1

LECTURE 3
FLUID STATICS

By definition, a fluid must deform continuously when a shearing stress of any magnitude
is applied.

3.1 THE BASIC EQUIATION OF FLUID STATICS












For a deferential fluid element, the body force, B F d

, is
= =

d g dm g F d B
Where

g is the local gravity vector, the density, and d is the volume of the element.
In Cartesian coordinates, dx dy dz d = , so
dx dy dz g F d B

=
By use of the Taylor series representation, the pressure at the left face of the differential
element is
( )
2 2
dy
y
p
p
dy
y
p
p y y
y
p
p p
L L
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|

c
c
+ =
c
c
+ =
(Terms of higher order omitted because in the limit they vanish.) The pressure on the
right face of the deferential element is
x
y
z
dx
dy
dz
( )
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
| c
c
c

.
j dxdz
y
y
p
p
2

( )
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
| c
c
c
+
.
j dxdz
y
y
p
p
2

0
Pressure, p
y y
L y
R
2
( )
2
dy
y
p
p y y
y
p
p p
R R
c
c
+ =
c
c
+ =
Stress and forces on the other faces of element are obtained in the same way. Combining
all such forces gives the surface force acting on the element. Thus
( )( ) ( )( ) i dydz
dx
x
p
p i dydz
dx
x
p
p F d S
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=

2 2

( )( ) ( )( ) j dxdz
dy
y
p
p j dxdz
dy
y
p
p
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
2 2

( ) ( )
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
. .
k dxdy
dz
z
p
p k dxdy
dz
z
p
p
2 2

Collecting and canceling terms, we obtain
dx dy dz k
z
p
j
y
p
i
x
p
F d S
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c

c
c
=

or, dx dy dz k
z
p
j
y
p
i
x
p
F d S
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=

(3.1a)
The term in parentheses is called the gradient of the pressure or simply the gradient, and
is designated as grad p or p V . In rectangular coordinates
p
z
k
y
j
x
i
z
p
k
y
p
j
x
p
i p grad p
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
V
Using the gradient designation, Eq. 3.1a can be written as
( ) p dx dy dz dx dy dz grad p F d S V = =

(3.1b)
From Eq. 3.1b,

dx dy dz
F d
p grad p
S

= V =
Total force act on a fluid element,
dx dy dz g grad p F d F d F d B S |
.
|

\
|
+ = + =


or on a unit volume basis

+ = =

g grad p
dx dy dz
F d
d
F d
(3.2)
rear
front
left right
lower
upper
3
For a fluid particle, Newtons second law gives = =

d a dm a F d . For a static fluid,

a = 0. Thus

d F d / from Eq. 3.2, becomes

0 = =

a
d
F d

Substituting for
0 = +

g grad p
Let us review briefly our derivation of this equation. The physical significance of each
term is
grad p +

g = 0

point a at
e unit volum per
rce pressurefo
+

point a at
e unit volum
per force body
= 0
This is a vector equation, which means that it really consists of three component
equations that must be satisfied individually. Expanding into components, we find
0 = +
c
c

x
g
x
p
x direction
0 = +
c
c

y
g
y
p
y direction (3.4)
0 = +
c
c

z
g
z
p
z direction
under this condition, the component equations become
0 =
c
c
x
p

0 =
c
c
y
p
(3.5)
z
g
z
p
=
c
c


= =
c
c
z
g
z
p
(3.6)


= 0
= 0
4
3.1.1 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid
a. Incompressible Fluid
For incompressible fluid, =
o
= constant. Then for constant gravity,
constant = = g
dz
dp
o

If the pressure at the reference level, z
o
, is designated as p
o
, then pressure, p, at location z
is found by integration
dz g dp
z
z
o
p
p
o o

} }
=
or ( ) ( ) z z g z z g p p
o o o o o
= =
With h measured positive downward, then
h z z
o
=
and g h p p
o o
+ = (3.7)









Fig. Coordinate for determination of pressure variation in a static liquid.

Example 3.1
Water flows through pipes A and B. oil, with specific gravity 0.8, is in the upper portion
of the inverted U. Mercury (specific gravity 13.6) is in the bottom of the manometer
bends.






x
y
h
V

g
z
z
o
z

p
o
p

5
FIND:
Determine the pressure difference, p
A
p
B,
in

units of lbf/in
2
.

SOLUTION:
Basic equations: = =
c
c
z
g
z
p

O H O H
SG
2 2

= =
z dp = dz dp
z
z
p
p

2
1
2
1
} }
=
For = constant
( )
o
z z p p + =
1 2


Beginning at point A and applying the equation between successive point around the
manometer gives
1
2
d p p
O H A C
+ =
2
d p p
Hg C D
=
3
d p p
Oil
H D E
+ =
4
d p p
Hg E F
=
5
2
d p p
O H F B
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
B F F E E D D C C A B A
p p p p p p p p p p p p + + + + =
5 4 3 2 1
2 2
d d d d d
O H Hg Oil Hg O H
+ + + =
Substituting
O H
SG
2
. =

5 4 3 2 1
2 2 2 2 2
6 . 13 8 . 0 6 . 13 d d d d d p p
O H O H O H O H O H B A
+ + + =
( )
5 4 3 2 1
6 . 13 8 . 0 6 . 13
2
d d d d d
O H
+ + + =
( ) 8 68 2 . 3 8 . 40 10
2
+ + + =
O H
in.
6 . 103
2
=
O H
in.
C
p
A
1
2
d
O H
+
6
2
2
3
in. 144
ft
in. 12
ft
in. 103.6
ft
lbf
4 . 62 =
2
74 . 3
in
lbf
p p
B A
=

Example 3.2
A reservoir manometer is built with a tube diameter of 10 mm and a reservoir diameter of
30 mm. The manometer liquid is Meriam red Oil with SG = 0.827. Determine the
manometer deflection in millimeters per millimeter of applied pressure deferential.

FIND
Liquid deflection, h, in millimeter per millimeter of water applied pressure

SOLUTION:









Basic equations: g
dz
dp
=
O H
SG
2

=
g dz dp = and
} }
=
2
1
2
1
z
z
p
p
gdz dp
For = constant ( ) z p = A
( )
1 2 2 1
z z g p p =
or ( ) ( ) H h g z z g p p
oil
+ = =
1 2 2 1

To eliminate H, note that volume of manometer liquid must remain constant. Thus the
volume displaced from the reservoir must be the same as that which rises into the tube.
D
d
z
p
2
p
1
h
2

1

Oil, SG = 0.827
H
Equilibrium
liquid level
7
h d H D
2 2
4 4
t t
= or h
D
d
H
2
|
.
|

\
|
=
Substituting gives
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
2 1
1 h
D
d
g p p
oil

This equation can be simplified by expressing the applied pressure differential as an
equivalent water column
h
2
2 1
A = g p p
O H

and noting that
O H oil oil
SG
2
= . Then
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ = A
2
O H
1 h h
2 2
D
d
g SG g
oil O H

or
( ) | |
2
/ 1 827 . 0
1
D d
h
h
+
=
A

Evaluating
( ) | |
09 . 1
30 / 10 1 827 . 0
1
2
=
+
=
Ah
h

This problem illustrates the effect of manometer design and choice of gage liquid on
sensitivity.

b. Compressible Fluid
Pressure variation in any static fluid is described by the basic pressure-height relation
g
dz
dp
=
For many liquids, density is only a weak function of temperature. Pressure and
density of liquids are related by the bulk compressibility modulus, or modulus of
elasticity,
( ) / dp
dp
E
v
(3.8)
If the bulk modulus is assumed constant, then density is only a function of pressure.
The density of gases generally depends on pressure and temperature. The ideal
gas equation of state
T R p = (3.9)
where: R = the gas constant
8
T = the absolute temperature

Example 3.3
The maximum power output capability of an internal combustion engine decreases with
altitude (sea level) because the air density and hence the mass flow rate of fuel and air
decrease. A truck leaves Denver (jenenge kutho ing monconegoro) (elevation 5,280 ft).
Determine the local temperature and barometric pressure are 80
o
F and 24.8 in. of
mercury, respectively. It travels through Vail Pass (jenenge kutho ing monconegoro)
(elevation 10,600 ft). The temperature decreases at the rate of 3
o
F/1000 ft of elevation
change. Determine the local barometric pressure at Vail Pass and the percent decrease in
maximum power available, compared to that at Denver.

GIVEN:
Truck travels from Denver to Vail Pass. Engine power output is directly proportion to air
density.
Denver: z = 5,280 ft Vail Pass: z = 10,600 ft
= 24.8 in. Hg
ft
F
dz
dT
o
003 . 0 =
T = 80
o
F
FIND:
a) Atmosphere pressure at Vail Pass.
b) Percent engine at Vail Pass compared to Denver.

SOLUTION:
Basic equations: g
dz
dp
= = T R p
RT
p
=
Assumptions: 1) Static fluid
2) Air behaves as an ideal gas
By substituting into the basic pressure-height relation,
g
RT
p
dz
dp
= or
RT
dz g
p
dp
=
But temperature varies linearly with elevation, dT/dz = m, so T = T
o
m(z z
o
)
( ) | |
o
z z m
dz g
p
dp

=
o
T R


9
( ) ( )
( ) | |
( )
( )
(

=


=
o o
o
o
o
o
o
z z m T
z z md
T
T
mR
g
z z m mR
z z md g
o
T

( )
( )
(

=
o o
o
o
o
z z m T
z z md
T
T
mR
g
=
( )
( )
(

=
o o
o o
o
z z m T
z z md T
T mR
g 1

By integrating from p
o
in Denver to p at Vail,
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
o o
o o
o
T
T
mR
g
T
z z m T
mR
g
p
p
ln ln ln
or
mR g
o o
T
T
p
p
/
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Evaluating gives
25 . 6
.
sec .
2 . 32 53.3

003 . 0 sec
2 . 32
2
2
= =
ft slug
lbf
lbm
slug
ft lbf
R lbm
F
ft ft
mR
g

and
( )
( )
970 . 0
80 460
1
280 , 5 600 , 10
003 . 0
1 =
(

+
=
R
ft
ft
F
T
T
o
o
o

Note that T
o
must be expressed as an absolute temperature because it came from the ideal
gas equation.
Thus
( ) 827 . 0 970 . 0
25 . 6
/
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
mR g
o o
T
T
p
p

and ( ) Hg in Hg in p p
o
5 . 20 . 8 . 24 827 . 0 827 . 0 = = =
The percentage change in power is equal to the change in density, so that
1 =

=
A
=
A
o o
o
o o
P
P

RT
p
=
o
o
o
RT
p
=

By substituting from the ideal gas equation,
( ) 145 . 0 1
970 . 0
1
827 . 0 1 =
|
.
|

\
|
= =
A
T
T
p
p
P
P
o
o o

or percent 5 . 14 =
A
o
P
P



10
3.2 THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
Several International Congresses for Aeronautics have been held so that aviation experts
around the world might better be able to communicate.
Table 3.1 Sea Level Condition of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere
Property Symbol SI English
Temperature T 288
o
K 59
o
F
Pressure p 101.3 k Pa (abs) 14.696 psia
Density 1.225 kg/m
3
0.002377 slug/ft
3
Specific weight - 0.7651 lbf/ft
3
Viscosity 1.781 x 10
-5
kg/m sec 3.719 x 10
-7
lbf/ft
2

3.3 ABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURES








Absolute pressures must be used in all calculations with the ideal gas or other equations
of state. Thus




BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Fox & Mc Donald, Introduction to fluid mechanics, 2
nd
edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Canada.
2. Irving H. Shames, Mechanics of Fluids, Fourth Edition, Mc Graw Hill, Singapore.





P
absolute
Pressure level
Atmospheric Pressure
101.3 kPa (14.696 psia)
at standard sea level
conditions
Vacuum
atmosphere gage absolute
P P P + =

11