath technique Trans. Inst. Met. Finish. 70 1238 [30] Celis J P, Cavallotti P, Machado da Silva J and Zielonka A 1998 The future for electroplating electromagnetic materials in microelectronics Trans. Inst. Met. Finish. 76 16370 [31] Jyoko Y, Kashiwabara S, Hayashi Y and Schwarzacher W 1999 Preparation of perpendicular magnetization Co/Pt nanostructures by electrodeposition Electrochem. Solid State Lett. 2 679 [32] Lenczowski S K J, Schoenenberger C, Gijs M A M and de Jonge W J M 1995 Giant magnetoresistance of electrodeposited Co/Cu multilayers J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 148 45565 [33] Schwarzacher W and Lashmore D S 1996 Giant magnetoresistance in electrodeposited lms IEEE Trans. Magn. 32 313353 [34] Dukovic J O 1993 Feature-scale simulation of resist-patterned electrodeposition IBM J. Res. Dev. 37 12541 [35] Mehdizadeh S, Dukovic J, Andricacos P C, Romankiw L T and Cheh H Y 1990 Optimization of electrodeposit uniformity by the use of auxiliary electrodes J. Electrochem. Soc. 137 11017 [36] Kondo K, Fukui K, Yokoyama M and Shinohara K 1997 Shape evolution of electrodeposited copper bumps with high Peclet numbers J. Electrochem. Soc. 144 46670 [37] Pozrikidis C 1994 Shear ow over a plane wall with an axisymmetric cavity or a circular orice of nite thickness Phys. Fluids 6 6879 [38] Kelly J J 1998 Copper deposition in the presence of polyethylene glycol. II. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy J. Electrochem. Soc. 145 347781

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