Design & Fabrication of Solar Steam Generator Using Parabolic Trough Technology

Hasan Javed M. Shahzad Miraj Farrukh Bashir Hafiz Umair Manzoor Junaid Jaffer

BME01083115 BME01083062 BME01083059 BME01083063 BME01083096

Project Supervisor Engr. Imran Afzal Mughal

UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE, DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 1-Km, Raiwind Road Lahore July, 2012

ABSTRACT
With growing needs of energy in the world, it has become important to also produce energy from sources other than the conventional ones. Due to major rise in fuel prices and pollution, it is desirable that the source must be environmental friendly and cheap as compared to conventional sources of energy. There can be different solutions of the problem which can help us out, like Solar, Bio-fuel, Hydroelectric and solar energy etc. Here, we will go with the solar energy as it is simple, easily available and has greater potential as compared to other sources. We have been developing alternate forms of energy called Green Energy. Green power is the solution to creating a cleaner, sustainable energy system. Renewable energy is a natural way to meet our energy needs. Of all, we will be working to extract the energy from sunlight as it is easily available, almost free to use and an unlimited source of energy. This report includes the design, construction and testing of a solar parabolic trough steam generation system. Using concentrating collector, heat from the sun is concentrated on a black absorber located at the focus point of the reflector in which water is heated to a very high temperature to form steam. It also describes the sun tracking system unit by manual tilting of the lever at the base of the parabolic trough to capture solar energy. The whole arrangement is mounted on a hinged frame with revolve able supports for tilting the parabolic trough reflector to different angles so that the sun is always directed to the collector at different period of the day. On the average sunny and cloud free days, the test results gave high temperature above 170C. A research will be carried out to understand the working of the CSP technology and the corresponding improvements in order to improve its efficiency.

UNDERTAKING
We certify that research work titled Design & Fabrication of Solar Steam Generator Using Parabolic Trough Technology is our own work. The work has not, in whole or in part, been presented elsewhere for assessment. Where material has been used from other sources it has been properly acknowledged/ referred.

Hasan Javed (BME01083115)

M. Shahzad Miraj (BME01083062)

Umair Manzoor (BME01083063)

Farrukh Bashir (BME01083059)

Junaid Jaffer (BME01083096)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all we are thankful to ALMIGHTY ALLAH who has given us the opportunity to work for the affluence of our country. Its an honor for all of us to prepare this project report and also it would not have been possible without the help of our advisor Engr. Imran Afzal Mughal. We are very grateful to him for helping us throughout the project work. He has supported us in every possible way and his help eventually lead to the completion of the project. Secondly we would like show our gratitude to our classmates who helped us gathering the relevant data and helping us to pick the best out of it. Lastly, we offer our regards to those who supported during the entire course of study and collecting information for our project and making it possible for us to complete it.

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Contents
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................. i LIST OF ABRIVIATIONS.......................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF SYMBOLS .................................................................................................................................. xii Chapter 1:................................................................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Objectives ..................................................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Need or Motivation for the project ............................................................................................... 2 1.4 Why concentrating solar power?................................................................................................... 3 1.4.1 Potential and Perspectives of CSP ......................................................................................... 3 1.4.2 Economic Sustainability ........................................................................................................ 4 1.4.3 Environmental Sustainability ................................................................................................. 4 1.4.4 Social Sustainability............................................................................................................... 5 1.4.5 Solar thermal vs. Photovoltaic (solar thermal) .................................................................... 5 Chapter 2:................................................................................................................................................ 7 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................................... 7 2.1 Solar power ................................................................................................................................... 7 2.2 Earth-Sun Angles .......................................................................................................................... 8 2.2.1 Hour Angle............................................................................................................................. 9 2.2.2 The Declination Angle ........................................................................................................... 9 2.2.3 The Latitude Angle ................................................................................................................ 9 2.3 Observer-Sun Angles .................................................................................................................. 10 2.3.1 Solar Altitude, Zenith, and Azimuth Angles ........................................................................ 10 2.4 Time: ........................................................................................................................................... 11 2.4.1 Standard Time Zones ........................................................................................................... 11 2.4.2 Daylight Savings Time......................................................................................................... 11 2.4.3 Solar Time ............................................................................................................................ 12 2.4.4 Equation of Time ................................................................................................................. 12 2.5 Solar Energy Development Environmental Considerations ....................................................... 12 2.5.1 Land Disturbance/Land Use Impacts ................................................................................... 12 2.5.2 Visual Impacts ..................................................................................................................... 13 iv

` 2.5.3 Hazardous Materials ............................................................................................................ 13 2.5.4 Impacts to Water Resources ................................................................................................. 13 2.6Solar Energy Potential in Pakistan ............................................................................................... 13 Chapter 3............................................................................................................................................... 16 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER ................................................................................................. 16 3.1 Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) ............................................................................................. 16 3.2 Concentrating Photovoltaics and Thermal (CPVT) ................................................................... 16 3.3 Concentrated solar power............................................................................................................ 17 3.4 Current CSP technologies for power production ........................................................................ 17 3.4.1 Parabolic troughs (line focus, mobile receiver) ................................................................... 17 3.4.2 Linear Fresnel reflectors (line focus, fixed receiver) ........................................................... 19 3.4.3Solar towers (point focus, fixed receiver) ............................................................................. 20 3.4.4 Parabolic dishes (point focus, mobile receiver) ................................................................... 21 3.4.5 Other systems ....................................................................................................................... 22 3.5 Enhancing the value of CSP capacities ........................................................................................ 22 3.6 Thermal storage .......................................................................................................................... 22 3.7 Backup and hybridization............................................................................................................ 25 3.8 Other Concerns ........................................................................................................................... 26 3.9 Solar tracker ................................................................................................................................ 26 3.9.1Computer tracker .................................................................................................................. 27 3.9.2Shadow band tracker ............................................................................................................ 27 3.9.3Flux line tracker..................................................................................................................... 27 3.9.4Combined Computer and Flux-line Tracker .......................................................................... 28 3.10Orientation and tracking mode: ................................................................................................ 29 3.10.1Mode 1: ............................................................................................................................... 29 3.10.2Mode 2: ............................................................................................................................... 29 3.10.3Mode 3: ............................................................................................................................... 30 3.10.4Mode 4: ............................................................................................................................... 31 3.10.5Mode 5: ............................................................................................................................... 31 3.11 PRACTICAL POWER PLANTS ............................................................................................. 31 3.11.1 SEGS 1-9 (LUZ INTERNATIONAL) ........................................................................................ 31 3.11.2 System design .................................................................................................................... 33 3.11.3 Solar collector field ............................................................................................................ 34 3.11.4 Operation ........................................................................................................................... 36 v

` 3.11.5 Major technical issues ........................................................................................................ 37 Chapter 4............................................................................................................................................... 40 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................... 40 4.1Design Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 40 4.1.1Design of water tank: ............................................................................................................ 40 4.1.2 Design of Solar Concentrator: .............................................................................................. 40 4.1.3 Parabolic Trough: ................................................................................................................. 41 4.1.4Design of HCE (Heat Collection Element): ............................................................................ 44 4.1.5Design of Collector Base and Rotation Structure and .......................................................... 45 4.1.6Fitting of Solar Concentrator and Base Structure: ................................................................ 46 4.1.7 Design Conclusions and Comments: .................................................................................... 47 4.2Design Calculations ..................................................................................................................... 47 4.2.1Solar analysis: ....................................................................................................................... 47 4.2.2Solar radiations calculations: ................................................................................................ 48 4.2.3Designing overview: ............................................................................................................. 51 4.2.4Design specifications: ........................................................................................................... 51 4.2.5Design of parabolic trough concentrator: .............................................................................. 51 4.2.6Design of parabolic receiver tube: ........................................................................................ 53 4.2.7Collector properties and Parameters.................................................................................... 55 4.2.8Thermal analysis of concentrating collector: ........................................................................ 56 Total losses from absorber tube to glass tube glazing................................................................... 58 Total losses from glass tube to surroundings ................................................................................ 58 4.2.9Theoratica efficiency :.................................................................................................. 63

4.2.10Mass flow rate: .................................................................................................................... 63 4.2.11Conclusion and results: ....................................................................................................... 63 4.2.11Stress Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 66 4.2.12 Design of parabolic trough farm for 250KW solar power plant: ....................................... 73 4.3Fabrication: .................................................................................................................................. 77 4.3.1Water Tank or Reservoir: ...................................................................................................... 77 4.3.2Receiver tube: ....................................................................................................................... 77 4.3.3Collector reflecting sheet: ..................................................................................................... 78 4.3.4Making of pattern:................................................................................................................. 78 4.3.5Stand of the concentrator: ..................................................................................................... 79 4.3.6Frame of the concentrator: .................................................................................................... 79 vi

` 4.3.7Assembling of the frame structure: ....................................................................................... 80 4.3.8Fitting of stand and Solar Concentrator and the receiver tube: ............................................. 81 4.3.9Plug Valve:............................................................................................................................ 81 4.3.10Pressure gauge: ................................................................................................................... 81 4.3.11Piping of the assembly: ....................................................................................................... 81 Chapter 5:.............................................................................................................................................. 82 Conclusions & Future Recommendation .............................................................................................. 82 5.1 Future Recommendation ............................................................................................................. 82 5.1.1 Initial Capital: ...................................................................................................................... 83 5.1.2 Prospect for Foreign Investment .......................................................................................... 84 5.2 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 85 References ............................................................................................................................................ 87

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LIST OF ABRIVIATIONS

CSP PV SERC CPV CPT CST LFR CLFR DSG CRS HSAT VSAT TSAT SEGS HTF HCE HVAC

Concentrated Solar Power Photo Voltaic Solar Energy Research Center Concentrated Photovoltaics Concentrated Photovoltaics and thermal Concentrated Solar Thermal Linear Fresnel Reflector Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector Direct Steam Generation Central Receiver System Horizontal Single Axis Tracker Vertical Single Axis Tracker Tilted Single Axis Tracker Solar Energy Generation System Heat Transferring Fluid Heat Collecting Element Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 primary energy demands .......................................................................................................... 1 Figure 2 Life Cycle CO2 emissions of different power technologies: This life cycle assessment of CO2 emissions is based on the present energy mix of Germany. CSP value is valid for an 80 MW parabolic trough system cycle in solar only operation mode. PV and CSP............................................................. 5 Figure 3 Average Annual Growth Rates of Renewable Energy Capacity, 2004 to 2009 ......................... 7 Figure 4 The ecliptic plane showing variations in the earth-sun distance and the equinoxes and solstices ................................................................................................................................................... 9 Figure 5 Earth surface coordinate system for observer at Q showing the solar azimuth angle , the solar altitude angle and the solar zenith angle for a central sun ray along direction vector S. Also shown are unit vectors i, j, k along their respective axes ..................................................................... 11 Figure 6 Pak Solar map for Global Radiation ........................................................................................ 14 Figure 7 Pak Solar Map for direct normal radiation ............................................................................. 14 Figure 8 Parabolic trough with absorber tube at its focal point ........................................................... 18 Figure 9 Te four CSP technology families.............................................................................................. 19 Figure 10 Linear Fresnel reflectors ....................................................................................................... 19 Figure 11 Solar towers (point focus, fixed receiver) ............................................................................. 20 Figure 12 Parabolic dishes .................................................................................................................... 21 Figure 13 Thermal storage .................................................................................................................... 23 Figure 14 four different configurations of CSP plant ............................................................................ 24 Figure 15 four different configurations of CSP plant ............................................................................ 25 Figure 16 Computer tracker .................................................................................................................. 27 Figure 17 Shadow band tracker ............................................................................................................ 27 Figure 18 Flux line tracker ..................................................................................................................... 28 Figure 19 combined computer and flux tracker ................................................................................... 28 Figure 20 Process Diagram of SEGS VI Power Plant .............................................................................. 35 Figure 21 Solar only MWe output for 30 mw net SEGS plant ............................................................... 36 Figure 22 water tank ............................................................................................................................. 40 Figure 23 parabola design ..................................................................................................................... 41 Figure 24 thermal conductivities of metals .......................................................................................... 44 Figure 25 heat collection element ........................................................................................................ 45 Figure 26 Collector Base ....................................................................................................................... 46 Figure 27 Collector Base and Rotation Structure.................................................................................. 46 Figure 28 trough parts .......................................................................................................................... 52 Figure 29 Receiver Tube........................................................................................................................ 57 Figure 30 3D Model of stand support ................................................................................................... 67 Figure 31 Parabolic mesh ...................................................................................................................... 67 Figure 32 Stress contours...................................................................................................................... 68 Figure 33 Stresses produced in the vertical member ........................................................................... 69 Figure 34 Stresses produced at the bush hole...................................................................................... 69 Figure 35 Stresses produced at the lower welded portion .................................................................. 70 Figure 36 Stresses produced at lower welded part .............................................................................. 70 ix

` Figure 37 Deformation pattern of the stand under load ...................................................................... 71 Figure 38 Displacement direction shown by arrow heads ................................................................... 71 Figure 39 Side by side view of displacement pattern and stresses ..................................................... 72 Figure 40 Steam Turbine ....................................................................................................................... 73 Figure 41 Schematic of Thermal Power Plant ....................................................................................... 75 Figure 42 bush ....................................................................................................................................... 78 Figure 43 collector reflecting sheet ...................................................................................................... 78 Figure 44 pattern .................................................................................................................................. 79 Figure 45 Stand of the concentrator ..................................................................................................... 79 Figure 46 frame of the concentrator .................................................................................................... 80 Figure 47 full assembly ......................................................................................................................... 80 Figure 48 Pakistan Global Horizontal Solar Radiation .......................................................................... 82 Figure 49 Pakistan Direct Normal Solar Radiation ................................................................................ 83

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Luz International Plant Data ..................................................................................................... 33 Table 2 coordinates of the parabola ..................................................................................................... 42 Table 3 wooden pattern........................................................................................................................ 43 Table 4 Collector parameters................................................................................................................ 55 Table 5 properties of material used...................................................................................................... 56 Table 6 trail-and-error method results ................................................................................................. 61 Table 7 22 June results.......................................................................................................................... 64 Table 8 23 June results.......................................................................................................................... 64 Table 9 Steam Turbine Specification.................................................................................................... 73 Table 10 Collectors Parameters ............................................................................................................ 75

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LIST OF SYMBOLS

Symbol
P T

Name
Pressure Temperature Theoretical efficiency Solar Field Outlet Temperature Solar Field Inlet Temperature

Unit
bar
0

C C C C

Tc Tpm

Glass Tube Temperature Absorber Mean Temperature Solar Insulation

hp-c hw s

Specific heat coefficient for absorber tube Specific heat coefficient for glass tube Entropy Heat losses Useful Heat Gain Reflector area Field area

W/m2.k W/m2.k

Aa Ia

Aperture Area of The Collector

Solar irradiance falling on collector aperture

W/m2

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Mass Flow Rate

Kg/s

Ra Pr V V K Re U1 S

Rayleigh number Prandtls number Kinematic Viscosity Wind Velocity Thermal Conductivity Reynolds number Overall Heat loss Coefficient Solar Flux W/m2.k W/m2 m2/s m/s2 W/m.k

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Chapter 1:

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Statement of the Problem
The state of our project is Design & Fabrication of Solar Steam Generator Using Parabolic Trough Technology.

1.2 Objectives
Pakistan is passing through severe energy crisis with electricity short fall of MW. Pakistan's energy requirement is increasing rapidly every year. The primary energy consumption in Pakistan grew by almost 80% in the past 15 years from 34 million tons oil equivalent (TOE) in 1994-95 to 61 million TOE in 2009-10.The countrys energy supply currently comes primarily from indigenous natural gas which is 45% of the energy mix and oil imports at 35% of the energy mix, with the balance from hydel at 12%, coal at 6% and nuclear at 2% of the mix respectively. [1]

Figure 1 primary energy demands

Currently, research in the field of solar power generation is very limited in Pakistan. Pakistan is presently in the process of developing various energy technologies. Solar option with its merits and demerits is also a promising technology of tomorrow and must be given its adequate place today so that we remain current with this technology once it is fully matured

The objectives of our project include: Case study of electricity generation through solar concentration Design and prototyping of parabolic trough for calculations Estimation of Pakistan solar potential and point out the most suitable areas for CSP technology Designing of concentrator field for running a micro steam turbine

1.3 Need or Motivation for the project

Pakistans thirst for electric power has been constantly rising over the years because of population growth, increase in industrial activity and failure of thermal resources for producing enough energy to meet its growing energy demand. Pakistan is energy deficient country and now going towards extreme energy crisis. Moreover, with current demand growth at 8 % annually, Pakistan will have to add 4000 MW to its existing capacity by the year 2018. Pakistan is rich in renewable energy resources; particularly solar energy has a special relevance in Pakistan due to high availability of Sun radiations at an average rate of 4.5-6 kw h / m2 / day. The purpose of this research is to explore the design of power plants using steam turbines. These turbines will run on steam generated by CSP technology. Since solar energy is free of cost so it can reduce the cost of electricity and can be helpful in decreasing the Pakistan energy crisis. Most of the area of Pakistan lies in sunny belt of the earth with average 6 - 9 sun shine hours daily having the greatest amount of radiant energy more than 90% of solar radiation, which comes as direct radiation because of the limited cloud coverage and clear sunny weather is experienced 250 to 300 days a year. Different concentrating technologies have been developed or are currently under development for various applications. The Parabolic Trough Solar Collectors system will undoubtedly provide within next decade a significant contribution to efficient, economical, sustainable renewable and clean energy supply to developing countries with positive effect on environmental activities. The collector materials will be used considering conversion efficiency, abundance of the material, low cost structures, ease of application, expected lifetime, and the availability of space at the collection site. Available sites in Pakistan desert can theoretically cover the whole electricity demand of the country.

Renewable energy sources have also been important for humans since the beginning of civilization. Pakistan is facing severe energy challenges indigenous oil and gas reserves are running out, energy demand is rapidly increasing, gap between demand and supply is growing, concerns about secure supply of energy are increasing and fuel cost is rising at an unprecedented rate. Pakistan has 84% dependence on oil and gas to meet its primary energy demands. It has an electrical power generation system with more than 19,404 MW of installed power, with 63.97% being generated by thermal resources. The emissions from power plants cause smog in cities and various undesired health complications for our children and us. Rapid progress in solar energy technology around the world went unnoticed in Pakistan for several years due to frequent shuffling of decision makers as well as absence of solar resource analysis. Several countries have planned solar energy participation in the active energy matrix. Because of the threats associated with dependence on use of oil and gas for generating power, now it is the time to evaluate commercial aspects of this technology in Pakistan and venture into this field by taking lead. It costs us nothing to get it--just free sunny days all over this country. There are almost no on-going costs; just build the plant and let it produce free power for well more than over 20 years because most of the area of Pakistan lies in sunny belt of the earth with the sun shine of 6 8.5Energy produced by sun is being used to produce heat and electricity and all essential requirements in a house like water heating, home heating, lighting, cooking and cooling in many parts of the world but not in Pakistan. Pakistan needs to develop various energy technologies. Solar option with its merits and demerits is a promising technology for Pakistan and must be given its adequate place today so that we remain current with this technology once it is fully matured. The Solar system and the associated power with the sun cannot be effectively covered in few words. Currently, research in the field of solar power generation is very limited in Pakistan. A small configuration system like 250KW can lead to 100MW by scale up as sub unit of larger power plants. This will be the first step to fulfill the energy demand of Pakistan, which has become essential for our economic revival.

1.4 Why concentrating solar power?

1.4.1 Potential and Perspectives of CSP
In many regions of the world, every square kilo-meter of land can produce as much as 200 to 300 GWh/year of solar electricity using CSP technology. This is equivalent to the annual production of a conventional coal or gas fired 50 MW power plant or over the total life
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cycle of a CSP system to the energy contained in 16 million barrels of oil. The exploitation of less than 1 % of the total CSP potential would suffice to meet the recommendations of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for a long-term stabilization of the climate [3]. At the same time, concentrating solar power will become economically competitive with fossil fuels. This large solar power potential will only be used to a small extent, if it is restricted by the regional demand and by the local technological and financial resources. But if solar electricity is exported to regions with a higher demand and less solar energy resources, a much greater part of the potential of the Sunbelt countries could be harvested for the protection of the global climate. Some countries like Germany already consider the perspective of solar electricity imports from North Africa and Southern Europe as a contribution to the long-term sustainable development of their power sector.

1.4.2 Economic Sustainability

The history of the Solar Electricity Generating Systems (SEGS) in California shows impressive cost reductions achieved up to now, with electricity costs ranging today between 10 and 15 ct/kWh. However, most of the learning curve is still ahead. Advanced technologies, mass production, economies of scale and improved operation will allow reducing the solar electricity cost to a competitive level within the next 10 to 15 years. This will reduce the dependency on fossil fuels and thus, the risk of future electricity cost escalation. Hybrid solar-and-fuel plants, at favorable sites, making use of special schemes of finance, can already deliver competitively priced electricity today. [4]

1.4.3 Environmental Sustainability

Life cycle assessment of emissions and of land surface impacts of the concentrating solar power systems show that they are best suited for the reduction of greenhouse gases and other pollutants, without creating other environmental risks or contamination. For example, each square meter of collector surface can avoid 250 to 400 kg of CO 2 emissions per year. The energy payback time of the concentrating solar power systems is in the order of only 5 months. This compares very favorably with their life span of approximately 25 to 30 years. Most of the collector materials can be recycled and used again for further plants.

Figure 2 Life Cycle CO2 emissions of different power technologies: This life cycle assessment of CO2 emissions is based on the present energy mix of Germany. CSP value is valid for an 80 MW parabolic trough system cycle in solar only operation mode. PV and CSP

1.4.4 Social Sustainability

CSP systems supply electricity and process heat like any conventional power plant. Their integration into the grid does not require any measures for stabilization or backup capacity. On the contrary, they can be used for these purposes, allowing for a smooth transition from todays fossil fuel based power schemes to a future renewable energy economy. Large electricity grids such as a Euro-Mediterranean Power Pool via High Voltage Direct Current Transmission will in the medium term allow for an intercontinental transport of renewable electricity. The existing power line from Spain to Morocco could already be used for this purpose. This concept will help to stabilize the political and economic relations between the countries of the North and the South. In Sunbelt countries, CSP will reduce the consumption of fossil energy resources and the need for energy imports. The power supply will be diversified with a resource that is distributed in a fair way and accessible by many countries. Process heat from combined generation can be used for seawater desalination and help, together with a more rational use of water, to address the challenge of growing water scarcity in many arid regions. Thus, CSP will not only create thousands of jobs and boost economy, but will also effectively reduce the risks of conflicts related to energy, water and climate change.

1.4.5 Solar thermal vs. Photovoltaic (solar thermal)

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It is important to understand that solar thermal technology is not the same as solar panel, or photovoltaic, technology. Solar thermal electric energy generation concentrates the light from the sun to create heat, and that heat is used to run a heat engine, which turns a generator to make electricity. The working fluid that is heated by the concentrated sunlight can be a liquid or a gas. Different working fluids include water, oil, salts, air, nitrogen, helium, etc.

Different engine types include steam engines, gas turbines, Starling engines, etc. All of these engines can be quite efficient, often between 30% and 40%, and are capable of producing 10s to 100s of megawatts of power. Photovoltaic, or PV energy conversion, on the other hand, directly converts the suns light into electricity. This means that solar panels are only effective during daylight hours because storing electricity is not a particularly efficient process. Heat storage is a far easier and efficient method, which is what makes solar thermal so attractive for large-scale energy production. Heat can be stored during the day and then converted into electricity at night. Solar thermal plants that have storage capacities can drastically improve both the economics and the dispatch ability of solar electricity.

Chapter 2:

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Solar power
Solar power is the generation of electricity from sunlight. This can be direct as with photovoltaic (PV), or indirect as with concentrating solar power (CSP), where the sun's energy is focused to boil water which is then used to provide power. Terrestrial solar power is a predictably intermittent energy source, meaning that whilst solar power is not available at all times, we can predict with a very good degree of accuracy when it will and will not be available. Some technologies, such as solar thermal concentrators have an element of thermal storage, such as molten salts. These store spare solar energy in the form of heat which can be made available overnight or during periods that solar power is not available to produce electricity.

Figure 3 Average Annual Growth Rates of Renewable Energy Capacity, 2004 to 2009

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials

with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insulation) at the upper atmosphere. [7] Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet. The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass [8]. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's nonrenewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined. From the table of resources it would appear that solar, wind or biomass would be sufficient to supply all of our energy needs, however, the increased use of biomass has had a negative effect on global warming and dramatically increased food prices by diverting forests and crops into biofuel production. As intermittent resources, solar and wind raises other issues. Solar energy can be harnessed in different levels around the world. Depending on a geographical location the closer to the equator the more "potential" solar energy is available. In order to understand how to collect energy from the sun, one must first be able to predict the location of the sun relative to the collection device. In this chapter we develop the necessary equations by use of a unique vector approach. [7]

2.2 Earth-Sun Angles

The earth revolves around the sun every 365.25 days in an elliptical orbit, with a mean earth-sun distance of 1.496 x 1011 m (92.9 x 106 miles) defined as one astronomical unit (1 AU). This plane of this orbit is called the ecliptic plane. The earth's orbit reaches a maximum distance from the sun, or aphelion, of 1.52 1011 m (94.4 106 miles) on about the third day of July. The minimum earth-sun distance, the perihelion, occurs on about January 2nd, when the earth is 1.47 1011 m (91.3 106 miles) from the sun. Figure 13 depicts these variations in relation to the Northern Hemisphere seasons. [9]

Figure 4 The ecliptic plane showing variations in the earth-sun distance and the equinoxes and solstices

2.2.1 Hour Angle

To describe the earth's rotation about its polar axis, we use the concept of the hour angle. The hour angle is the angular distance between the meridian of the observer and the meridian whose plane contains the sun. The hour angle is zero at solar noon (when the sun reaches its highest point in the sky). At this time the sun is said to be due south (or due north, in the Southern Hemisphere) since the meridian plane of the observer contains the sun. The hour angle increases by 15 degrees every hour.

2.2.2 The Declination Angle

The plane that includes the earths equator is called the equatorial plane. If a line is drawn between the center of the earth and the sun, the angle between this line and the earth's equatorial plane is called the declination angle.

2.2.3 The Latitude Angle

The angle between a line drawn from a point on the earths surface to the center of the earth, and the earths equatorial plane is called the latitude angle. The intersection of the equatorial plane with the surface of the earth forms the equator and is designated as 0 degrees latitude. The earths axis of rotation intersects the earths surface at 90 degrees latitude (North Pole) and -90 degrees latitude (South Pole). Any location on the surface of the earth then can be defined by the intersection of a longitude angle and a latitude angle.

2.3 Observer-Sun Angles

When we observe the sun from an arbitrary position on the earth, we are interested in defining the sun position relative to a coordinate system based at the point of observation, not at the center of the earth. [10]

2.3.1 Solar Altitude, Zenith, and Azimuth Angles

The solar altitude angle is defined as the angle between the central ray from the sun, and a horizontal plane containing the observer. As an alternative, the suns altitude may be described in terms of the solar zenith angle which is simply the complement of the solar altitude angle or The other angle defining the position of the sun is the solar azimuth angle (A). It is the angle, measured clockwise on the horizontal plane, from the north-pointing coordinate axis to the projection of the suns central ray.

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Figure 5 Earth surface coordinate system for observer at Q showing the solar azimuth angle , the solar altitude angle and the solar zenith angle for a central sun ray along direction vector S. Also shown are unit vectors i, j, k along their respective axes

2.4 Time:
We measure the passage of time by measuring the rotation of the earth about its axis. The base for time (and longitude) measurement is the meridian that passes through Greenwich, England and both poles. It is known as the Prime Meridian. Mean time is based on the length of an average day. A mean second is l/86,400 of the average time between one complete transits of the sun, averaged over the entire year. [11]

2.4.1 Standard Time Zones

Time is now generally measured about standard time zone meridians. These meridians are located every 15 degrees from the Prime Meridian so that local time changes in 1-hour increments from one standard time zone meridian to the next.

2.4.2 Daylight Savings Time

To complicate matters further in trying to correlate clock time with the movement of the sun, a concept known as daylight savings time is introduced according to this concept, the standard time is advanced by 1 hour.

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2.4.3 Solar Time

Solar time is based on the 24-hour clock, with 12:00 as the time that the sun is exactly due south. The concept of solar time is used in predicting the direction of sunrays relative to a point on the earth. Solar time is location (longitude) dependent and is generally different from local clock time, which is defined by politically defined time zones and other approximations. Solar time is used extensively in this text to define the rotation of the earth relative to the sun. An expression to calculate the hour angle from solar time is T= 15(ts - 12) where ts is the solar time in hours.

2.4.4 Equation of Time

The difference between mean solar time and true solar time is called the equation of time (EOT). Since solar time is based on the sun being due south at 12:00 noon on any specific day, the accumulated difference between mean solar time and true solar time can approach 17 minutes either ahead of or behind the mean, with an annual cycle. EOT = 0.258 cos x 7.426 sin x - 3.648 cos 2x 9.228 sin 2x

2.5 Solar Energy Development Environmental Considerations

Utility-scale solar energy environmental considerations include land disturbance/land use impacts, visual impacts, impacts associated with hazardous materials, and potential impacts on water and other resources, depending on the solar technology employed. Solar power plants reduce the environmental impacts of combustion used in fossil fuel power generation such as green house gas and other air pollution emissions. However, concerns have been raised over land disturbance, visual impacts, and the use of potentially hazardous materials in some systems. [12]

2.5.1 Land Disturbance/Land Use Impacts

All utility-scale solar energy facilities require relatively large areas for solar radiation collection when used to generate electricity at a commercial scale, and the large arrays of solar collectors may interfere with natural sunlight, rainfall, and drainage, which could have a variety of effects on plants and animals. Solar arrays may also create avian perching opportunities that could affect both bird and prey populations. Land disturbance could also affect archeological resources. Solar facilities may interfere with existing land uses, such as grazing. Proper sitting decisions can help to avoid land disturbance and land use impacts.

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2.5.2 Visual Impacts

Because they are generally large facilities with numerous highly geometric and sometimes highly reflective surfaces, solar energy facilities may create visual impacts; however, being visible is not necessarily the same as being intrusive. Aesthetic issues are by their nature highly subjective. Proper sitting decisions can help to avoid aesthetic impacts to the landscape.

2.5.3 Hazardous Materials

Photovoltaic panels may contain hazardous materials, and although they are sealed under normal operating conditions, there is the potential for environmental contamination if they were damaged or improperly disposed upon decommissioning. Concentrating solar power systems may employ liquids such as oils or molten salts that may be hazardous and present spill risks. In addition, various fluids are commonly used in most industrial facilities, such as hydraulic fluids, coolants, and lubricants. These fluids may in some cases be hazardous, and present a spill-related risk. Proper planning and good maintenance practices can be used to minimize impacts from hazardous materials.

2.5.4 Impacts to Water Resources

Parabolic trough and central tower systems typically use conventional steam plants to generate electricity, which commonly consume water for cooling. In arid settings, the increased water demand could strain available water resources. If the cooling water was contaminated through an accident, pollution of water resources could occur, although the risk would be minimized by good operating practices.

2.6Solar Energy Potential in Pakistan

Pakistan being in the sunny belt is ideally located to take advantage of the solar energy technologies. This energy source is widely distributed and abundantly available in the country. During last twenty years Pakistan has shown quite encouraging developments in photovoltaic (PV). Currently, solar technology is being used in Pakistan for standalone rural telephone exchanges, repeater stations, highway emergency telephones, catholic protection, refrigeration for vaccine and medicines in the hospitals etc. Figs.9 and 10 depict solar maps of Pakistan drawn through satellite imaginary technique. In these figures, the computer model estimates of monthly average daily total radiation, averaged from hourly estimates of direct normal irradiance over 3.5years
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(April2002September2005) are presented. The model inputs are hourly visible irradiance from the Metiosat geostationary satellite and monthly average aerosol optical depth, precipitation water vapor and ozone sampled at a 10km resolution. These figures show that Pakistan has huge favorable solar resource potential for energy generation. The average daily isolation amounts to approximately 57kWh/m2/day. Especially the south western province of Baluchistan and North eastern part of Sind offers excellent conditions for harnessing solar energy. There the sun shines between 6 to 8 hours daily or approximately more than 23002700 hours per annum. The average daily insulation of 57 kWh/m2 /day means daily sun energy of 1825 MJ/m2/day is available as input natural resource of energy to be exploited for photovoltaic power generation or solar thermal applications. The useful conversion of input energy depends upon system/product efficiency.

Figure 6 Pak Solar map for Global Radiation

Figure 7 Pak Solar Map for direct normal radiation

For photovoltaic (PV) power generation with 14% efficient PV panels installed over area of 10x10km2, PV generation capacity of 5.6GW can be attained with average isolation of 0.8kW/m2. [5] So covering10x10km2 area of land in Pakistan with PV panels can produce energy equivalent to 30 MTOE whereas total energy demand of the country is presently estimated to be 62 MTOE. Similarly covering the same area with solar concentrator technology which is 70% efficient energy equivalent to 80 MTOE can be produced. Solar thermal appliances are available which can be employed for meeting thermal energy demands of the country especially during winter seasons. Despite favorable conditions, the use of solar energy for generating electricity or heating is still in its beginnings.
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The Public Health Department has installed many solar water pumps for drinking purposes in different parts of the country. Both the private and public sectors are playing their roles in the popularization and up grading of photovoltaic activities in the country. A number of companies are not only involved in trading photovoltaic products and appliances but also manufacturing different components of PV systems. They are selling PV modules, batteries, regulators, invertors, as well as practical low power gadgets for load shedding such as photovoltaic lamps, battery chargers, garden lights etc. As is becoming painfully evident with summer around the corner, Pakistan is an exceptionally sunny country. If 0.25% of Baluchistan was covered with solar panels with an efficiency of 20%, enough electricity would be generated to cover all of Pakistani demand. In all provinces the AEDB has created 100 solar homes in order to exploit solar energy. Solar energy makes much sense for Pakistan for several reasons: firstly, 70% of the population lives in 50,000 villages that are very far away from the national grid, according to a report by the Solar Energy Research Centre (SERC). Connecting these villages to the national grid would be very costly, thus giving each house a solar panel would be cost efficient and would empower people both economically and socially. [6]

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Chapter 3

CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors to focus a large area of sunlight onto a small area. Electrical power is produced when the concentrated light is directed onto photovoltaic surfaces or used to heat a transfer fluid for a conventional power plant. [13] Concentrated solar power systems are divided into

concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) concentrating photovoltaics and thermal (CPT) concentrated solar thermal (CST)

3.1 Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV)

The systems employ sunlight concentrated onto photovoltaic surfaces for the purpose of electrical power production. Solar concentrators of all varieties may be used, and these are often mounted on a solar tracker in order to keep the focal point upon the cell as the Sun moves across the sky. Serious research and development work on concentrator PV systems has been conducted since the 1970s. For example, a linear-trough concentrator system was tested and installed at Sandia National Laboratories, and the first modern point focus photovoltaic concentrating system was developed in the Sandia, both late in that decade. The latter system used a point focus acrylic Fresnel lens focusing on water-cooled silicon cells and two axis tracking. A similar concept was used in other prototypes. Ramn Arecas system, developed in the late 1970s, used hybrid silicone-glass Fresnel lenses, while cooling of a silicon cell was achieved with a passive heat sink. Luminescent solar concentrators (when combined with a PV-solar cell) can also be regarded as a Concentrating photovoltaics (CPV) system. Luminescent solar concentrators are useful as they can improve performance of PVsolar panels drastically.

3.2 Concentrating Photovoltaics and Thermal (CPVT)

This technology produces both electricity and thermal heat in the same module. Thermal heat can be employed for hot tap water, heating and heat-powered air conditioning (solar cooling), desalination or solar process heat. CPVT systems can be used in private homes and increase
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total energy output to 40-50%, as compared with normal PV panels with 10-20% efficiency, and they produce more thermal heat in wintertime compared with normal thermal collectors. Also, thermal systems do not overheat.

3.3 Concentrated solar power

The basic concept of concentrating solar power is relatively simple: CSP devices concentrate energy from the suns rays to heat a receiver to high temperatures.1 This heat is transformed first into mechanical energy (by turbines or other

engines) and then into electricity. CSP also holds potential for producing other energy carriers (solar fuels). CSP is a proven technology. The first commercial plants began operating in California in the period 1984 to 1991, spurred by federal and state tax incentives and mandatory long-term power purchase contracts. A drop in fossil fuel prices then led the federal and state governments to dismantle the policy framework that had supported the advancement of CSP. In 2006, the market re- emerged in Spain and the United States, again in response to government measures such as feed- in tariffs (Spain) and policies obliging utilities to obtain some share of power from renewable and from large solar in particular. As of early 2010, the global stock of CSP plants neared 1 GW capacity. Projects now in development or under construction in more than a dozen countries (including China, India, Morocco, Spain and the United States) are expected to total 15 GW. Parabolic troughs account for the largest share of the current CSP market, but competing technologies are emerging. Some plants now incorporate thermal storage.

3.4 Current CSP technologies for power production

At present, there are four main CSP technology families, which can be categorized by the way they focus the suns rays and the technology used to receive the suns energy. [14] [15] [16]

3.4.1 Parabolic troughs (line focus, mobile receiver)

Parabolic trough systems consist of parallel rows of mirrors (reflectors) curved in one dimension to focus the suns rays. The mirror arrays can be more than 100 m long with
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the curved surface 5 m to 6 m across. Stainless steel pipes (absorber tubes) with a selective coating serve as the heat collectors. The coating is designed to allow pipe

Figure 8 Parabolic trough with absorber tube at its focal point

to absorb high levels of solar radiation while emitting very little infra-red radiation. The pipes are insulated in an evacuated glass envelope. The reflectors and the absorber tubes move in tandem with the sun as it crosses the sky.All parabolic trough plants currently in commercial operation rely on synthetic oil as the fluid that transfers heat (the heat transfer fluid) from collector pipes to heat

exchangers, where water is preheated, evaporated and then superheated. The superheated steam runs a turbine, which drives a generator to produce electricity. After being cooled and condensed, the water returns to the heat exchangers. Parabolic troughs are the most mature of the CSP technologies and form the bulk of current commercial plants. Most existing plants, however, have little or no thermal storage and rely on combustible fuel as a backup to firm capacity. For example, all CSP plants in Spain derive 12% to 15% of their annual electricity generation from burning natural gas. capacities. Some newer plants have significant thermal storage

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Figure 9 Te four CSP technology families

3.4.2 Linear Fresnel reflectors (line focus, fixed receiver)

Linear Fresnel reflectors (LFRs) approximate the parabolic shape of trough systems but by using long rows of flat or slightly curved mirrors to reflect the suns

Figure 10 Linear Fresnel reflectors

rays onto a downward-facing linear, fixed receiver. A more recent design, known as compact linear Fresnel reflectors (CLFRs), uses two parallel receivers for each
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row of mirrors and thus needs less land than parabolic troughs to produce a given output. The main advantage of LFR systems is that their simple design of flexibly bent mirrors and fixed receivers requires lower investment costs and facilitates direct steam generation (DSG), thereby eliminating the need for and cost of heat transfer fluids and heat exchangers. LFR plants are, however, less efficient than troughs in converting solar energy to electricity and it is more difficult to incorporate storage capacity into their design.

3.4.3Solar towers (point focus, fixed receiver)

Solar towers, also known as central receiver systems (CRS), use hundreds or thousands of small reflectors (called heliostats) to concentrate the suns rays on a central receiver placed atop a fixed tower. Some commercial tower plants now in

Figure 11 Solar towers (point focus, fixed receiver)

operation use DSG in the receiver; others use molten salts as both the heat transfer fluid and storage medium. The concentrating power of the tower concept achieves very high temperatures, thereby increasing the efficiency at which heat is converted into electricity and reducing the cost of thermal storage. In addition, the concept is highly flexible; designers can choose from a wide variety of heliostats, receivers, transfer fluids and power blocks. Some plants have several towers that feed one power block.

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3.4.4 Parabolic dishes (point focus, mobile receiver)

.Parabolic dishes concentrate the suns rays at a focal point propped above the centre of the dish. The entire apparatus tracks the sun, with the dish and receiver moving in tandem. Most dishes have an independent engine/generator (such as a Sterling e t c .

Figure 12 Parabolic dishes

at the focal point. This design eliminates the need for a heat transfer fluid and for cooling water. Dishes offer the highest solar-to-electric conversion performance of any CSP system. Several features the compact size, absence of cooling water, and low compatibility with thermal storage and hybridization put parabolic dishes in competition with PV modules, especially concentrating photovoltaics (CPV ), as much as with other CSP technologies. Very large dishes, which have been proven compatible to thermal storage and fuel backup, are the exception. Promoters claim that mass production will allow dishes to compete with larger solar thermal systems. Parabolic dishes are limited in size (typically tens of kW or smaller) and each produces electricity independently, which means that hundreds or

thousands of them would need to be co -located to create a large-scale plant. By contrast, other CSP designs can have capacities covering a very wide range, star
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ting as low as 1 MW. The optimal size of troughs, LFR and towers, t typically from 10 0 MW to 250 MW, depends on the efficiency of the power block.

3.4.5 Other systems

Some smaller CSP devices combine fixed receivers with parabolic troughs or, more often, dishes (called Schaffer dishes). They are notably used in India for steam cooking devices in facilities that serve thousands meals per day. Dishes have also been used for process heat by gathering the heat collected by each dish; feeding a single power block to produce electricity this way is possible, but this option does not seem to be pursued at present.

3.5 Enhancing the value of CSP capacities

In arid and semi-arid areas suitable for CSP production, sunlight usually exhibits a good match with electricity demand and its peaks, driven by air-conditioning loads. However, the available sunlight varies somewhat even in the sunniest places. Furthermore, human activity and thermal inertia of buildings often maintain high demand for electricity hours after sunset. To provide a larger share of clean electricity and maximize CO2 emission reductions, CSP plants will need to provide base load power. Thermal storage and backup or hybridization with fuels helps address these issues.

3.6 Thermal storage

All CSP plants have some ability to store heat energy for short periods of time and thus have a buffering capacity that allows them to smooth electricity

production considerably and

eliminate the short t-term variations other solar

technologies exhibit during cloudy days. Recently, operators have begun to build thermal storage systems into CSP plants. The concept of thermal storage is simple: throughout the day, excess heat is diverted to a storage material (e.g. molten salts). When production is required after sunset, the stored heat is released into the steam cycle and the plant continues to produce electricity.

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Figure 13 Thermal storage

Studies show that, in locations with good sunlight, extending electricity production to match this demand requires a storage capacity of two to four hours. In slightly less sunny areas, storage could be larger, as it also helps compensate for the somewhat less predictable resource. The solar field is somewhat larger relative to the rated electrical capacity (i.e. the plant has a greater solar multiple), to ensure sufficient electricity production. As a result, at maximum sunlight power, solar fields produce more heat than their turbines can absorb. In the absence of storage, on the sunniest hours, plant operators would need to defocus some unneeded solar collectors. Storage avoids losing this energy while also allowing for extending production after sunset. For example, some trough plants in Spain store enough heat in molten salts to produce power at the rated capacity of the turbine (50 MWe) for more than 7 additional hours.

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Figure 14 four different configurations of CSP plant

CSP plants with large storage capacities may be able to produce base-load solar electricity day and night, making it possible for low-carbon CSP plants to compete with coal-fired power plants that emit high levels of CO2. For example, one 17 MW solar power plant under construction in Spain will use molten salts as both heat transfer fluid and storage medium and store enough heat energy to run the plant at full load for 16 hours. Storage has a cost, however, and cannot be expanded indefinitely to prevent rare events of solar energy shortages.

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Figure 15 four different configurations of CSP plant

A current industry focus is to significantly increase the temperature to improve overall efficiency of CSP plants and reduce storage costs. Enhanced thermal storage would help to guarantee capacity and expand production. Storage potentially makes base-load solar-only power plants possible, although fuel-powered backup and hybridization have their own advantages and are likely to remain, as described below.

3.7 Backup and hybridization

Virtually all CSP plants, with or without storage, are equipped with fuel-powered backup systems the help to regulate production and guarantee capacity especially in peak and mid-peak periods. The fuel burners (which can use fossil fuel, biogas or, eventually, solar fuels) can provide energy to the heat transfer fluid or the storage medium, or directly to the power block. In areas where DNI is less than ideal, fuel25

powered backup makes it possible to almost completely guarantee the plants production capacity at a lower cost than if the plant depended only on the solar field and thermal storage (Figure 4). Providing 100% firm capacity with only thermal storage would require significantly more investment in reserve solar field and storage capacity, which would produce little energy over the year.

3.8 Other Concerns

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems could potentially cause interference with aircraft operations if reflected light beams become misdirected into aircraft pathways. Operation of solar energy facilities and especially concentrating solar power facilities involves high temperatures that may pose an environmental or safety risk. Like all electrical generating facilities, solar facilities produce electric and magnetic fields. Construction and decommissioning of utility-scale solar energy facilities would involve a variety of possible impacts normally encountered in construction/decommissioning of large-scale industrial facilities. If new electric transmission lines or related facilities were needed to service a new solar energy development, construction, operation, and decommissioning of the transmission facilities could also cause a variety of environmental impacts

3.9 Solar tracker

A solar tracker is a generic term used to describe devices that orient various payloads toward the Sun. Payloads can be photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical devices. In concentrated solar thermal (CSP) and concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) applications trackers are used to enable the optical components in the CPV and CSP systems. The optics in concentrated solar applications accepts the direct component of sunlight light and therefore must be oriented appropriately to collect energy. Tracking systems are found in all concentrator applications because systems do not produce energy unless oriented toward the sun.

Types of parabolic trough tracker

To track PTC systems for thermal applications, three types of trackers are commercially available. Computer tracker Shadow band tracker Flux line tracker

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3.9.1Computer tracker
A computer tracker uses a clock to compute the sun's position and initiate the collector rotation to the computer anvil. Shaft encoders mounted on the driving unit provide accurate accounting of the angular position.

Figure 16 Computer tracker

3.9.2Shadow band tracker

A shadow based sensor is mounted on the collector and rotated along with it. Two sensors are separated by a shadowing strip which shades one of the sensors if the tracker is not pointed directly at the sun. The sensors produce an error signal when they are not illuminated equally. This error signal is used to drive the PTC in a proper direction to reduce the signal to zero.

Figure 17 Shadow band tracker

3.9.3Flux line tracker

The flux line tracker has two sensors, which are sensitive to concentrated flux, located near the receiver. As with shadow band trackers, if the collector is off-pointed, an error signal is
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nulled. Flux line trackers are the only tracker versions that orient the collector based on where the focal line actually is, rather than where it should be

Figure 18 Flux line tracker

3.9.4Combined Computer and Flux-line Tracker

Sandia Laboratories have developed an efficient computer/flux line tracking system as shown.

Figure 19 combined computer and flux tracker

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The tracking angle is calculated with a microprocessor, and the collector is positioned in this direction. A fine tuning of the tracking angle is accomplished with the flux line tracker. A pair of resistance wires, helically wrapped around the receiver, provides an error signal. The resistance wire spans the full length of the receiver and integrates the receiver's entire flux distribution to find the best tracking angle for the collector as a whole. [19]

3.10Orientation and tracking mode:

A parabolic trough collector is oriented with its focal axis pointed either in the east-west(EW) and north-south(N-S) direction. In the east-west orientation, the focal axis is horizontal, while in the north-south orientation, the focal axis may be horizontal and inclined. The various tracking modes, which can be adopted, are as follow:

3.10.1Mode 1:
The focal axis is east-west and horizontal. The collector is rotated about a horizontal eastwest axis and adjusted once every day so that the solar beam is normal to the collector aperture plane at solar noon on that day. In this mode, the aperture plane is an imaginary surface with either =0 or =180. The case of =0 occurs when(-)>0, while the case of =180 occurs when (-)<0. In order to find the slope of the aperture plane, we substitute the condition at solar noon, viz. =0, =0. This yield, = (-) for =0 = (-) for =180 The angle of incidence of the beam radiation on the aperture plane throughout the day is obtained by putting the above equations in the tracking system equation. For both case =0 and =180, we obtain the same relation

3.10.2Mode 2:
The focal axis is E-W and horizontal. The collector is rotated about a horizontal E-W axis and adjusted continuously so that the solar beam makes the minimum angle of incidence with the aperture plane at all times.

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In this mode also, the aperture plane is an imaginary surface with either =0 or =180. In order to find the condition to be satisfied for to be minimum we differentiate the right hand side of the resulting equation with respect to and square it to zero. Thus we get tan (-) = [tan / cos ] for =0 tan (+) = [tan / cos ] for =180 The above equation can be used for finding the slope of the aperture plane. Equation corresponding to =0 is used if the magnitude of the solar azimuth angle , is less than 90, while equation corresponding to =180 is used if the magnitude of the solar azimuth angle is greater than 90. The expression for the corresponding s minimum angle of incidence is obtained by substituting the above equations in the appropriate version of tracking system equation. For both cases we obtain: cos = (1 - cossin)

3.10.3Mode 3:
The focal axis is N-S and horizontal. The collector is rotated about a horizontal N-S axis and adjusted continuously so that the solar beam makes the minimum angle of incidence with the aperture plane at all times. In this mode the surface azimuth angle = +90 before noon and -90 after noon. Thus before noon, equation becomes cos = (sin sin + cos cos cos) cos + cos sin sin

In order to find the condition to be satisfied for

to be a minimum, we differentiate the right

hand side of above equation with respect to and equate it to zero. Thus, we get: = tan[ cos sin / (sinsin + cos cos cos) ] This equation is used for finding the slope of the aperture plane at any time before noon. The expression for the corresponding minimum angle of incidence is obtained by substituting the above equations giving
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cos = [( sin sin + cos cos cos) + cos sin ] After noon, i.e. with = -90, we would obtain = tan [ (-cos sin ) / ( sin sin + cos cos cos) ] The expression for cos remains the same.

3.10.4Mode 4:
The focal axis is N-S and inclined at a fixed angle equal to the latitude. Thus, it is parallel to earths axis. This orientation is sometimes referred to as polar mount. The collector is rotated about an axis parallel to the earths axis at an angular velocity equal and opposite to earths rate of rotation( 15 per hour). It is adjusted such that at solar noon the aperture plane is an inclined surface facing due south. Thus, putting = and = 0 in solar tracking equation we get to know that angle of incidence is equal to angle of declination.

3.10.5Mode 5:
The focal axis is N-S and inclined. The collector is rotated continuously (but not at a constant angular velocity) about an axis parallel to the focal axis, as well as about a

horizontal axis perpendicular to this axis , and adjusted so that the solar beam is normally incident on the aperture plane at all times. In this situation, obviously cos = 1. It is easy to show that at solar noon, =II It is of interest to compare the amounts of beam radiation which would be incident on a collectors aperture plane over a day if one adopted the various tracking modes. This comparison is made through by numerical experimentations. [21]

3.11 PRACTICAL POWER PLANTS

3.11.1 SEGS 1-9 (LUZ INTERNATIONAL)
Luz International Limited, the worlds leading developer of solar electric systems, has recently begun 400 MW solar power plant expansions in California. Luz's Solar Electric Generating Stations (SEGS) with a combined capacity of 194 Mew are already operating in the Southern California Mojave Desert. These plants produce more than 90 percent of the
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world's grid connected solar electricity. SEGS use thermal energy from a parabolic solar collector system to produce steam which drives a conventional Rankin cycle steam turbine/generator. The seven current units are located at two locations ranging in size from 14 to 30 MWe net. [17] Luz International, a privately owned firm headquartered in Los Angeles, California, has designed, financed, constructed and is now operating the SEGS units. The Southern California Edison Company has signed long term contracts to purchase the power output. The plants are owned by private investor limited partnerships. The initial 14 MWe unit SEGS I was placed in service in 1984 on 67 acres on land next to the Southern California Edison Company Cool Water Generating Station at Daggett, California, about 140 miles northeast of Los Angeles. SEGS II has a capacity of 30 MWe and was completed in 1985 at the same location using 150 acres. SEGS Ill through SEGS VI1 are rated 30 MWe each and are located at Kramer Junction, California, about 40 miles west of the Daggett site on approximately 1000 acres. SEGS I-VI account for more than 90 percent of the electricity currently produced by solar energy in the United States.Construction has started on an 80 MWe unit at Harper Dry Lake about 30 miles northwest of Daggett and is scheduled for completion by the end of 1989. Four additional 80 MWe units are planned for installation by the end of 1993 at this 2250 acre site. When all units are completed, the combined solar capacity of the 12 SEGS units will be almost 600 MWe, enough power to meet the residential electricity needs of approximately 800,000 people. To optimize revenues, it is important that maximum electrical output is delivered during the utility on-peak hours when electricity rates are highest. This is partially accomplished with the aid of a natural gas boiler or heat transfer fluid heater that can either supplement the solar field or operate independently. The energy supplied by natural gas is limited to 25 percent of the total effective annual solar energy input by regulations of the U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.

As the design has progressed from SEGS I through SEGS VII, significant design advances have been made to increase the power plant efficiency and to advance solar collector field cost effectiveness. The design levels of annual electrical output are given in Table below

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Table 1 Luz International Plant Data

3.11.2 System design

The plants consist of the following primary subsystems: Line-focus parabolic trough solar field
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Heat transfer fluid system (HTF) Reheat steam turbine/generator Waste heat discharge Water supply and treatment Natural gas-fired steam boiler or HTF heater

The plants are operated to provide maximum power during the period when utility rates are highest. The most critical period for delivery of electricity is from 12 p.m. to 6 p.m. During weekdays of June through September, a period which coincides well with the ability to operate at full power on solar input only. Natural gas is used to supplement solar in periods of low isolation such as cloudy days, or in selected evening hours when operation is desired. Approximately 70 percent of the total annual electrical output is supplied by solar energy alone.[18]

3.11.3 Solar collector field

The parabolic trough solar collector IS a mirrored glass reflector which focuses direct radiation on an efficient evacuated receiver, or heat collection element (HCE). Luz Industries Israel has developed and manufactured three generations of solar collector assemblies, the LS-1 (Luz System I), LS-2 and now the LS-3. The LS-2 collector, partially utilized in SEGS VII, has extensive field experience in the SEGS II through SEGS V plants; a total of 3,468 LS-2 SCAs with a total collecting surface of 814,980 sq. meters are currently in operation. A schematic process diagram of the plant design for SEGS VI is shown in Fig. 27. The solar field is made up of a number of modular solar collector assemblies that are described in more detail below. As an example of the solar field arrangement, SEGS VI contains 800 SCAs, each with a mirror aperture area of 235 square meters. These assemblies are arranged in flow loops of 16 each, with a total of 50 loops in the solar field. Each loop is connected to the main HTF hot and cold headers so that the HTF in each loop is heated by solar energy from 304OC to 390OC. Thus temporary malfunction of any single SCA or flow loop will only reduce the solar field output proportional to the mirror area that has been put out of service. Solar tracking of the SCAs is accomplished via a centralized microcomputer control system. The heated HTF flows through a series of heat exchangers to produce superheated steam at 100 bars and 371oC. A portion of the HTF is also diverted to another heat exchanger for reheating of the turbine steam. The HTF flow is circulated by variable-speed centrifugal
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pumps in series. Two pumps provide full HTF flow, with a third pump in series for redundancy; maximum flow is 1.72 x IO6 liters per hour.

Figure 20 Process Diagram of SEGS VI Power Plant

The power block consists of a reheat steam turbine cycle utilizing a conventional turbine generator unit and major steam-water cycle equipment, with extractions to five feed water heaters and the desecrator. The exhaust pressure is approximately 0.07 bars. The condenser cooling water circulates to a mechanical draft cooling tower located near the turbine. Total cooling water flow is about 5 million liters/hour.

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Raw water is provided to the SEGS projects either from ground wells or, in the case of the Kramer Junction site, pumped 14.5 km from the California aqueduct system. Plant demineralizers condition the water, and the blow down from the cooling tower sump is sent to evaporation ponds. Total water usage is about 450 acre-feet per year for a 30 MW plant. The natural gas-fired unit is used to help assure that the SEGS plants meet their summer capacity targets during periods of cloudy weather. Initially the natural gas-fired boiler was also used to supply the night time production required to meet the winter time on-peak demand period. Since the winter night time on-peak rate period was eliminated, the natural gas boiler is used to supplement solar production during summer and winter mid-peak rate periods.

3.11.4 Operation
Since solar energy is in essence a free fuel, all efforts are made to maximize solar electric production. In addition, the amount of gas available to be burned in the natural gas boiler depends directly on the amount of solar production. For every 3 Buts of solar energy collected, 1 Btu of gas can be burned. Since the amount of gas available to burn is limited by FERC rules, a well-defined operating strategy is used to optimize revenues to the projects. This, in addition, supplies electricity to the utility when it is needed the most. Gas is used first to fill the summer on-peak period during cloudy days, or later in the summer when solar

operation drops off before the end of the on-peak period. The second highest rate period is the summer mid-peak period. Solar operation supplies the morning mid-peak period, but only a small amount of the afternoon midpeak production can be supplied by solar operation. Thus the gas-fired boiler is used to supply energy during this portion of the day. The remaining natural gas is used to supplement solar operation during the winter mid-peak period. The efficiency of the power plant drops off at part load and the solar mode power production is reduced substantially in the winter. Hybrid operation during this time of year can result in a
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Figure 21 Solar only MWe output for 30 mw net SEGS plant

10 to 20% improvement in the solar mode operating efficiency. Thus the remaining gas within the FERC 25% limit is used to operate in hybrid mode during mid-peak periods when the most benefit can be gained from operating the plan at full load. The Luz parabolic trough solar collectors utilize a single north-south axis orientation to track the sun. Although the more common east-west axis orientation gives a slightly higher and more even annual distribution of electric production, the north-south axis biases summer operation. This allows a higher percentage of the on-peak rate period to be supplied by solar energy. Daylight savings time further shifts solar production to meet summer on-peak hours. The north-south axis also causes the noon time dip in solar production seen in Fig. 28 during winter months. This dip is due to the path the sun takes through the sky in the winter. In the morning and afternoon the incident angle between the collector and the sun is smallest. Thus the highest solar flux is absorbed during these times. At solar noon the sun is sitting low in the southern sky, but the parabolic troughs are facing straight up, resulting in the largest incident angle. For SEGS Ill at the peak of production in April and May the daily solar to electric efficiency is approximately 16 percent. More recent designs, SEGS VI and VII are running about 21 percent. Peak efficiencies at solar noon are closer to 24 percent.

3.11.5 Major technical issues

A SEGS power plant is essentially a marriage between a new and unique technology for converting solar energy into usable thermal energy, and a more conventional technology for converting that thermal energy into electricity. Thus, it is likely that the major

troubleshooting effort in a new plant of this nature will be associated with those systems that are based on new technology as opposed to those systems which have a proven commercial-scale track record. The major technical issues associated with the 1988 performance of the SEGS Kramer Junction solar fields were effectiveness and frequency of mirror washing, Heat Collection Element (HCE) tube breakage, and operational considerations.

3.11.5.1Mirror washing
Given that the cumulative mirror surface area contained in SEGS I-VI1 is 1,350,000 square meters (over 300 acres), the necessity of a cost-effective mirror washing program is a top priority. A new mirror has a reflectivity of 94 percent; the objective of the mirror washing program is to maintain an average solar field reflectivity of 88-90 percent.
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Performance data shows that a drop in average solar field reflectivity of 3 percent results in a drop in solar power output of about 4 percent. Luz has undertaken extensive efforts over the last three years to develop the most cost-effective means of washing mirrors. The optimum system at present is use of a high-pressure jet of dematerialized water to wash the mirrors on an approximate two-week cycle. That is, each mirror in the field gets washed about once every two weeks. Several tight trailers have been fabricated, each equipped with a 1900 liter (500 gallon) dematerialized water storage tank and two high pressure pumps with hand-held spray wands. The trailers are pulled through the solar fields by small tractors.

3.11.5.2HCE tube breakage

During the initial startup phase of SEGS Ill and IV in early 1987, a HCE tube breakage rate slightly higher than projected was observed, affecting up to 7 percent of the solar field. The breakage of the outer glass envelope of the HCE was caused by war page of the inner stainless steel receiver to the point where it impacted the glass envelope. If breakage occurs, the efficiency of that single HCE drops to 85 percent of its design value. Thus 7 percent breakage could result in a drop in overall performance of about 1 percent.

3.11.5.3Operational considerations
Luz has gained considerable experience over the last two years in operating the solar fields under various conditions involving weather and solar isolation. Changing desert weather conditions, particularly high wind conditions and rain, require unique solar field operational procedures to optimize field performance and protect equipment. The solar fields are structurally designed to withstand a 113 km/hr (70 mph) wind while in the stowed position (The stowed position is 30 degrees below the eastern horizon. Strict operating guidelines are observed to ensure that the fields are adequately protected from high winds. For example, when the average wind speed reaches a certain level (about 40 kHz), the fields are configured in a protected mode that involves stowing all perimeter solar collector assemblies. When the average wind speed reaches 56 kHz (35 mph), the entire field is stowed. On a day when rain is forecast, the fields are oriented with all solar collector assemblies facing directly up. The rain provides a very good mirror wash with natures demineralized water. The rare snowfalls seen in the desert provide an even better mirror cleaning. The SEGS Ill-VI1 solar fields are sized such that, during periods of maximum summer solar isolation, the fields can produce more thermal energy that the power blocks are able to convert. As a result, up to 15 percent of the solar collector assemblies in each field are defocused during periods of maximum isolation. Technology has been advanced with the
38

introduction of the third generation of Luz collector system to further decrease costs and improve solar field performance. The essential changes in the latest collectors-designated as the LS-3 and used in half of SEGS VII as well as planned for all of SEGS VIII-are: doubling of mirror aperture area per tracking assembly to 545 m2, replacement of the torque tube structure with a truss structure, use of a hydraulic drive in contrast to a gear/cable drive, utilization of a new cermets selective surface on the receiver (introduced in SEGS VI), and improved solar field control systems in addition to other component upgrades. [17] [18]

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Chapter 4

METHODOLOGY
4.1Design Analysis
4.1.1Design of water tank:
Water tank is design in such a way so that it fulfills the following needs: 1. The supply is water is continuously supplied to pre-heater and concentrator all the time so that continuous steam generation is done easily. 2. It is design in such a way so that no pump is required for the supply of water from reservoir to the concentrator due to the economical problems. For this purpose we have to place the reservoir above than that of pre-heater and solar concentrator. So that by gravity system water flows where it is needed.

Material Selection:
Material selected for the water tank or reservoir is metal when sun rays falls on it, it will increase the temperature of water a few degrees.

Figure 22 water tank

4.1.2 Design of Solar Concentrator:

Parallel radiation may be concentrated with solar reflectors. A parabolic trough concentrates light on a line and a parabolic dish concentrates on a point. Both solar reflectors make excellent science projects.
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4.1.3 Parabolic Trough:

Solar power plants use parabolic troughs to make superheated steam to generate the electricity because their fabrication and tracking equipment is less expensive than the dish. A simple parabolic trough may be made with a sheet of cardboard lined with a piece of aluminum foil.

Geometry:
The first task was the design of parabola geometry for the collection of the concentrated rays. There were two constraints Increasing the curve would reduce the focal point and the HCE would be closer to the structure, hence more stability, concentration intensity increases and convection losses reduce. But it would reduce the collection area. Flattening the curve would increase the aperture but would mean that the focal point has to be further away. The task was finally done by software Auto-CAD.

Figure 23 parabola design

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Procedure:
Use this grid to plot the x values of the curve with a special parabola with a formula

Where a is the focal length

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Y 0 0.02 0.07 0.16 0.29 0.45 0.64 0.88 1.14 1.45 1.79 2.16 2.57 3.02 3.50 4.02 4.57 5.16 5.79 6.45 7.14 7.88 8.64 9.45 10.29 11.16 12.07

x 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 -17 -18 -19 -20 -21 -22 -23 -24 -25 -26

y 0 0.02 0.07 0.16 0.29 0.45 0.64 0.88 1.14 1.45 1.79 2.16 2.57 3.02 3.50 4.02 4.57 5.16 5.79 6.45 7.14 7.88 8.64 9.45 10.29 11.16 12.07

Table 2 coordinates of the parabola

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We use the coordinates to draw the parabola on the AutoCAD and cut the pattern on the CNCmachine for the fabrication of our project. The shape of pattern looks like below.

Table 3 wooden pattern

The hole is the focal point of parabola where all rays after reflecting from parabola are emerge to give a concentration intensity of sun rays. The whole design of our trough is completed on the AutoCAD

Material Selection for Reflector:

Much of the time of designing was devoted towards the material selection for the reflector, since it is the most important parameter that would directly affect the temperature to be achieved. Some of the considerations that were required for a reflector were. 1. It should have a good reflectance, i.e. the almost all of the incident rays should be reflected to the HCE. 2. It should have a low absorptivity, i.e. it should not absorb the incident solar rays. 3. And last and most importantly it should be available locally and should not be expensive.

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After considerable consultation and market research it was finally decided that we would use stainless steel sheet magnet 430.

4.1.4Design of HCE (Heat Collection Element): Material Selection:

A heat collection element is where all the reflected rays from the collector are concentrated. An HCE should have the following properties: 1. It should have a very good thermal conductivity. 2. It should have very low emittance. 3. It should have very high absorbivity. 4. The diameter of the pipe is small so that quick heat transfer takes place from pipe surface to water that is in the pipe. The following graph was made from the data taken from engineering toolbox an online resource:

Figure 24 thermal conductivities of metals

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To minimize the thermal losses receiver tube is covered with the glass tube. The glass used for this purpose is transparent and have a wall thickness of 2mm.the outer diameter of the glass is 38mm.

Figure 25 heat collection element

4.1.5Design of Collector Base and Rotation Structure and Material Selection:

This was one of the most challenging aspects of this project. Following things has to be taken into account the: A base structure 1. Should easily accommodate the rotation assembly. 2. It should be flexible enough to accommodate manual or automatic rotation. 3. It should be light in weight yet strong enough to the shifts in weight that would occur due to the rotation. The following structure was agreed after much deliberation. Major Features of this design were: 1. The end pillars which would support all the base structure and solar concentrator. 2. The end braces for the holding of Mirror and is clamed with screws so that concentrator does not slip from the base stand. 3. The metal bars that would hold the HCE. 4. And finally the lateral rods so that the sheet doesnt wobble. 5. Also the bushings and the bearings for the rotation.

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Figure 26 Collector Base

4.1.6Fitting of Solar Concentrator and Base Structure:

After design of all the things fitting of base rotation structure and solar concentrator is very important.

Figure 27 Collector Base and Rotation Structure

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4.1.7 Design Conclusions and Comments:

The major difficulty during the design part was the unavailability of major resources about parabolic troughs. The major research is on the macro level and the applications of SCP on the micro level have not been generally established till now. The only company that was found was Hawaii Bases Company SOPOGY INC which specializes in making micro scale solar parabolic troughs for different applications such as Power generation Process steam for Industrial use. HVAC applications.

The designing of SPT was a very challenging experience which tested many aspects of our Theoretical and practical Knowledge.

4.2Design Calculations
4.2.1Solar analysis:
The construction of the parabolic trough solar steam generator was made taking into account following design specifications: Diameter of the sun: 1.39x106km; Average distance of the sun from the earth: 1.5x108km; Radius of the earth (re): 6400km; Effective temperature of the surface of the sun 5762K; The sun's central interior region temperature (estimation): 8x10 6K to 40x106K; Density of the sun: 80 to 100 times that of water; Solar constant (Isc): 1353w/m2; Extraterrestrial radiation (Io): 1414w/m2 (maximum); 1324w/m2 (minimum); Geographical location of Pakistan. o Latitude between 24N and 37N. o Longitude between 61E and 76E Pakistan land area (A) = 800000km2

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On average yearly total solar energy incident on a horizontal surface in

Pakistan:2117kwh/m[29]

4.2.2Solar radiations calculations: 4.2.2.1Energy coming from sun on earth:

Average distance of the sun from the earth = 1.5x10 8km Consider a sphere of radius 1.5x108km with the sun at its centre. Let Ss = surface area of this imaginary sphere AE = cross sectional area of the earth rs = radius of the sphere re = radius of the earth Therefore

= {[(1.287x1014)/ (2.828x1023)] x100}

= 0.0000000455%

This then means that the earth receives 0.0000000455% of sun's energy output. The world's average annual energy consumption is 9.262x1023kwh . [29]

4.2.2.2Total solar energy available in Pakistan:

Hence, Pakistan would receive radiation at that rate: Let, Rc = extraterrestrial radiation A = continental land area
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Isc = extraterrestrial solar constant

Therefore,

=1353x800000 x 106 =1.0824 x 1015w/m2

Therefore, for a yearly average sunshine hour of 9hours/day = 1.0824 1015x (365x9) =3.556 1018 wh/year

Assuming a clearness index of 50% since 47% of extraterrestrial radiation reaches the earth surface. Terrestrial radiation in Pakistan land area

= [(50/100) 3.556x10 18 = 1.778 1018wh/year

4.2.2.3Direct solar radiations:

The part of solar radiation that reaches the surface of the earth without being scattered, absorbed or reflected is direct radiation and it is the most intense. The intensity of the direct radiation reaching the surface of the earth is a function of time of the day, latitude of location and declination angle. (Awachie, 1982) To calculate the direct radiation reaching the earth surface as a function of time of the day (t), for a location () with the sun at declination (): Let Z -Zenith Angle -Latitude of location -declination angle t -hour angle of the sun

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IZ -Direct Normal Radiation ISC-Extraterrestrial solar radiation constant Ih -Horizontal radiation. For Pakistan the latitude is 300 and at zero hour angle the declination angle also becomes zero. S and C are climatographically determined constants. For Pakistan their values are 0.678 and 0.357 respectively [26]. The Zenith angle is calculated Cos Z = sin sin + cos cos cos t = sin30 sin0 + cos30 cos0 cos0 = 0.5 x 0 + 0.866 x 1 x 1 = 0.866 Z = cos 1 (0.866) = 30 The intensity of the solar radiation after passing through the atmosphere is calculated thus: IZ = ISc C(sec Z)S = 1353 0.357 (1/cos30)0.678 = 1014w/m2

This is the value of the direct radiation on a normal surface and it is the maximum value possible. In practice only systems using full tracking mechanisms can collect this radiation. The value of radiation on a horizontal surface is calculated thus: Ib= IZ cosZ = 1014 x 0.866 = 879w/m2

4.2.2.4Instantaneous solar radiations:

The total solar radiation falling on a horizontal surface is given by:

) Where, I - Average horizontal daily terrestrial radiation for the period (usually 1 month) ISc Extraterrestrial solar radiation a, b- climatically constants for a particular location - Latitude, 0.33N, a, b are 0.32 and 0.4 respectively n - day
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of the year N - Possible daily maximum number of isolation. Angle transmissivity of cover

4.2.3Designing overview:
A solar parabolic trough concentrator is used to harness solar energy at high temperatures depending on the working fluid used. The level of concentration is restricted by the design parameters like concentration ratio and rim angle. Although the values look promising, the whole design process cannot be based only on these values. There is a distinguish reason on the selection of a parabolic concentrator. Since the sun is very far away, the radiation rays that reach a concentrator is parallel to its axis. The parabolic curve would focus all the rays to a focal point, and a trough normally extends the shape in three dimensions to turn the focal point into a focal line. The receiver is placed concentrically along this focal line, as its axis. The reflecting surface on the parabolic surface should have a very good reflectance. Thermal analyses on the overall heat loss coefficient, convective heat transfer coefficient, collector efficiency factor and heat removal factor are performed. Finally, by the aid of meteorological data, the efficiency of the collector is determined.

4.2.4Design specifications:
Our design starts with the construction of small parabolic trough unit. We will design the basic solar parabolic trough for converting the water in to steam at low flow rate. By doing so we can perform the thermal analysis, calculate the heat losses and efficiency. The initial parameters that we assume for our design are, Inlet and outlet temperature of heat transferring fluid

The temperature range that we selected 40-180C0

4.2.5Design of parabolic trough concentrator:

There are many factors involve in the design of parabolic trough that vary region to region. The basic parameters of parabolic trough concentrator are
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a. aperture diameter b. rim angle c. absorber shape and type For the designing we have to assume some parameters that are the initiative steps of our design. The initial parameters which we assume are the rim angle and the focal length.

Figure 28 trough parts

4.2.5.1Rim angle:
The standard values of rim angle are from 80-140. The choice of rim angle depends upon the location of the receiver tube. If we want to kept the receiver tube outside the parabola the rim angle Is kept below the 900 and if we have to kept the receiver tube inside the parabola its value is taken larger than 900. On industrial practices the receiver tube is usually kept out of the parabola. In our design we also kept the receiver tube out of the parabola. We assume our rim angle of 85.70.

4.2.5.2Focal length:
For the designing of the parabola for the parabolic trough we have to decide the focal length of the trough. By using this focal length the X and Y coordinates of the parabola are calculated. We assume the focal length 14inch for our trough.

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4.2.5.3Aperture diameter:
The aperture diameter can be calculated by using the values of the rim angle and the focal length. The focal length of trough is related to rim angle and aperture diameter as

where rim angle

and focal length

inch

in. Aperture diameter is very important factor as it used in many calculations of the trough

4.2.5.6Length of the trough:

As a general rule, length of the box is generally between 1 and 2 times of the aperture diameter. This factor is related to the strength of the frame and its handling. The length of our parabolic trough is 78in which is 1.5 times of the aperture diameter.

4.2.6Design of parabolic receiver tube:

There are two things in the designing of receiver tube which includes; receiver tube Glass tube glazing

4.2.6.1Design Receiver tube:

The design of receiver tube is very complex as the total heat transfer took place on the receiver tube. To design it we have to do the calculations of the diameter of the receiver tube that best suits for our project. Diameter of receiver tube: The concentration ratio is used to calculate the diameter of the receiver tube. The concentration ratio of the trough is given by

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Where, D = width of the trough Dabs = diameter of receiver tube The standard values of concentration ratio range from 20-80. By choosing the higher value of concentration ratio more will be the efficiency but large value of concentration ratio required high precision. For small level of manufacturing the concentration ratio is usually taken between 20-30. So we chose the concentration ratio of 26. By using this value we can find out the diameter of the absorber tube. Putting the values in the above equation we get

Length of the receiver tube: The length of the receiver tube is kept greater than the trough length for the attachment of the fittings which made possible the flow of HTF. So we kept the length of our receiver tube of 84inches.

4.2.6.2Design of glass tube glazing:

To reduce the losses of the receiver tube it is usually covered by the glass glazing cover. This cover increase the heat transfer rate and also constricts the radiations which reflect after striking the receiver tube. The other function is to concentrate the scattered radiations on the receiver. The ratio of glass tube diameter to receiver tube diameter is kept between 2-4 .we chose the ratio 0f 2.5 for our design as according to the availability of materials in the market.

The thickness of the glass cover is taken 2mm so the internal diameter will be 34mm.
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4.2.7Collector properties and Parameters

4.2.7.1Collector Parameters:
The specifications of the collector are given in table below

Description Collector Length Collector Width Total Collector Area Collector Reflective Area Copper tube Outer diameter Copper tube inner diameter Glass tube outer diameter Glass tube inner diameter Collector Weight Focal Length Ambient Operating Temperatures Operating Temperature Ranges

Units (Metric) 1.9812m 1.32m

Units (Standard) 6.5 ft 4.33 ft 28.16ft 25.95ft 0.0525ft

2.616 m
2.41m

.016m .014m .038m .034m 68 kg 0.356m -10 to 50 C 40-180 C

Table 4 Collector parameters

0.04593ft 0.1247ft 0.1115ft 150 lb 1.16 ft 14-122 F 104-356 F

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4.2.7.2Properties of Materials: [25]

material emissivity Conductivity k k - W/(m.K) 385 0.8 50 0.0239 0.74 absorptivity reectivity Transmisivity

Copper Glass Stainless sheet air

0.15 0.86 0.075

0.95 0.85

Table 5 properties of material used

4.2.8Thermal analysis of concentrating collector:

Now we will discuss the thermal analysis of a concentrating collector. An energy balance on absorber tube yields a following equation under steady-state conditions

4.2.8.1Heat losses:
To calculate the rate of useful heat gain we have to calculate the rate of heat loss from the absorber. It can be written in terms of overall heat transfer coefficient defined by the equation [27].

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Receiver tube

Figure 29 Receiver Tube

Where, Absorber tube inner diameter Absorber tube outer diameter Glass tube inner diameter Glass tube outer diameter Emissivity of absorber tube surface Emissivity of glass Mean temperature of absorber tube Ambient temperature wind velocity (Di) = 0.014m (Do) =0.016m (Dci) =0.034m (Dco) =0.038m =0.15 c =0.86 Tpm = (40+180)/2=110C0=383.2K Ta =313.2K V =2.5m/s

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Total losses from absorber tube to glass tube glazing

Total losses from glass tube to surroundings

Heat loss per unit length from absorber tube to glass tube is calculated with equation [27]

Heat loss per unit length from glass tube to surrounding is calculated with equation

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Equations (1) and (2) have to be solved for the unknowns (q/L) and Tc. for this values hp-c and hw are needed, since these values depend upon Tc a trial-and-error method is used. Assume Tc = 325.2

Calculation of hp-c
Mean temperature of air between tube and cover

At this temperature, Thermal conductivity=k = 0.029 (W/m.k) Kinematic viscosity= v = 21.04610-6 (m2/s) Prandtl's number =Pr = 0.707

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Calculation of hw
Mean temperature of air between cover and ambient

At this temperature, Thermal conductivity=k = 0.0275 (W/m.k) Kinematic viscosity= v = 17.5510-6(m2/s) We assume the wind velocity at right angle to the axis of the collector

For convection with uniform surface temperature for circular tubes

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Substituting the values of hw and hp-c in equation1 and equation2 we get the values of Tc and q1/L by trail-and-error method. Different values of Tc are put in the above two equations and the results are shown below in the table. /L(from) Eq.(111) 22.893 22.23 21.66 21.089 20.517 20.32 20.25
Table 6 trail-and-error method results

Tc(k) 325.2 327 328.5 330 331.5 332 332.2

Eq.(222) 13.315 15.402 17.16 18.935 20.72 21.32 21.56

The values of /L at Tc= 331.5K are reasonably close to each other. The average value of 20.618W/m is considered.

Calculation of heat loss coefficient:

The heat loss coefficient is given by the formula,

Total losses:

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Where ,

4.2.8.2Use full heat gain:

Solar flux:

Where,

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Putting these in the equation of useful heat gain

4.2.9Theoratica efficiency

Theoretical efficiency of the system is given by the formula [28]

4.2.10Mass flow rate:

Mass flow rate can be calculated by

For the given condition the mass flow rate was calculated to be 0.0042Kg/sec.

4.2.11Conclusion and results:

Heat gain variations throughout the day are shown below for 22 June.

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These reading are taken on 22 and 23 June respectively. Time Ambient Temperature 9am (C) 40 10am 40 11am 40 12pm 41 1pm 42 2pm 42 3pm 41 4pm 40 5pm 38 Focal Point Temperature 94 (C) 120 137 155 165 160 154 136 125

Table 7 22 June results

Time Ambient Temperature 9am (C) 40 10am 40 11am 40 12pm 41 1pm 42 2pm 42 3pm 41 4pm 40 5pm 38

Focal Point Temperature 98 (C) 127 4 152 163 167 159 135 124 116

Table 8 23 June results

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Based on the results obtained during the test of the parabolic trough solar steam generator, temperature above 160C was recorded against the ambient temperature. The temperature at the focal point varied with time but however, a peak value was always reached. Variation of temperature with time was due to movement and position of the sun, the angle of inclination of the parabolic dish and the atmospheric condition. When 1kg of water was poured inside absorber boiling took place in less than 10 minutes.

This flow rate is very small to achieve. If you want to get the steam out of the system then we will have to increase the area of the concentrator to increase the heat input to the copper pipe to generate the steam.

By selecting the reflecting mirror of concentrator which is 94% reflective the rate of solar flux at the receiver tube will increase thus will increase the efficiency of whole system.

While designing the troughs farm the size and quantity of the troughs according to the required aperture area of all the troughs should be manage in such a way that the tracking, handling, monitoring and controlling should be efficient.

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4.2.11Stress Analysis 4.2.11.1Introduction:

The stand body is analyzed for the stresses when the parabolic trough is loaded along with outer supporting stand structure in order to confirm that the stresses produced inside the stand body does not exceed the allowable stresses at the any part of body which may cause the fracture of material at that area. This task is done by using the professional software CATIA 5 REVISED VERSION 19. In this regard only the static analysis is done on the stand body and the dynamic analysis is not taken into account. The calculations done hereafter shows the initial calculations done before the manufacturing is proceeded.

4.2.11.2Objective:
The main objective for this analysis is to simulate the actual load conditions on the stand body a nd calculate the stress produced under the action of load of trough and supporting accessories. After the calculations are made, it is confirmed that either the chosen material suitable for the stand body or not. This stress analysis will eliminate any ambiguity regarding the fracture or breakage of any of the stand body element.

4.2.11.3Data:
The following load were calculated and supposed to act on the stand in static conditions The weight of the stand itself which was calculated from the software CATIA V5R19 PART WORKBENCH. The dead weight of the parabolic trough calculated from the same software and confirmed from the original product. The dead weight of outer casing of the parabolic trough calculated from the software. In this analysis the force caused by the wind and the weight of the upper holding structure is ignored as it is very small to account.

4.2.11.4 3-D Modeling:

3D modeling of each of the above mentioned part was done separately in CATIA PART workbench. The modeling of the stand body is then done in large detail so that accurate results of the analysis may be obtained

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Figure 30 3D Model of stand support

4.2.11.5Meshing
The mesh properties are as below

Type of mesh Total number of elements Total number of nodes The mesh applied to geometry is shown below

Parabolic 19941 41523

Figure 31 Parabolic mesh

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4.2.11.6Simulation conditions
The simulation was run on the following load conditions LOAD DEFINITION Weight of parabolic trough Weight of sheet Weight of stand body VALUE 35.47 Kg(downward) 8.22 Kg(downward) 15.23kg(downward)

The material chosen for the geometry was iron having the following properties

Material Young's modulus Poisson's ratio Density

Iron 1.21011 N/m2 0.291 7870kg/m3

Coefficient of thermal expansion 1.2110-5 m/mK Yield strength 3.1108 N/m2

4.2.11.7Stress Analysis Results:

The stress analysis done showed that large stresses are produced at the vertical member as compared with the horizontal member. It also shows that the welded joints bear large amount of stresses.

Figure 32 Stress contours

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From analysis it was seen that large stresses are produced at the upper whole supporting the bush carrying the loads. Along with that the welded joint joining the attaching pipe structure and each T shaped structure also suffers from large stresses. Maximum stresses are produced at the lower welded joint of each T member of stand as shown below.

Figure 33 Stresses produced in the vertical member

Figure 34 Stresses produced at the bush hole

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Figure 35 Stresses produced at the lower welded portion

Figure 36 Stresses produced at lower welded part

Along with the stress analysis the displacement pattern of the stand under the load was observed. The results revealed that the maximum displacement of 0.0772mm was produced at the uppermost portion of the vertical member.

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Figure 37 Deformation pattern of the stand under load

Figure 38 Displacement direction shown by arrow heads

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The side by side view of the displacement pattern along with stress analysis is shown below

Figure 39 Side by side view of displacement pattern and stresses

4.2.11.8Stress Analysis Conclusions:

From the figures shown above it is seen that the maximum stress of 5.44e+6 Nm-2 are produced in the stand body. The maximum allowable stress for iron is 3.1E+8 Nm-2. This shows that the stresses produced in the stand due to the static loading will not cause any breakage or fracture inside the material. The factor of safety can be calculated as below

100
= 1.75 Hence the calculations above shows that the material used for the stand is safe and the ignored stresses produced will not cause any such damage as the factor of safety is very large. Very large factor of safety envisage that we can use another lighter material with the ultimate strength greater than maximum stresses, but as iron is easily available, cheap and it is easy to weld and machine able, therefore iron is selected as the stand material instead of very large factor of safety.

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4.2.12 Design of parabolic trough farm for 250KW solar power plant:
Throughout analysis on the parabolic trough concentrator has been done in which we have calculated the solar energy coming from the sun, solar potential available in Pakistan and designing of parabolic trough. In designing phase we design a parabolic trough for specific range in which we calculated the thermal losses, solar flux, useful heat gain and efficiency of the trough. We also examine the practical values of the trough. Our practical values are close to theoretical values. Now we are in position to design the parabolic troughs collector farm which can run a small steam turbine and produce electricity. Now we are designing the parabolic tough concentrator field for small scale thermal power plant. It uses 250KW steam turbine. The specifications of steam turbine are given below

Figure 40 Steam Turbine

Steam turbine: Power output: Inlet pressure Inlet temperature Mass Flow Rate

IB Turbo BT4 & BT6 250KW 560psi/38.6 bar 270oC 1 Kg/s

Table 9 Steam Turbine Specification

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Pakistan at latitude 24o 37o N and longitude 61o 76o E with 1550 m elevation has received the top rating among several sunny Locations in the country as the most favorable site for a solar thermal power plant installation. The average daily isolation amounts to approximately 5 7kWh/m2/day. Especially the south western province of Baluchistan and North eastern part of Sind offers excellent conditions for harnessing solar energy. There the sun shines between 6 to 8 hours daily or approximately more than 23002700 hours per annum. The average daily isolation of 57 kWh/m2 /day means daily sun energy of 1825 MJ/m2/day is available. Climatic conditions of Pakistan For basic design are: Maximum recorded temperature: 49C Maximum recorded humidity: 86%, minimum recorded humidity: 16% Design humidity: 41%, Atmospheric Design pressure: 0.84kg/cm2 Maximum recorded wind speed (on ground): 127km/h Normal recorded wind Direction: west-east, maximum recorded annually rain fall: 560 mm

To achieve this goal hybrid-Rankin system is designed which consists of two cycles: An oil cycle A steam cycle

Each of these cycles consists of several parts and instrument that will be illustrated separately.

4.2.12.1Oil Cycle
Oil cycle includes several parts like Collectors farm Thermal storage Pipes Heat exchangers

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Figure 41 Schematic of Thermal Power Plant

4.2.12.2Collectors farm:
Our parabolic trough Collector farm consists of 48 parabolic trough collectors. These are arranged in 8 rows and each row containing 6 troughs. Each collector has 25m length, 3.4m wide and 0.88m focal length. Width Length Aperture Focal length Outer diameter of receiver Inner diameter of receiver Outer diameter of cover Inner diameter of cover Concentration ratio 3.4 m 25 m 3.1 m 88 cm 4.2 cm 3.5 cm 7 cm 6.7 cm 26 Rim angle Reflectivity of mirror Transmissivity of cover Emissivity of cover Absorptivity of receiver Emissivity of receiver Intercept factor Mass flow rate 90 o 0.47 0.82 0.88 0.74 0.45 0.7 1 kg/s 0.285

Table 10 Collectors Parameters

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Where is mirror reflectivity is absorber tube transmissivity is absorber tube absorptivity Collectors will be installed in the North-South direction and rotates from East-to-West with special hydraulic pump and jacks systems. The parabolic trough tracking will be done in mode 3. In addition to the collectors field, the oil cycle is made up of other parts and components, which comes in the following briefly.

4.2.12.3Storage tanks:
If sun radiation is strong enough, the solar field supplies sufficient energy to generate electricity and fill up the storage system simultaneously. The storage system is filled with liquid salt it consist of hot tank and cold tank. When the storage system is being filled up cold salt is pumped in to the hot tank through oil to salt heat exchanger. After sun set the thermal energy is exclusively supplied by the storage system. The other purpose of these storage tanks is to prevent fluctuations in inlet temperature to the collectors farm and hammer effects.

4.2.12.4Heat exchanger:
Oil to salt heat exchanger is placed in oil loop. This heat exchanger has the duty of heating molten salt for thermal storage.

4.2.12.5Steam cycle:
The steam cycle consist of Heat exchangers Condenser Pipes Steam turbine

In steam cycle loop an oil to water heat exchanger is placed which converts the water into supper heated steam. Then this steam is passed through the turbine which in turns runs the generator and electricity is produced.

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4.3Fabrication:
4.3.1Water Tank or Reservoir:
We use water tank for the storage of water from where water is supplied to main assembly means to the copper pipe where water is converted to steam. This tank is made up of mild steel and is painted black so absorb the maximum heat and rise the inlet temperature to the 47 o C. water tank is supported on the stand. The height of the stand is kept higher than the receiver tube so there is no need of pump for the flow of water. The tank is provided with the valve at the bottom to control the flow of the water out of the tank.

4.3.2Receiver tube:
The receiver tube consists of two parts one is copper pipe and the other is the outer glass cover to reduce the thermal losses.

4.3.2.1Copper Pipe:
The copper pipe is used in the solar concentrator through which the working fluid (water in our case) will flow. All the sun rays heat coming from the reflecting surface of the steel sheet is made to fall on this pipe to increase its temperature to a level at which we will be able to get steam. We use copper because it has highest thermal conductivity so when water will flow through it then it will transmit all its heat to the water soon. In this way the water will get all the heat from the copper pipe for its conversion into steam. Also we use the minimum diameter available of the copper pipe because we want to transfer all the heat to water instantly. For that purpose all that water will have to be in contact with the copper pipe. If some of the water does not come in contact with the copper pipe means if we have a bypass factor then it will be difficult to achieve steam as the bypass factor will tend to cool the heated water. So if we use larger area or diameter of the copper that will not be suitable. That is why the copper pipe with smallest diameter has been used.

4.3.2.2Glass cover:
A copper pipe is covered with glass cover to insure the maximum concentration of sun energy one the copper pipe. The glass cover concentrates even the scattered sun rays and increases the temperature of the pipe. For this purpose 38inch diameter glass pipe is chosen as according to our calculations. The length which is required was not available in market. To resolve this issue we joined the two lengths to make a single length of 78 inches.

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4.3.2.3Bushes:
To fit the copper pipe along with the glass cover on the frame at the focal point we use the bushes. The design of bushes is done on the AutoCAD and the manufacturing is done on the lath machine. The material of the bushes must be heat resistant which can bear the high temperature of the copper pipe without melting. The other things which are to me considered is the machinability of the material and its availability in the market. We chose the acrylic for that purpose as it can with stand the high temperature of the copper pipe.
Figure 42 bush

4.3.3Collector reflecting sheet:

Our solar concentrator main component is reflecting sheet. The shining surface of the sheet is required to reflect all the sun rays falling on the sheet to the copper pipe. The reason to select the stainless sheet is the market availability and its properties like reflectivity, low absorbivity and low transmissivity. Its reflectivity is 78%. It is not the required reflectivity as we need at least 94% reflective material. But due to the unavailability of the required material we chose the stainless steel sheet which has more transmissivity but the best reflectivity among the available materials. On industrial scale other materials are also available which about 96% reflective.
Figure 43 collector reflecting sheet

4.3.4Making of pattern:
For the fabrication of the trough we need some pattern of the parabola that we designed. By using this exact bends can be made possible of the iron pipes which are the building blocks of the frame of trough. For this purpose we made the design of the pattern on the AutoCAD and then made it on the wooden board on CNC machine.

The exact focal point of the parabola is also made on the card board to make the model precise. The shape of the parabola pattern looks is shown below.

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Figure 44 pattern

4.3.5Stand of the concentrator:

To make stand of the concentrator 3*1inch iron channels are used. These channels behave as two side supports of the stand of concentrator. One channel is placed on one side and the second on the other side of the whole assembly supporting all of the weight. The length of the stand is kept to 2.5 feet from the ground. These side supports are joined with horizontal legs which are 4 feet long for better stability of stand.

4.3.6Frame of the concentrator:

Figure 45 Stand of the concentrator

To make the frame of the parabolic trough 1inch square iron pipe is used. It is bended in the rollers as according to our pattern which was made on CNC machine. Six bends are made for the making of the frame which are further joined my four horizontal supports to make it perfect frame. High accuracy and precision is required for making it as our whole designed is based on it.

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Figure 46 frame of the concentrator

4.3.7Assembling of the frame structure:

After making the all parts of the structure these are assembled to make the complete structure. The design of the structure was made to with stand the whole weight and strong weather conditions like high velocity wind. It was made free to revolve along horizontal axis so we can track the sun throughout the day.

Figure 47 full assembly

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` For the assembling of the receiver tube the housings were made on the side supports at the focal point of the trough. The bushes that we made for the receiver tube may fit in those housings. The housings are provided with clamping strips to hold the receiver tube.

4.3.8Fitting of stand and Solar Concentrator and the receiver tube:

First of all the stainless sheet is riveted on the frame. Carefully this will have to be done because sheet should be perfectly placed and rifted on the frame to make the exact parabolic shape that we design for our reflector. Failure to this may results in the dispersion of the sun rays instead of being concentrated on the focal point. After making the full stand we fit the concentrator in the stand with the help of solid rods. A nut and bolt assembly is fitted to rotate the trough and hold it at the desire position. The copper pipe along with glass casing with bushes is placed at the focal point.

4.3.9Plug Valve:
Even the smallest pump has the higher flow rate than the required purpose we use a plug valve to control the flow rate to our requirement some specific point we can achieve our desired flow rate. Two plug valves are attached with the receiver tube at inlet and the exit.

4.3.10Pressure gauge:
For measuring the pressure of steam at the exit of the receiver tube a pressure gauge of 1 bar is attached.

4.3.11Piping of the assembly:

The supply of water from the tank to the receiver tube is done by the rubber pipes which can with stand the high temperature. These are connected with the help of nozzles.

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Chapter 5:

Conclusions & Future Recommendation

5.1 Future Recommendation
Solar energy is promising solution for Pakistan. Importance of solar energy as an inexhaustible, pollution-free and cheap source of energy, particularly for a developing economy like Pakistan, could hardly be emphasized. Pakistan being in the sunny belt is ideally located to take advantage of the solar energy technologies. This energy source is widely distributed and abundantly available in the country. Its a known factor that the regions near equator get the maximum sunlight unlike Europe or northern countries. We need to do research for utilizing this free and abundantly available source of energy. We in the region have many arid lands where the availability of sunlight is huge. Unlike wind power plants which is area specific (places where there are ample winds) solar power plants or solar farms can be installed in arid/ unused/unusable lands near cities thereby decreasing the loss of electricity due to transport through grid-lines. Also when we consider the regional politics and dependence on hydro based, coal based, nuclear based plants there is a surge for cleaner, greener technologies.

Figure 48 Pakistan Global Horizontal Solar Radiation

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Figure below depicts solar maps of Pakistan drawn through satellite imaginary technique. In these figures, the computer model estimates of monthly average daily total radiation, averaged from hourly estimates of direct normal irradiance are presented.

Figure 49 Pakistan Direct Normal Solar Radiation

The model inputs are hourly visible irradiance from the Metiosat geostationary satellite and monthly average aerosol optical depth, precipitation water vapor and ozone sampled at a 10km resolution. These figures show that Pakistan has huge favorable solar resource potential for energy generation. The average daily insulation amounts to approximately 57kWh/m2/day. Especially the south western province of Baluchistan and North eastern part of Sind offers excellent conditions for harnessing solar energy. There the sun shines between 6 to 8 hours daily or approximately more than 23002700 hours per annum. The average daily insulation of 57 kWh/m2 /day means daily sun energy of 1825 MJ/m2/day is available as input natural resource of energy to be exploited for power generation or solar thermal applications.

5.1.1 Initial Capital:

Though an important factor that may hinder the production of solar power in Pakistan is initial installment cost but it seems to be more viable than other sources of energy production. When we consider it at the consumer level, solar power is indeed costly, but we have to consider it on the producers level as we dont install wind mills in our compound.
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Considering concentrated solar power, one the main advantage over conventional solar cells is initial capital. Though with almost zero recurring costs, solar panels provide effective energy production solution but their initial investment is pretty much higher as compared to others. Solar cells with few panels are not enough to fulfill the electricity requirements, and when we move to larger scale, expenses increase exponentially here. So using CSP for steam generation is one of the most viable yet cost effective solutions for a country like Pakistan. Solar concentrator when compared with the solar panels is far more cheap solution and initial investment is also very less as compared to solar panel. Solar energy makes much sense for Pakistan for several reasons: firstly, 70% of the population lives in 50,000 villages that are very far away from the national grid, according to a report by the Solar Energy Research Centre (SERC). Connecting these villages to the national grid would be very costly.

5.1.2 Prospect for Foreign Investment

Pakistan has been spot as one of the potential markets for foreign investors who are shifting their business to Asian and African countries in a bid to capture unexplored regions with their technology, capital and money. Considering the geographical location of Pakistan and the irradiance, country receives; there are bright chances of foreign investment as the potential Pakistan has got is unavoidable. Foreign investors have shown keen interest in utilizing the resources for the efficient usage of solar energy for fulfilling energy requirements. Some recent developments in converting solar power into electricity have already opened market for international investors. Germany takes lead in this field and is considered to one of the most developed country, considering the use of solar power. It is useful to look at the German experience to draw some lessons for Pakistan. Although Germany is wreathed in clouds and is therefore an unlikely candidate for becoming a pioneer in this field, it has become a leader because of the design of public policy to encourage the use of the sun as a source for generating electricity. Germany has expressed its interest to invest in solar energy projects in Pakistan as it has a lot of potential to generate energy by installing Photovoltaic Solar Systems. This was said by Sikander Mir-Kohler, Honorary Investment Counselor of Pakistan to Germany while addressing the business community at Islamabad Chamber of Commerce and Industry.

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To meet its rising energy needs, Pakistan is in dire need of foreign investment in energy sector. German Company M/s. AZUR Solar to explore Pakistani market and come up with optimum solar energy solutions for Pakistani customers. AZUR Energy Group of Germany, in this regard, would set up a 50 Mega Watt Solar project in Pakistan and a feasibility report in this regard has already been formulated. The head of the delegation told the Minister that his company has decided to set up 50 MW Solar energy project in Pakistan. He added that in this regard his company has already conducted a survey for the execution of this project in Pakistan. The Chairman of AZUR Energy Group of Germany said that his company has already prepared a feasibility report and a ground survey is being conducted at Multan and Bahawalpur areas and negotiations for the acquiring of land for the project is also in progress.

5.2 Conclusions
Pakistan needs a structure of incentives to get power generated from such renewable sources as the sun. A purchase price guaranteed for a fairly long period that ensures good returns to the private sector would help. This may be a good time to encourage the development of domestic industry that would produce the needed equipment for developing generating electricity from renewable sources. The technologies are still in their infancy and there is an opportunity for newcomers in the area to create niches for themselves. To reduce the total dependency on fossil fuels and other non-renewable and exhaustible energy, the need for the construction of a parabolic trough solar steam generator arose as an alternative to solve the thermal energy needs of the populace. As such, deforestation and other environmental populations are reduced to a minimum. The need to utilize the free abundant natural resource of energy which is freely in abundance requires no recurrent expenses as other source of energy. Thus, it is regarded as the cheapest source of fuel for man. Based on the result obtained in tables 4-5 during the test, temperature above 165C was obtained at base of the absorber. Water boiled faster using the solar steam generator than when using ordinary charcoal or kerosene stove. The parabolic trough solar steam generator is very efficient heating equipment. The most favorable sites for a solar thermal power plant installation in Pakistan are the south western province of Baluchistan and North eastern part of Sind. The average

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daily isolation amounts to approximately 57kWh/m2/day. Quetta offers excellent conditions for harnessing solar energy. There the sun shines between 7 to 9 hours daily or approximately more than 23002700 hours per annum. The average daily isolation of 57 kWh/m2 /day means daily sun energy of 1825 MJ/m2/day is available. At this time, the efficiency of plastic photovoltaic cells is only five per cent while that of conventional silicon cells is 15 to 18 per cent. On the other hand in many regions of the world, every square kilo-meter of land can produce as much as 200 to 300 GWh/year of solar electricity using CSP technology. This is equivalent to the annual production of a conventional coal or gas fired 50 MW power plants or over the total life cycle of a CSP system to the energy contained in 16 million barrels of oil. Even countries such as Pakistan could invest in the industries needed to develop alternative sources for generating electric power. For reducing the natural gas demand, dyeing and weaving industries of Pakistan should go for adding solar thermal energy by using CSP technology for steam generation. CSP technology should also be used for the air conditioning applications. It may be an appropriate time to fix some targets for encouraging the use of renewable sources for generating power. Like in United States, the two candidates for the Democratic ticket want renewable energy to generate 40 per cent of electricity by 2030. This is the time for action by the government and it should look CSP technology for solving the current electricity crisis.

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