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AsceticismInEarlyTaoistReligion

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SUNYseriesinChinesePhilosophyandCulture DavidL.HallandRogerT.Ames,editors

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AsceticismInEarlyTaoistReligion
StephenEskildsen
STATEUNIVERSITYOFNEWYORKPRESS

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Publishedby StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,Albany 1998StateUniversityofNewYork Allrightsreserved PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica Nopartofthisbookmaybeusedorreproducedinanymannerwhatsoeverwithoutwrittenpermission.Nopartofthisbookmaybestoredinaretrievalsystemor transmittedinanyformorbyanymeansincludingelectronic,electrostatic,magnetictape,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orotherwisewithouttheprior permissioninwritingofthepublisher. Forinformation,addressStateUniversityofNewYorkPress, StateUniversityPlaza,Albany,N.Y.,12246 ProductionbyCathleenCollins MarketingbyNancyFarrell LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Eskildsen,Stephen,1963 Asceticisminearlytaoistreligion/StephenEskildsen. p.cm.(SUNYseriesinChinesephilosophyandculture) Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN0791439550(alk.paper).ISBN0791439569(pbk.: alk.paper) 1.AsceticismTaoism.2.Taoism.I.Title.II.Series. BL1923.E841998 299'.514447dc21 9750629 CIP 10987654321

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Contents
Acknowledgments 1.Introduction 2.TheLivesofTaoistAscetics(1)DepictionsintheLiexianzhuanand Shenxianzhuan 3.TheLivesofTaoistAscetics(2)DepictionsintheDaoxue zhuan 4.TaoistMethodsofFasting TheFastingRegimenoftheZhonghuangjing TheFastingRegimensoftheDaojitunajingandTunajing ImbibingtheFiveQi ImbibingtheEssencesoftheSunandMoon TalismanSwallowing SuckingonaSeed DrugRecipes FinalComments 5.AsceticismintheShangqingTexts TheBuddhistInfluence NonBuddhisticReasonsforCelibacy GainingDivineSympathy EvilsintheWorldlyEnvironment ThePlaceofAsceticismintheHierarchyofSpiritualProgress TheGlorificationofSuicidalMethods 6.AsceticismintheLingbaoScriptures TheNewSaintlyIdeal PreceptsandRetreats ASoteriologicalPuzzle vii 1 15

31

43 44 51 53 56 58 59 60 67 69 72 75 79 84 90 92 95 96 105 121

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7.CriticismsofHereticalAsceticismintheYuqingjing 8.Conclusion Appendix:SummaryInformationontheLingbaoScripturesCitedinChapter Six Notes Bibliography Index

129 153 161

167 203 215

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Acknowledgments
ThisbookisarevisedversionofmydoctoraldissertationthatIcompletedin1994attheUniversityofBritishColumbia(UBC).Onthisjoyfuloccasionofits publication,Iwishtothankeverybodywhohasprovidedmewithguidance,support,andencouragement.Iamparticularlygratefultothefollowingpeople:Edward, Marion,Tom,Jane,andLucileEskildsenDanielOvermyer(myfriendandmentor)JosephMcDermott(whofirstgotmeinterestedinTaoism)S.Y.Tse,Tsuneharu GonnamiandtherestoftheexcellentstaffattheUBCAsianLibraryJerrySchmidt,ChenJoshui,LeonHurvitz,E.G.Pulleyblank,OliviaPi,CatherineSwatek,and JosephineChiuDuke(myteachers)LiviaKohn(forherhelpfuladvice)Lingdanzi(theMasteroftheMiraculousElixir)FranciscusVerellen,HarjotOberoi,Paul Mosca,andDianaLary(whograciouslyservedonmythesiscommittee)therefereesformybookmanuscript(whoeveryouare)NancyEllegate,CathleenCollins, M.Lansing,BettyRoss(andalloftheotherfinepeopleatStateUniversityofNewYorkPress)Margaret,Alan,andBoetheLindgren(whoprovidedmewith lodginginmytimeofneed)MarenAnderson,MikeLebo,KatieAllston,KateWulff,andGingerFlynn(myBaltimorecomrades)KennyMcQueenandtheMudcats (PocoOver30BaseballLeague,1994Champions). IalsowouldliketotakethisopportunitytosendoutmyprayersandbestwishesforProjectPLASE(Baltimore),theLutheranVolunteerCorps,andallother organizationsandindividualswhostrivetohelptheneedyandunderprivileged.

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ChapterOne Introduction
TheoriginsoftheTaoistreligioncannotbetracedtoasinglefounderorhistoricalevent.Thereligionemergedduringtheearlycenturiesofthecommonerathroughthe convergenceofdiverseelementsofbeliefandpractice.Theseelementswerelargelydrawnfromancientimmortalitylore,macrobiotics,alchemy,Taoistphilosophy, yinyang/fiveagents1 cosmology,statecult,popularreligion,andConfucianethics.Buddhistbeliefsandpracticesalsowereeagerlyincorporatedintothemix, particularlyfromthefourthcenturyonward. ImmortalityhasalwaysbeenacherishedgoalintheTaoistreligion,andmanyTaoistshavepracticedasceticisminthehopeofgainingeverlastinglife.Oneofthemost salientfeaturesofearlyTaoistasceticismwasthegreatemphasisonfastingandtheamazingvarietyoftechniquesdevisedtosuppresshunger.Celibacy,selfimposed poverty,wildernessseclusion,andsleepavoidancealsowerepracticed.Ofcourse,notallearlyTaoistswereascetics.Ashasbeenthecaseinmostothermajor religions,severeformsofselfdisciplineandselfdenialwerecarriedoutprimarilybyaspiritualelitewhomadereligiousselfcultivationtheirexclusivevocation.This spiritualeliteprobablyrepresentedadistinctminoritywithintheranksofthefaithful. Myworkingdefinitionof"asceticism"isthatproposedbyWalterO.KaelberinTheEncyclopediaofReligion.Whileadmittingthatthewordhasnouniversally accepteddefinition,Kaelberstatesthatitmaybedefinedasfollowswhenusedinareligiouscontext:
avoluntary,sustained,andatleastpartiallysystematicprogramofselfdisciplineandselfdenialinwhichimmediate,sensualorprofanegratificationsarerenouncedinorderto attainahigherspiritualstateoramorethoroughabsorptioninthesacred.2

Inmostreligions,thehigherspiritualstateandtheabsorptioninthesacredaremeanttohelpguaranteesomeformofsalvation.ForearlyreligiousTaoists,salvation meantnotonlyaperfectionorperpetuationofthespiritbutalsophysicallongevityandimmortality.Theirasceticismalmostalwayspurportedtoimprovethe

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strengthandhealthofthehumanbody.EventhoughTaoistasceticssometimestaxedtheirbodiesseverely,theybelievedthattheirstrengthandhealthwouldeventually berestorediftheycourageouslyperseveredintheirausterities.Ultimately,theirausteritiesweresupposedtoperfectthembothspirituallyandphysically,finally transformingthemintosuperhuman,divinebeingswithlimitlesslongevityandextraordinarypowers. ManyoftheasceticpracticesoftheTaoists,intheirbasicforms,predatetheemergenceoftheTaoistreligionitself.Thepracticesoriginatedamongancientimmortality seekerswhoperhapswereactiveasearlyasthefourthcenturyB.C.E.,ifnotearlier.Unfortunately,thescarcityofsourcesmakesitdifficulttoadequatelydiscussthe practicesastheyexistedduringsuchanearlyperiod.Ourstudyfocusesonroughlythefirstsixcenturiesofthecommonera,aperiodforwhichadetailedexamination ofasceticismisfeasible,duetoarelativeabundanceofsources.AfullexplorationoftheearliestrootsofTaoistasceticismmustbeleftforafuturestudy.Nonetheless somepointsshouldbetoucheduponattheoutsetconcerningsomeoftheearlyprecursorsoftheTaoistreligionandtheoriginsofitsasceticcurrent. TheprecursorsthatfirstcometomindaretheTaoistphilosophersofthelatefourthorearlythirdcenturyB.C.E.whosewisdomispreservedintheLaozi(alsoknown astheDaodejing)andtheZhuangzi.Wedonotknowwhetherthesephilosopherspursuedlifestylesortrainingmethodsofanasceticnature.Inthefirstplace,we knowlittleaboutwhotheywere,whattheydid,andwhotheyassociatedwith.3 However,thesetextsdocontaincertainteachingsthatarecompatiblewithanascetic outlookandlifestyle.PrimeexamplesfromtheLaoziwouldincludethefollowing:
Thefivecolorsmakeman'seyesblind Thefivenotesmakehisearsdeaf Thefivetastesinjurehispalate Ridingandhunting makehismindgowildwithexcitement Goodshardtocomeby Servetohinderhisprogress(Ch.12)4 Exhibittheunadornedandembracetheuncarvedblock, Havelittlethoughtofselfandasfewdesiresaspossible.(Ch.19)5 Thereisnocrimegreaterthanhavingtoomanydesires Thereisnodisastergreaterthannotbeingcontent Thereisnomisfortunegreaterthanbeingcovetous. Henceinbeingcontent,onewillalwayshaveenough.(Ch.46)6

TheLaoziconveysanapprehensiveattitudetowardstimulithatarousethesensesandenjoinsitsreaderstodecreasetheirselfcentereddesiresandbecontentwith whattheyhave.PassagessuchastheaforementionedservedasinspirationandjustificationforlaterTaoistascetics.However,asweshallsee,Taoistasceticism

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sometimeswentwellbeyondwhattheLaozirecommends.SomereligiousTaoisttextsteachonetoescheweventhemostbasicnecessitiesforanormalexistence, suchasfood,rest,andcompanionship. OneofthemostfundamentalteachingsoftheZhuangziisthatoneshouldpossessanoutlookthat''evensthingsout"(qiwu).Whiletheprofoundestsubtletiesofthis outlookwillnotbeexploredhere,itisrelevanttopointoutthattheZhuangziassertsthatallthingsandcircumstancesthatonemayconfrontareofequalqualityand desirability.7 Basedonthisoutlook,oneistoabandonallvaluejudgments,desires,andworries.Bydoingso,onesimplyexperiencestheuniverseasitisandwillingly accordswithitsflux.Suchapersonisdescribedasfollows:

Theutmostmanisdaemonic.Whenthewidewoodlandsblazetheycannotsearhim,whentheYellowRiverandtheHanfreezetheycannotchillhim,whenswiftthunderbolts smashthemountainsandwhirlwindsshaketheseastheycannotstartlehim.Amanlikethatyokesthecloudstohischariot,ridesthesunandmoonandroamsbeyondthefour seasdeathandlifealternothinginhimself,stilllesstheprinciplesofbenefitandharm!(Ch.2)8

Apersonwho"evensthingsout"wouldpresumablynotgetwoundupinpursuitsofpleasure,wealth,andfame.Hisinnerfreedomwouldenablehimtobecontentin anysituation,howeverbleak.However,thisdoesnotmeantosaythatoneshouldpurposefullyeschewthesimplepleasuresandbarenecessitiesoflife.Insayingthat the"utmostman"isimpervioustofires,freezing,thunderstorms,anddeath,theZhuangzidescribeshisinnerequanimityandfreedom.LaterTaoistimmortalityseekers hopedtogaininvulnerabilityatboththespiritualandphysicallevels,andsoughttodosothroughselfimposedausterities.Intheirview,theinnervirtueacquired throughtheausteritieswouldsomehowbeaccompaniedbytheattainmentofphysicalimmortalityandsupernormalpowers.TheZhuangzi,however,makesnosuch promise.Itteachesitsreaderstoseedeathasacircumstancenolessdesirablethanlifeandtowillinglyacceptitasoneofthemarvelousworkingsofnature.Later religiousTaoisttextssimilarlyassertthatTaoistadeptsmustovercometheiryearningforlifeandfearofdeath.However,paradoxically,gainingsuchastateofmind wassomehowsupposedtoenablethemtoevadebodilydeath.ButintheviewoftheZhuangzi,theacceptanceofdeathbringsnosuchtangiblerewarditsimply liberatespeoplefromtheiranxieties. Similarly,theLaozicontainsnoclearstatementsaffirmingthepossibilityofphysicalimmortality.Incertainplacesitdoespresentitswisdomasameansforsurviving worldlyperilsandreachingaripeoldage.Certainpassagescouldbeinterpretedasendorsementsofyogicpracticesofamacrobioticnature.Still,thereisnoclear indicationthattheauthor(s)believedinphysicalimmortality. However,immortalitybeliefscertainlyexistedbythetimetheLaoziandZhuangziwerewritten.BythefourthcenturyB.C.E.,peoplewerebeginningto

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entertainideasaboutimmortal,superhumanbeingswholivedinremote,inaccessiblemountainsorislands.OnesuchbeingismentionedintheZhuangzi,withina conversation(probablyfictional)recordedbetweentwomennamedJianWuandLianShu.JianWutellsLianShuaboutthefollowing"wildextravagances"thathe hadheardfromaneccentricnamedJieYu:

InthemountainsoffaroffGuyitherelivesadaemonicman,whoseskinandflesharelikeiceandsnow,whoisgentleasavirgin.Hedoesnoteatthefivegrainsbutsucksinthe windanddrinksthedew(emphasisadded)heridesthevapouroftheclouds,yokesflyingdragonstohischariot,androamsbeyondthefourseas.Whenthedaemonicinhim concentratesitkeepscreaturesfreefromplaguesandmakesthegrainripeneveryyear.(Ch.1)9

Mostimportantforourpurposesistheitalicizedportion.Asweshallsee,phraseslikethiscommonlyrefertoseverefastingmethodswheretheadeptshunssolid foodswhileattemptingtonourishhimselforherselfonairandsaliva.Duringthisperiod,superhumanbeingswithunusualeatinghabitsmayhavemerelybeenobjectsof fantasyandadmiration.Therestillmaynothavebeenadeptswhoaspiredtobecomelikethem.Butifthereweresuchadepts,theymayhavebeenpracticingsomeof thefastingtechniquesthatwerelaterpursuedbyTaoistascetics. Thedeficiencyofsourceshindersusfromknowingmuchabouttheasceticismoftheearliestimmortalityseekers.MostoftheinformationonthemisfoundinSima Qian's(ca.14586B.C.E.)Shiji(ChroniclesoftheHistorian).Therewearetoldaboutnumerouscourtmagicians(fangshi)fromthekingdomsofQiandYanwho offeredtheirservicestokingsandemperors.Heedingtheiradvice,severalrulersduringthefourththroughthesecondcenturiesB.C.E.sentoutexpeditionstosearchfor thelegendaryislanddwellingsofimmortals.10Thecourtmagiciansalsoendorsedvariousculticobservancesandmacrobiotictechniquesasaidstowardimmortality.It shouldbenotedthatLiShaojun,activeduringthereignofHanEmperorWu(Wudi,14087B.C.E.),includedwhatwasprobablyafastingmethod(gudaoorthe "methodofgrains")amonghispractices.11However,eventhoughfastingmayhavebeenincludedamongthemethodsofthecourtmagicians,theword"ascetic" wouldnotseemtoaptlycharacterizethesemenofworldlyambition.Still,itisnothardtoimaginethattherewouldhavebeensomeimmortalityseekerswhoobserved theircultsandhonedtheirskillswithoutseekingthepatronageoftherichandpowerful. TheXinyu,writtenin196B.C.E.bytheConfucianpoliticianLuJia,containsaninterestingcriticismofimmortalityseekers.
[Ifaman]strainsandbelaborshisbody,goingdeepintothemountainsandseeking[tobecomea]DivineImmortal,12[ifhe]abandonshisparents,doesawaywithhisblood relatives(lit.,"bonesandflesh"),

Page5 abstainsfromthefivegrains,andgivesuptheShi[jing]andtheShu[jing](i.e.,classicallearning),[thus]turninghisbacktowhatistreasuredbyHeavenandEarthinhisseeking fortheTaoofdeathlessnessthenhecannomorecommunicatewith[thepeopleof]theworld,orpreventwhatisnot[rightfromhappening].13

Thispassagestronglysuggeststhatimmortalityseekershadalreadyacquiredareputationfortheirausteritiesandunworldlytendencies. Atsomepoint,immortalityseekingandTaoistphilosophycametobeintimatelylinked.Whenandhowthisoccurredisunclear.However,magiciansofthekind previouslymentionedmayhavebeenresponsibleforthisphenomenon,asperhapswerethescholarsoftheHuangLaoschool(thelineofdemarcationbetweenthese twogroupsisblurrytheyprobablyoverlapped).TheHuangLaoschooloriginatedintheWarringStateskingdomofQiwhichcoveredmostofpresentday ShandongProvinceandachieveditspeakofinfluenceduringtheearlysecondcenturyB.C.E.ThisschoolveneratedtwofiguresasitspatronsLaozi(theputative, mostlikelylegendaryauthoroftheLaozibook)andtheYellowEmperor(alegendaryemperorofremoteantiquity).Itsadherentsinterpretedandadaptedthe teachingsoftheLaozitodeveloptheirowntheoriesonstatecraftandselfcultivation.Theyappeartohavealsopromotedvariousmacrobioticmeasuressuchas alchemy,medicine,sexualyoga,lightgymnastics,anddietetics.14Thefindingsunearthedin1973atthetomboftheLadyofDai(d.ca.186B.C.E.)inChangsha (HunanProvince)attesttothefactthatTaoistphilosophyandmacrobioticssimultaneouslyheldtheinterestofmanymembersoftheearlyHanaristocracy.Numerous bookswerefoundinthetomb,includingtwocopiesoftheLaozi(theearliestmanuscriptsofthebookavailable),aHuangLaotextcalledtheHuangdisijing(Four CanonsoftheYellowEmperor),diagramsofmacrobioticlightgymnasticpostures,andafastingmanualentitledQuegushiqipian(ChapteronGettingRidofGrains andEatingAir).Mostamazingly,thecorpseoftheLadyofDaiwasfoundpreservedwithskinandinternalorgansintact.15 Bythefirstcenturyofthecommonera,immortalityseekershadcometobeknownas"Taoists."ThisisapparentfromevidenceintheLunheng,writtenbyLatterHan skepticWangChong(23100C.E.).Inachapterentitled"TaoistUntruths"(daoxu),WangChongendeavorstodebunktheimmortalitybeliefsandtechniquesofhis time.Inonepassage,hewrites,
ThereisabeliefthatbythedoctrineofLaozionecantranscendtheworld.Throughserenityandnondesireonenurturestheessence(jing)andcherishesthevitalforce(qi).The longevityofpeopleisbasedontheirspirits.Iftheirspiritsareunharmed,theywilllivelongandwillnotdie.Afteraccomplishinghisaffairs(hisdutiesasroyalarchivist?),Laozi practicedthis.Afterahundredyearshetranscendedtheworldand

Page6 becameaPerfectedBeing.(ThetextfollowswithWangChong'srebuttalofthesebeliefs.)
16

ThispassagenotonlyatteststothelinkagebetweenTaoistphilosophyandimmortalityseeking,butalsoreflectshowthephilosopherLaoziwasreveredasagreat adeptwhoattainedimmortalitythroughserenityandnondesire. TheLatterHanDynasty(25220C.E.)representsacriticaljunctureinthedevelopmentoftheTaoistreligion.ImmortalityseekingTaoistscontinuedtodeveloptheir beliefsandtechniques.WhilesomeofthemonlyconsideredLaozitobeoneofthemanyadeptswhoattainedimmortality,otherswentfurtheringlorifyinghim.They deifiedhimasbeingnothinglessthanacosmicsuperdeity,virtuallyequatinghimtotheallcreating,allembracingfirstprinciple(theTao)describedintheLaozi.17 TheyinterpretedtheLaozialongthelinesoftheirownbeliefsandutilizedittolendauthoritytotheircosmology,macrobiotics,andmysticism. TheearliestknownorganizedTaoistreligiousmovements,theGreatPeaceSchool(taipingdao)andtheFivePecksofRiceSchool(wudoumidao),18emergedin thelatterpartofthesecondcenturyC.E.19TheGreatPeaceSchoolhadalargefollowingintheeast,inportionsofpresentdayHenan,Hebei,Shandong,Jiangsu,and Anhuiprovinces.TheFivePecksofRiceSchoolwhichlatercametobeknownastheHeavenlyMastersSchool(tianshidao)thrivedinthewest,inaregion coveringportionsofpresentdaySichuanandShaanxiprovinces.ThediscoveryoftheLaozibianhuajing(ScriptureontheTransformationsofLaozi)fromthe Dunhuangmanuscriptshasprovidedevidencethattherewereothersimilarmovementsduringthisperiod.20Thistextapparentlybelongedtoapopularsectdistinct fromtheFivePecksofRiceSchoolthatexistedinpresentdaySichuanProvinceattheendofthesecondcentury.21 TheGreatPeaceandFivePecksofRiceschoolsfoundmostoftheiradherentsamongthepeasantry.Theseschoolsemphasizedritualhealingandrudimentaryethics basedonthefundamentalassumptionthatmoraltransgressionscausediseases.TheFivePecksofRiceSchoolutilizedtheLaoziasitsfundamentalscripture, interpretingitalongethicallinestoformulatemoralprecepts.BothgroupsentertainedhopesofrealizingautopianageunderanenlightenedTaoistregime.Tohelp usherinsuchautopia,theGreatPeaceSchooltooktoarmedrevolt(theYellowTurbanrevolt)againsttheHandynastyin184,onlytobecrushed.TheFivePecksof RiceSchool,situatedataremotedistancefromtheseatofimperialpower,enjoyedautonomouspoliticalcontrolofitslocalareaforroughlythirtyyears,before surrenderingtomilitarystrongmanCaoCaoin215.Itscooperativestancetowarditsconquerorsallowedittosurviveasareligiousbody.Animportant,unresolved questioniswhetherornot,andtowhatextent,thetwoschoolspropagatedimmortalitytechniques.Whiletheymayhaveincludedadeptsofimmortalitytechniques withintheirfold,itseemslikelythatmostadeptsfunctionedindependentlyoftheseschools.

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Intheensuingcenturies,newerreligiousTaoistmovementsintegratedimmortalitybeliefsandtechniqueswiththeethicsandritualsoftheHeavenlyMastersSchool.At thesametime,theyincreasinglyimitatedBuddhistdoctrinesandpractices.MostinfluentialamongthesemovementsweretheShangqingmovementofthefourth centuryandtheLingbaomovementofthefifthcentury.Eachofthesemovementspromotednewscripturesthattheyclaimedtoberevelationsofsupremedivinetruth. Bythefifthcentury,theTaoistreligionandBuddhismhadbecomebitterrivals,competingforthesupportofemperorsandthesoulsofthepeople.Naturally,asthe Taoistreligionunderwentthisformativeprocess,itsasceticismtransformedsignificantlyinitsform,meaning,andpurpose. Asceticsinvariousreligionshavesharedtheinclinationtoviewspirit(orsoul)andmatterasbeingmutuallyalienandantagonisticentities.Bodilymortificationoftenhas beencarriedoutundertheassumptionthatthefleshdoeslittleelsebuthinderone'sprogresstowardsalvation.Forexample,Christianasceticshavetendedtoviewthe fleshasthesourceofsinfulimpulsesthathinderthesalvationofthesoul.22ThegoalofJainasceticismistopurifyandliberatethesoulfromsamsaraby"burning away"thekarmicmatterthatadherestoit.23ManichaeanasceticsconsideredthesoulaparticleoflightissuingfromthetrueGodandaimedtoliberateitfromtheevil prisonofflesh.24 However,Taoistssoughttoimmortalizebothmindandbody,andtheydidnotdrawastarkcontrastbetweenspirit(orsoul)andmatter.Thiscrucialfactstrongly affectedthecontentandnatureoftheirasceticism. HenriMaspero,thegreatWesternpioneerinTaoiststudies,adeptlyarguedthatTaoisttheoriesonsoulsdictatedthatTaoistsseeketernallifethroughbodily immortality.TotheChinese,spiritandmatterweredifferentmodesofqi(energy,ether,materialforce)25spiritwasararefiedmode,matteracondensedmode.They thussawtheworldasacontinuumpassingfromvoidtomaterialthings.Asaresult,theyhadnoconceptofasoulthatplayedtheroleofaninvisible,spiritual counterparttothematerialbody.TheChineseviewonsoulswasthateverypersonpossessedmultiplesouls.Althoughtheoriesaboutthemultiplesoulsvariedintheir specifics,acommonviewmaintainedthatthereweretwogroupsofsoulsthethreehunsoulsandthesevenposouls.Thetwogroupsofsoulswerebelievedto separateatdeaththehunsoulswerethoughttodisperseintotheskies,andtheposoulswerethoughttoseepoutoftheburiedcorpseintothesoil.Accordingtothis theory,sincethesoulsseparatedanddispersedatdeath,theydidnotperpetuatethedeceasedperson'spersonalityinanafterlifestatethatcouldbeproperly describedas"salvation"or"immortality."Consequently,Masperoargued,theonlymeansbywhichtheChinesecouldenvisionimmortalitywasthroughthe perpetuationofthefleshthatkeptthemultiplesoulstogetherintheirbodilyhabitat.26 YetitispossiblethatsomeearlyTaoistimmortalityseekersdidnotactuallybelieveintheimmortalityoftheflesh.Tobelieveinitcertainlyrequiresagreatleapoffaith, sincevirtuallyallempiricalevidenceconfrontedinreallifeseemsto

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contradictit.Some,inkeepingwiththespiritoftheZhuangzi,mayhaveunderstood"immortality"strictlyasbeingametaphorforaninnerfreedomandpeaceofmind. Somemayhavebelievedonlyintheimmortalityofanentitymoresubtlethantheflesh.ManyTaoisttextsoftheSongdynasty(9601279C.E.)onwardsetforthas theirhighestidealtheimmortalityandheavenlyascensionofthe"internalelixir"(neidan),adivine,internalentityconcoctedfromthepure,subtleforceslatentinthe body.Whenitascends,thisentity,whichisalsoknownasthe"yangspirit"(yangshen)orthe"bodyoutsideofthebody"(shenwaizhishen),issaidtoleavethe mortalbodybehind.RudimentsofsuchlaterdoctrinesmayhavealreadyexistedinthemindsofsomeTaoistsduringtheperiodcoveredinthisstudy.27 However,whilesomeTaoistsprobablyunderstood"immortality"insuchmetaphoricalorabstractways,theimmortalityofthefleshisnotexplicitlyrejectedinany religiousTaoisttextofthefirstsixcenturiesC.E.(asfarasIamaware).MostearlyTaoistasceticsprobablybelievedinthepossibilityofavoidingdeathandsoughtto achieveheavenlyascensionintheimmortalbody. Taoistsalsodevelopeddoctrineswhereinhopewasmaintainedforthosewhohaddied.First,therewasthebeliefthatsomeadeptshadmerelyfeignedtheirdeathby employingsupernormaltechniquesofillusion.Evenwhendeathwasnot"feigned,"itwasbelievedthatonecouldeventuallygainthestatusofalesserimmortalaftera lengthysojourninthesubterraneanrealmofthedead,orbecomeresurrectedintotherealmofhumans.(Itshouldbenotedthatinthesescenariosthecorpsedoesnot decayanddissipateforeternityitissomehowpreserved,transformed,orregenerated).28However,seriousadeptswhopursuedasceticpracticesgenerallyaspired tothehighestgradesofimmortality,whichweretobeattainedonlybybypassingdeath. Becausetheybelievedthatthebodyhadtobekeptintactfortheirgoaltoberealized,Taoistadeptsusuallyavoidedpracticesthattheyconsideredharmfultotheir health.Theydidnotwoundthebodythroughselfflagellation.Theyusuallyemphasizedcleanlinessandtookcareofbodilyhygiene.Theydidnotmalnourish themselvestothepointofdiseaseordeathatleastnotintentionally.DeviationsfromthesenormswererareandtendedtobemetwithcriticismfromfellowTaoists. However,becausethegoalwastomakethebodyimmortalandsuperhuman,Taoistadeptsneededtoseetangibleproofinthehereandnowthattheyweretraining andtransformingitproperly.Thementalfortitudeandphysicaldurabilitytopersevereinincreasinglygreaterausteritieswereinthemselvesdeemedassuchproof,as werethetranceexperiencesinducedthroughpainstakingmeasures.Thuspracticessuchasfastingandsleepavoidancewerecarriedoutatanintensitycomparableto, ifnotsurpassing,theasceticismofotherreligions.Inthissense,theTaoistmind/bodyviewencouragedandintensifiedasceticism. Severeformsofasceticismcanthusoccurevenwhenthepractitionerisnotindifferenttothewellbeingofthebody.Actually,thisphenomenonisnotuniqueto Taoism.Forexample,withintheChristianascetictradition,attitudestowardthe

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bodyhavebeenbothnegativeandpositive.AninterestingcomparisoncanbemadebetweenattitudesexpressedinaccountsconcerningtwofamousChristian ascetics,EthiopianMosesandSimeontheStylite.EthiopianMoses(ca.320407A.D.)wasamonkactiveinEgypt.Hewasablackman(hencethedescription "Ethiopian")ofgreatphysicalsizeandstrengthwho,priortohisconversionandmonkhood,hadbeenaslaveandarobberandhadcommittedeverysortof imaginablesin.Throughouthismonasticlife,hewasobsessedwithovercominghispredispositiontowardsinfulactsandthoughts,whichwereblamedonhisphysical sizeandstrength.

Still,becauseheboiledwithbodilyvigorfromhisformerwayoflifeandwasexcitedbypleasurefulfantasies,hewastedhisbodywithcountlessasceticexercises.Ontheone hand,heabstainedfrommeatandateonlyalittlebread,accomplishingagreatdealofworkandprayingfiftytimesaday.Ontheotherhand,forsixyearsheprayedthewhole nightstanding,neverlyingdownorclosinghiseyesinsleep.Atothertimes,hewouldgotothedwellingsofthemonksatnightandsecretlywouldfillthepitcherofeachone withwater.Thiswasveryhardwork,fortheplacewheresomedrewwaterwastenstadesaway,sometwenty,someeventhirtyormore.Foralongtimehecontinuedtohavehis formerbodilystrength,althoughhemadeeveryefforttoconqueritwithmanyasceticexercisesandoppressedhisbodywithseverelabors.29

Hereisanexamplewhereausteritieswerepracticedfortheprecisepurposeofweakeningthebody.Moses'bodilystrengthandvigoraredescribedasthingsthathad tobeconquered,sincetheywerethecauseofhis"pleasurefulfantasies."Thebodyisseenasthesoul'sadversaryinitsquestforsalvation. However,intheHomilyonSimeontheStylite,byJacobofSerug(449521A.D.),averydifferentattitudetowardthebodyisconveyed.Simeon(386459)wasa Syrianmonkrenownedforlengthyfastsandotherausterities.Hespenthislastfortyyearspraying,exposedtotheelementsatopasmallplatformonapillar approximatelysixtyfeethigh.Jacob'shomilyvividlydescribesanoccasionduringSimeon'sstayonthepillarwhenagangrenousandputrescentulcerdevelopedonhis foot,causingincrediblepain.Jacob'saccountattributestheappearanceoftheulcertotheworkoftheDevil,whowasattemptingtoundermineSimeon'sefforts.In spiteofthepain,Simeoncontinuedtopray,standingtheentiretimeonhisonegoodfoot.Thetexttellsusthatwhiledoingso,Simeonsangoutthefollowingwords:

Myfootstandsstraightanddoesnotbend.30ForitsLordwillsustainitthatitmaystandandsupporttheburdenofthetwo.Forlo,itbearsthepalaceofthebodylikeapillarof themasterbuilderwhofastensandsupportsitsothatitwillnotbeshaken.OEvilOne,thehurtthatyouarecausingdoesnothurtmesinceitissweetformeyouwilltire yourselfoutasIamnotgoingtoleavemylabor.31

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Eventually,whentheconditionofthebadfoothadworsenedtowhereithadrottedtotendonsandbones,Simeoncutitoffandsaidtoit,"Goinpeaceuntilthe resurrection.Anddonotgrieve,foryourhopewillbekeptinthekingdom." HeretheadversaryistheDevil.ThebodyisSimeon'sally.EventhoughSimeon'sausteritiestaxthebodyseverely,theirpurposeisnottoweakenthebody.Simeon trustsinGodtostrengthenandsustainthebodysoitcanovercomethechallengesoftheDevil.Hereassureshisamputatedfootthatitwillbereunitedwithhimwhen hisbodyisresurrectedonthedayoffinaljudgment.Becauseofthisbeliefinresurrection,thebodyisseenasbearinganequalstakewiththesoulinthebattlewiththe Devilandtheattainmentofsalvation. ThusintheChristiantradition,asceticismhasbeenaccompaniedbybothnegativeandpositiveperceptionsofthebody.Simeon'sconcernforhisbody'ssustenance andsalvationbearsacertainresemblancetotheattitudeoftheTaoists.However,Taoismwentastepfurtherbyassertingthatausteritiessuchasfastingandsleep avoidance,evenwhencarriedouttothepointofbodilyweakeningandemaciation,wouldeventuallystrengthenthebodyandimbueitwithpowerspreviously unknown.Ultimately,inthebestcasescenario,thebodywassupposedtodirectlygaineternallifewithoutundergoingdeathandresurrection. ForTaoistascetics,becomingimmortalmeantredeemingthebodyfromitsmortalstate.Also,mosthopedtoascendtoaheavenlyrealmbeyondtheordinaryworld. Manybelievedtheworlditselfwasapproachinginevitabledestructionandwasbecomingincreasinglyevilintheprocess.Thesebeliefsundoubtedlyheightenedtheir desiretotranscendtheworld.Inthissense,Taoistasceticismmayhaveattimesbeenmotivatedmorebynegativesentimentstowardthemundaneworldthanby positiveaspirationstowardhighergoals.Thispessimisticmoodisparticularlyunderstandableinlightofthewidespreadsocialstrifethatexistedthroughouttheperiod ofthelateHanandSixdynasties.TheendoftheHandynastywasmarkedbypoliticalintrigueandcorruptionthatengenderedwidespreadhardshipanddissatisfaction amongthepopulace.TheculminativeresultwastheaforementionedYellowTurbanRevoltof184C.E.Politicalandsocialstabilityrarelyexistedthroughouttheensuing centuries.WarspersistedduringtheThreeKingdomsperiod(220280)whentheWei,ShuandWukingdomsbattledforsupremacy.Afterabriefreunificationunder theWesternJindynasty(265316),thenorthwasconqueredbynonChinesepeopleswhofoughtincessantlyamongthemselves.Duringthefleetingintervalsof peace,thepoliticalscenewasrifewithcorruption,intrigue,anddanger,renderingthebenefitsofsocialpowerandstatusdubious.Forthepeasantryandaristocracy alike,itmusthaveoftenbeendifficulttobepleasedwithwhattheworldhadtooffer.32 Ontheotherhand,itcanbearguedthatone'soutlooktowardtheworldandsocietyisdeterminedmoreonapersonal,psychologicallevel.Undervirtuallyall circumstances,therearealwayspeoplewhobytemperamentcanonlyperceivethehumanconditioninanegativelight.Nonetheless,onemustnotdisregardthe

Page11

impactthehistoricalcontextcanhaveindictatingtheextentanddegreetowhichanantiworldlymentalitycanfinditsexpression. Atboththephysiologicalandcosmologicallevels,Taoistasceticismcanbeunderstoodasastrugglebetweentheforcesofgood(yang)andevil(yin).Thegood forces,atthephysiologicallevel,arethebody'spureqiandthemultitudeofinternalbodilydeitiesthatareactivatedthroughausterities.Theausteritiesalsoserveto subduetheevilforces.Theevilforcesincludethebody'simpureqi,alongwithitsinternaldemonsthattrytounderminetheadept'sprogress.Atthecosmologicallevel, theadeptendeavorstocommunicatewithdivinebeings(godsandimmortals)andgaintheirsupport,whileresistingthetemptationsofthemundaneworldandthe demonsthatdwellinit.Theenlightenedmindandheightenedspiritualityoftheasceticareidentifiedwithqiinitsrefined,subtleformsthatbelongtotheyangprinciple andpossessadivinequality.Theordinaryuntrainedfleshisseentobefullofgross,profaneqioftheyinprinciplethathindersspiritualprogressbyobscuringthe divineqiinthebody.Theuniquenessofthisdualismliesinhowthetwosidesofthedualityarenotcompletelyalientoeachother.Everything,regardlessofwhichside itbelongsto,isoriginallythesamething(qi)thathasissuedfromtheprimordialstateofnonbeing.Thedistinctionbetweenthethingsofthetwosidesliesnotintheir basicnaturebutintheirdegreeofpurityandrefinement.Thismeansthattheuntrainedflesh,eventhoughitisgrossandimpure,hasthepotentialfortransformation. Austeritiesactastheagentforthistransformation. Taoistsfastedtopurgethebodyofitsimpureqi.Becausetheyconsideredallordinaryfoodsimpure,theytriedtoeataslittleaspossible.Tosuppresstheirhunger theyingestedspecialdrugrecipesandcarriedouttechniquessuchasbreathholding,airswallowing,salivaswallowingandtalismanswallowing.Thepureqicontained intheairandintheirownsalivawasthoughttonourishthebodyinthebestwaypossible,activatingitslatentdivineforcesintheprocess.Celibacywaspracticedto retainseminalfluid.Thevitalforcesthatsustainlifewerethoughttobeconcentratedinthesemen,meaningthatejaculationcouldleaddirectlytotheshorteningoflife. Throughtheirausterities,Taoistshopedtoreachahigherspiritualstate.Bysheddingallworldlydesiresandsinglemindedlyseekingimmortality,theyhopedtoevoke thesympathyandassistanceofgodsandimmortals.Theeliminationofsexualdesirewasconsideredparticularlyimportantinthisregard.Byemployingmeditation techniquesthatusuallyinvolvedspecialvisualizations,adeptsenteredtrances,therebyhopingtoencounterdivinebeingsorgainaforetasteofheavenlyrealms.These trancesalsowerepartiallyinducedandheightenedbyfastingandsleepavoidance. EventhoughTaoistasceticsplacedparamountimportanceuponhealth,itappearsthatoverzealousnessoccasionallymayhaveledtobodilyharmandevendeath.The Zhouyicantongqi,analchemicaltextascribedtoWeiBoyangofthesecondcentury,33containsapassagethatcriticizestheexcessesofascetics.

Page12 [Adepts]eatairandmaketheirintestinesandstomachgrowl, Exhalingtheproper[qi]andinhalingtheevil[qi]fromtheoutside. Theyneversleepduringthedaytimeornighttime, Andneverrestfrommorningtillevening. Theirbodiesbecomemoreandmoreexhaustedbytheday. Withtheirconsciousnessobscure,theylooklikeidiots. [Thebloodin]their100bloodvesselsboilslikewaterinakettle, Makingthemunabletoresideinpureclarity. Theybuildwallsanderectaltarsandshrines, Toengageinreverentworshipfrommorningtillevening. Demonicentitiesmanifesttheirformstothemindreams, Andtheybecomeemotionallymoved. Intheirheartsandmindstheyrejoice, Andsaytothemselves,'Mylifespanwilldefinitelybeextended!' Suddenlytheydieprematurely, Andtheirrottingcorpsesareexposed.(Zhouyicantongqijie [HY1004/TT628],1/21b22a)

Itisdifficulttodeterminehowoftenasceticexcessesleadtoprematuredeath.Usually,inmostsuchcases,adeptsprobablyfullyintendedtobenefitnotharmtheir health.Thefailureofsuchadeptscouldberationalizedbyfellowadeptsonthegroundsthatthefailedadeptshadpursuedtheirmethodsincorrectlyorhadlacked innerdevotionandmoralvirtue. Asweshallsee,certain"immortalitytechniques"weretantamounttoreligioussuicide.Theoretically,however,suchmethodsweredesignednottodestroythebody buttocreatetheillusionofdeath.Theidea,particularlyininstanceswheredeadlyquantitiesofpoisonwereingested,wasthatthecorpseoftheadeptwasmerelyan illusionfabricatedforpeopletosee.Whilecreatingthisillusionofacorpse,theadeptsupposedlyconcealedhimselffromsocietytoliveonelsewhereasanimmortal. However,itseemspossiblethatinsomecasesasceticsmayhaveabusedandkilledthemselvesasaresultofmorenegativeideasandfeelings.Someofthemmayhave hatedtheirbodiesfortheimpurityoftheiruntrainedstates.Somemayhavesimplywantedtofleetheagoniesofworldlyexistenceatallcosts. Bythefourthcentury,andespeciallythefifthcentury,TaoistswereeagerlyincorporatingBuddhistdoctrinesandpracticesintotheirreligioussystem.Buddhist doctrinespresentedtheChinesewithnewandexcitingpossibilitiesforattainingspiritualperfectionandtranscendence.Taoistsadoptedthebeliefinkarmaand reincarnationandcametoequateheavenlyimmortalitywiththeliberationfromsamsara.Thedoctrineofkarmaaccentuatedtheimportanceofsuppressingand eliminatingdesiresmorethaneverbefore.ThedoctrineofreincarnationcausedTaoiststoinfertheexistenceofanindividualspiritthatsurvivessuccessivebodily deaths.(ThisdirectlycontradictedtheBuddha'sdoctrineofnosoul,oranatman.

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Ironically,however,evenChineseBuddhistswereinitiallyunabletoavoiddrawingthisinferencefromthedoctrineofreincarnation.)34 AsBuddhistinfluencebecamegreater,thereseemstohavearisenanincreasedtendencyamongTaoiststoemphasizespiritualenlightenmentandtranscendencemore thanphysicallongevityandimmortality.Furthermore,thenewlyderivednotionofaneternal,transmigratingspiritmayhavecausedsometounderstandtheultimate salvationsolelyastheliberationofthespirit.Thisinturnmayhavecausedsometoabandontheidealofphysicalimmortalityaltogether.AmongsuchTaoists,there mayhavearisenatendencytodevalueandabusethebodyintentionally,inthehopeofexpeditingtheliberationofthespirit. Apparentlyduetoanawarenessofsuchaproblem,theYuqingjing(HY1301/TT1022102431),ananonymousTaoistscriptureofthesixthorseventhcentury, vehementlycriticizesasceticabuses.TheYuqingjingassertsthatsalvationmustberealizedwithin''thisbody,"andinsiststhatonemustseektoperpetuatethelifeof thebody,sincethebodyis"thebasisoftheTao."However,atthesametime,thescripturedoesequateimmortalitywithliberationfromsamsara.Italsodescribesthe ultimatesalvationasanascensionandaunionwithaformlessNonBeing.Inotherwords,whilevehementlyassertingtheneedtokeepthebodyintact,theYuqing jingdescribesthegreatestsalvationasbeinganoncorporealstate.Itthuspresentsuswithanapparentcontradictionandcausesustowonderwhatwassupposedto happentothefleshwhentheadeptmergedwiththeformlessnonbeing.However,theideaseemstobethatagoodTaoistimmortalizesthephysicalbodybyrefining itintoaformlessstate. Overthecenturies,historicalwritingparticularlythatoftraditionalConfucianscholars,butalsothatofmodernhistorianshastendedtocastashadowofdoubt upontheintegrityoftheTaoistreligion.Priortothelatterhalfofthiscentury,theTaoistreligionhadbeenatopicoflittleinteresttohistorians,andmentionwasrarely madeofTaoistreligionasidefromwhenitsomehowaffectedpoliticalevents.TheTaoistsmentionedinthestandardhistorieshavetendedtobedubiouscharacters theyincludeinsurrectionistslikeZhangJue35andSunEn,36fawningpoliticalopportunistslikeWangQinruo37andLinLingsu,38andquackalchemistslikeLiuMi.39 TheinfamyofsuchcharactershascausedmanytoignoreorlosesightofthefactthatmostTaoistshavepracticedtheirreligioningoodfaith.Historiansofreligionare nowfinallybeginningtogainamorecompleteviewthroughthetextsoftheTaoistCanon.Wenolongerrelysolelyontheaccountsofthosewhowereindifferentor hostiletothereligion.ThisstudyfocusesonaphenomenonthatbearstestimonytotheearnestnesswithwhichTaoistspracticedtheirreligion.Taoistasceticswere willingtodenythemselvesthemostbasicworldlyneedsandcomfortsforthesakeoftheirreligiousperfection.

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ChapterTwo TheLivesOfTaoistAscetics(1) DepictionsInTheLiexianZhuanAndShenxianZhuan

TheLiexianzhuan(BiographiesoftheImmortals)andShenxianzhuan(BiographiesofDivineImmortals)arecollectionsoffancifulstoriesaboutthelivesand featsoffamousimmortals.Eventhoughtheybearvirtuallynocredibilityashistoricalsources,theynonethelessconveythecherishedidealsofimmortalityseekers. Whilethegeneralreadermayhavemerelyvaluedthestoriesfortheirentertainingquality,seriousseekersofimmortalitysawtheimmortalsdepictedinthestoriesas inspirationalfiguresandwantedtoemulatethem.Itisthereforenotunreasonabletospeculatethatmanyofthesameausteritiesascribedtotheimmortalswerebeing attemptedbyrealpeople,albeitwithoutthesameintensityorincredibleresults.ThroughtheaccountsoftheLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuan,wecandeduce muchaboutthecontentandnatureofTaoistasceticismupuntilthemidfourthcentury. TheauthorshipoftheLiexuanzhuanisascribedtoLiuXiang(77B.C.E.6C.E.).However,variousscholarshavefoundanachronismsinthetext,anditappearsthat partsofitwerewrittennoearlierthanthefirstorsecondcenturyC.E.AlthoughsomeofthestoriescouldhavebeenwrittenbyLiuXiangorsomeotherpersonofhis time,additionshaveclearlybeenmadeatlaterperiods.Bytheearlyfourthcentury,thetextprobablyexistedinaformresemblingwhatwehavenow.1 TheputativeauthoroftheShenxianzhuanisGeHong(283364C.E.),thefamousalchemist.ItisbeyonddoubtthathewroteabookentitledShenxianzhuan. However,muchofGeHong'soriginalworkseemstobemissingfromtoday'seditionsoftheShenxianzhuan,whichalsoappeartocontainacertainamountof materialwrittenbysomeoneelse.Thehistoryofthetextistrulycomplex.Infact,ithadoncebeenlost.Itexiststodayasanindependentbook(intwoslightlyvarying editions),onlybecausesomebodyrestoreditbypiecingtogetherfragments

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preservedasquotesinotherbooks.Thisapparentlyoccurredsometimeintheseventeenthcenturyorlater.Variousscholarshavepointedoutthatsomepassagesin today'stextcontainwordingorconveyattitudesthatindicateinterpolationbysomeoneotherthanGeHong.Nonetheless,eventhoughsizableportionsofthetextmay nothavebeenwrittenbyGeHonghimself,nothinginitscontentsappearstobeblatantlyincongruentwiththespiritualclimateoftheearlyfourthcentury.2 TheLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuanprovideuswithapictureoftheformsoftrainingthatexistedindayswhenthequestforimmortalitywasstilllooselydefined andstructured.Theydepictmenandwomenofdiverseregionsandperiodswhosubscribedtovarioustheories,methods,andideals.TheLiexianzhuanpresents thesepersonalitieswithnoclearpreferenceforanyoneapproachtowardimmortality.TheShenxianzhuan,ontheotherhand,conveysapreferencetowardalchemy. Alchemyisdescribedasthemeansthatconfersthehighestgradesofimmortality,andothermethodsaredescribedas"minormethods"thatconferlowergradesof immortality.Thedefinitivedistinctionbetweenhigherandlowergradesofimmortalityisthatthehigherimmortalsachieveheavenlyascension,whilethelowerimmortals liveeternallyinanearthboundexistence.Nonetheless,"minormethods"alsoaredeemednecessaryforthemostambitiousadepts,sincetheyenablethemtoacquire thementalandphysicalconstitutionworthyofconcoctingandingestingalchemicalpotions. Itcannotbesaidthateithertextdeemsasceticismmandatoryforattainingimmortality.Whilemanyoftheimmortalsdepictedinthemengageinausterities,quiteafew exhibittraitsthatseemcontradictorytothedescriptionof"ascetic."Perhapsmostnoticeably,theidealofcelibacyiscontradictedinmanyplacesespeciallyinthe Liexianzhuanwheresexualyoga(fangzhongshu)ismentionedfavorably.IntheLiexianzhuan,Laozihimselfisdescribedasbeingamasterofsexualyoga.
[Laozi]wasfondofnurturinghisjing(semen)3andqi.Hevaluedtheimportanceofcopulatingwithoutejaculating.(1/4b)4 TheentryonRongchenggongalsoconveysthefollowingviewofLaozi: [Rongchenggong]wasabletoadeptlypracticethemethodsofsupplementingandguiding,takingthejing(generativeforce)fromtheDarkFemale.... HismethodswerethesameasthoseofLaozi.IthasalsobeensaidthathewasLaozi'steacher.(1/3b4a)

EvenmorestrikingisthestoryofawomannamedNJi.5 NJi,wearetold,wasabrewerandsellerofexquisiteliquor.Oneday,animmortalvisitedhersaloon. Afterpartakinginherliquor,theimmortalleftfivesilkscrollsascollateralforhisunpaidbill.NJiopenedthescrollsandfoundthattheyweremanualson"nurturing thevitalprinciplethroughcopulation."Thereupon,NJididasfollows:

Page17 [N]Jisecretlycopieddownthevitalpointsinthetextsandthensetupabedroom.Shewouldbringinyoungmenandhavethemdrinkherdeliciousliquor.Thenshewouldhave themstayovernightandpracticewithherthemethodsdescribedinthetexts.(2/14a)

NJiregainedheryouthasaresult.Lateron,theimmortalreturnedandtookherawaywithhimtoinstructherfurther. IntheShenxianzhuan,adistinctlyworldyandmoderatelyselfindulgentattitudeisexpressedfromthemouthofPengzu.6 Pengzu,wearetold,was767yearsold andhadoutlivedfortyninewivesandfiftyfourchildren.Hewasamasterofnumerousmacrobiotictechniques,includingtheingestionofherbsandmedicines,fasting, respiratorytechniques,lightgymnastics,salivaswallowing,airswallowing,andsexualyoga.Thetextrecordsadiscourseheallegedlydeliveredtoafemaledisciple namedCain.PengzutellsCainthatheisdifferentfromthesocalledimmortals,orxianren,whocanflyandtransformthemselvesintobirdsandbeasts.Hederides thesestrangecreatureswholiveonadietof"primalbreath"andzhifungi,7 takeonstrangefacialappearances,growfurontheirbodies,andavoidallcontactwith society.Inhisopinion,eventhoughtheyhavemanagedtobypassdeath,theyhavelosttheiroriginalintegrityashumanbeingsbyshunningtheirnaturaldesirefor worldlypleasureandrecognition.Intheprocess,theyhaveturnedintobeastlikecreatures(1/4a).8 Pengzumaintainsthatonceoneknowsthepropermethodsfor prolonginglife,oneshouldenjoythebenefitsofgoodclothingandfood,besexuallyactive,andparticipateinsocietyasagoodgovernmentofficial.Noneoflife's pleasuresareharmfulunlesspursuedexcessively.Hespecificallydenouncescelibateadeptsasbeing"confused."Inhisopinion,peopleneedtocarryoutsexual intercourseinawaythatemulatesheavenandearth.Heaven(yang)andearth(yin)interminglewhenthesunsubmergesitselfbelowthehorizon.Thisintermingling makesthecosmoseverlasting,andbyextensionofthisprinciple,menandwomencanbecomeimmortalthroughsexualintercourse. However,viewsofthiskindwerenotsharedbyall.TheproclamationsattributedtoPengzuarebestunderstoodasapologeticsforafactionofadeptsthathelda worldlyandmoderateoutlook.Theveryfactthatsuchapologeticsappearinthetextsuggeststhatsomeadeptscontrarilyadvocatedcelibacyanddisdainedworldly comfortsandpleasures. TheShenxianzhuan'sentryonJiaoXianpresentsthemostvividanddetailedpictureofanasceticlifestyle.JiaoXian,wearetold,wasa170yearoldmanwho livedinHedong(thewesternpartofthepresentdayShanxiProvince).Hisdietconsistedofwhiterocks,whichhesomehowboiledtoaconsistencyresemblingtaros. Hefrequentlysharedthemwithotherpeople.Everydayhewenttothemountainstochopfirewood,whichhewouldbringbackandsecretlyplaceatthegatewaysof everyhouseholdinhisvillage.Occasionallypeoplewouldseehimdoingthis.Outofgratitude,theywouldinvitehiminsidetosharetheirmeal.Xian

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acceptedtheseinvitations,butforsomereasonneverspoketohishosts.Around220C.E.,whentheHandynastyofficiallyended,9 hemovedtoaplaceonthebanks ofthe[Yellow]River.Therehelivedaloneinagrassbutfurnishedwithasinglegrassmat.Hisbodywasalwayscoveredwithdirtandgrime.Heseldomate.Hehad nocontactwithwomenandneverwalkedonroadswhenheventuredoutsideofhishut.Whenhisclothingworeout,hesoldfirewoodformoneytobuyusedclothes. Heworeonlyasinglelayeredgarmentthroughouttheyear,evenduringthecoldestdaysofwinter.Apparentlyduetothisunusuallifestyle,thelocalgovernorregarded himasa"wiseman"andcametovisithim.However,JiaoXianwouldnotspeaktohim.Thegovernorcametorespecthimevenmoreforthis.Ononeoccasion,a brushfireburneddownhishutwhenhewasinit.Whenpeoplewenttoseewhathadhappened,theyfoundhimsittingcalmlyandmotionlesslyundertheflamingruins. Afterthefirehadburnedoutandthehuthadbeencompletelyreducedtoashes,hestoodup.However,neitherhisbodynorhisclothinghadbeenburnt.Onanother occasion,afterhehadbuilthimselfanewhut,thehutcollapsedunderaheavysnowfallwithhiminit.Whenpeoplecametohisrescue,theyfoundhimsleeping soundlybeneaththesnow,breathinginarelaxedmannerandbearingtheruddycomplexionofsomebodyinadrunkenstupor.Thisconvincedpeoplethathe possessedextraordinaryqualities.ManypeoplecametoJiaoXianrequestingto"studytheTao"underhim.ButJiaoXianalwaysdeclined,saying,''Idonothavethe Tao."Thenarrativealsotellsusthathecouldtransformhisappearanceintothatofanoldmanorayoungmanatwill.Itendsbysayingthathelivedinsuchawayfor over200years,untilheleftsocietyentirely,nevertobeseenagain(6/24b25a). JiaoXian,wearethustold,cametoberegardedasaholymanbyvirtueofhisausterelifestyle,hisreticence,andhisinvulnerabilitytofiresandblizzards.Thesetraits allegedlyinspiredpeopletoseekinstructionfromhim.LaterTaoistsalsoappeartohaveadmiredJiaoXian'sausterelifestyle.Anabbreviatedformofhisstoryisfound inWangXuanhe'sSandongzhunang(HY1131/TT780782),aseventhenturyencyclopediccompilationonvariousaspectsoftheTaoistreligion.10JiaoXian'sstory isincludedthereinasectionentitled"SectiononPovertyandFrugality"(pinjianpin).11 FurtherinformationonJiaoXianisfoundinapassagefromtheWeile(alosttextofthefourthcentury),quotedinPeiSongzhi'scommentarytotheSanguozhi.12 TherewearetoldthathehadtakenontheausterelifestyleattheendoftheHandynasty(220C.E.),afterhiswifeandchildrenhadbeenkilled.TheWeile,in agreementwiththeShenxianzhuan,tellsusthathelimitedhimselftothemostmeagerfood,clothing,andpersonalpossessions.Italsostatesthatheavoidedall contactwithwomenandrarelyspoke.However,unliketheShenxianzhuan,itattributestohimnosupernormalphysicalpowersnorlongevityandstatesthathedied ofillnessattheageofeightynine.Itmakesnomentionofhis"boilingwhiterocks."Also,ittellsusthattoavoidpoliticalinvolvementandqualifyforadaily

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grainallowanceoffivesheng(aboutoneliter),heenlistedthehelpofaninfluentialfriendtoregisterhimselfasbeingmentallydisabled.Perhapsmostinterestingly,it tellsushewasderided,particularlybythechildreninhiscommunitywhoinsultedandhazedhim.However,onedayin253,hecorrectlypredictedthattheWu kingdomwoulddefeattheWeikingdominbattle.Afterthis,hecametobewidelyacknowledgedasawisehermit. TheaccountoftheWeileinnowayidentifiesJiaoXianasanadeptseekerofimmortality.TheauthorofJiaoXian'sstoryintheShenxianzhuanmayhavefancifully embellishedthelifestoryofawellknownascetichermitinordertoportrayhimasaTaoistadeptandparagonoftheasceticideal. AnothervividdescriptionofanasceticlifestyleisfoundinthestoryofSunDengintheShenxianzhuan.TherewearetoldthatSunDenglivedinthemountains,inside ofapitdugintheground.Therehesatdayafterday,playingtheluteandreadingtheYijing(BookofChanges).LikeJiaoXian,heworeasinglelayeredgarment throughouttheyear.Onthecoldestdays,hewouldkeephimselfwarmbylettingdownhishair(whichwasovertwometerslong)anddrapingitoverhiswholebody. Overthecourseofmanyyears,hewassightedbypeopleofmanygenerations.Theyallviewedhimasanextremelyhandsomemanofyouthfulcountenance.He frequentlybeggedinthemarketplaces,butgaveeverythingheobtainedtothepoor.Perhapsmostamazingly,theaccounttellsusthatnobodyeversawhimeat (6/25a). BeggingalsoismentionedintwootherstoriesintheShenxianzhuan,andonestoryintheLiexianzhuan.TheLiexianzhuantellsthestoryofacertainYinSheng wholivedunderabridgeinChangan(presentdayXian)andbeggeddailyinthemarketplace.Onetimeapersondousedhimwithmanure.YinShengleft,butlater returned.Oddly,hisclothingshowednotracesofthemanure.Hewasthenarrestedandboundinhandcuffsandchains.Butafterhewasreleased,hecontinuedto beg.Hewasagainarrested,thensentencedtodeath.Buthesuddenlydisappearedintonowhere.Afterwards,fornoclearreason,thehouseofthepersonwhohad dousedhimcollapsed,killingovertenpeople.AballadthuscametobesunginChang'anthatwent,"Ifyouencounterabeggargivehimgoodliquor,soastoavoid thecalamitythatwilldestroyyourfamily"(2/7ab). Intheaforementionedstory,thesuperhumanqualityofYinShengisreflectedinhisabilitiestorepelimpurities,disappear,andbringruinuponthosewhomistreathim. HeseemstolackthealtruisticqualityattributedtoSunDeng,whogenerouslygavewhatheobtainedtothepoor. TheShenxianzhuanattributesthealtruisticqualitytoLiAandLiYiqi.TherewearetoldthatLiA"alwaysbeggedinthemarketplaceofChengdu.Whatheobtained hewouldthendistributetothepoor"(2/8b).LiYiqi,whenheacquiredfoodthroughbegging,"wouldimmediatelyhanditovertoapoorperson"(3/12a).Inlater Taoisthagiography,theholymanbeggarthemecontinuestobecommon,especiallyinstoriesaboutLDongbin,themostpopularimmortalfromtheSong

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dynasty(9601279C.E.)onward.Thesestoriesemphasizethebenefitsgainedbythosewhoarekindtothebeggar,morethanthepunishmentssufferedbythosewho mistreathim.ItalsoisknownthatWangChongyang(11121170),thefounderoftheQuanzhenSchool(alargemonasticTaoistschoolthatsurvivestothisday), requiredhisdisciplestofostertheirinnerhumilitybybeggingfortheirlivelihoods.13Sofar,substantialevidencefromearlierperiodshasnotbeenfoundofbegging occuringasamandatorypracticeforTaoistadepts.However,thepresenceoftheholymanbeggarthemeintheLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuansuggeststhat fromearlyon,beggingmayhavebeenameansofsustenanceandselfdisciplineoptedforbysomeimmortalityseekers. ExtremelycommoninboththeLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuanaredescriptionsofimmortalswholivedandtrainedinthemountains.Mountaindwellersinthe LiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuanshuncivilized,agrariansocietyinfavorofaprimitive,beastlikelifeinthewilderness.Theyeatlittleornothingatall,subsistingon herbsandmineralsthemountainsprovide.ThefollowingareafewexamplesfromtheLiexianzhuan:

WoQuanwasanoldherbpickerofMt.Huai.14Helikedtoeatpineseeds.Onhisbodygrewhairseveralcun(1cun=2.25cm.)long.Hiseyeshadbecomesquareshaped.(1/3a b) QiongShuwasaBoundaryMarkerfortheZhouDynasty.Hewasabletoguidehisqiandrefinehisbody.Heboiledstonemarrow(stalactite)andateit.Hecalledit"congealed rockmilk...."15 Whenhereachedtheageofseveralhundredyearshewanderedaboutand[eventually]enteredMt.Taishi.16Hisstonebedandpillowexisttheretoday.(1/9a) XiuyanggongwasamanofWei.17HelivedinastonegrottoonMt.Huayin.18Initisanoverhangingstonebedthatheusedtosleepon.Thestoneisdentedfromerosion (becauseXiuyanggongsleptoniteveryday).Hepracticallyneverate,butwouldoccasionallygatherandeatdeerbamboo(huangjing,poligonatumsibiricum).(1/18b) Maon's(HairyWoman)stylenamewasYujiang.InMt.Huayin,varioushuntersovermanygenerationshavesightedher.Shehashairgrowingalloverherbody.Shesaysthat shewasapalaceattendantfortheFirstEmperoroftheQinDynasty.WhentheQinDynastywasoverthrown,shefledandtookrefugeinthemountains.[There]shemetthe TaoistadeptGuChun,19whotaughthertoeatpineneedles.Eventuallysheovercameallsensationofhungerandcold.Herbodyfeltlightasthoughitwasflying.Forover170 years,thegrottowheresheliveshasissuedforththesoundsofdrumsandharps.(3/7b8a)

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Interestinginthepassagesjustcitedarethestrangephysicaltraitsdevelopedbytheimmortals.Theseremindusoftheaforementionedbeastlikeimmortalsdisdained byPengzu.TheLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuandescribefurthersuchexamples.TheLiexianzhuantellsusthatMisterNing,wholivedonMt.Longmei,20"had abodycoveredwithhairandhadwideears"(2/10b).HuangYuanqiu"woreafurcoatandkepthishairletdown.Hisearsweresevencun(app.16cm.)longandhe hadnoteeth"(2/13b).AccordingtotheShenxianzhuan,LiuGen,wholivedinastonegrottoonthesteepcliffsofMt.Songgao,21"wentnakedinwinterand summer,andthehaironhisbodygrewtoalengthof1or2chi(onechi=app.2224cm.)"(3/10a).HuaZiqi,afterreceivingthe"HolyTreasure(Lingbao)Method oftheImmortalRecluses''andimbibingtheprescribedconcoction,"shedhisskintentimesinoneyear,justasacicadashedsitsshell"(1/5a). ThepassagesonQiongShuandXiuyanggongsuggestthatMt.SongandMt.Huawereestablishedearlyonasreputablesitesforreclusivetrainingandpilgrimage. Today,bothmountainshavelarge,activeTaoistmonasteries.Itiscommonforsuchmountainstohavesitesandrelicsassociatedwithfamousimmortals.22Tothis day,oneofthepeaksalongtheroutetothesummitofMt.Huabearsthename"Maon'sPeak,"inhonoroftheaforementionedfemaleimmortal.23More interestingly,aTaoisttreatiseofthetwelfthcenturycriticizespractitionerswhorelyexcessivelyonfastingandotherdieteticpracticesbystating."Somepeople, longingtobecomelikeMaon(emphasisadded),ingest[varioussubstances].Itisnotthattherearenomorepineorarborvitaetrees.Butafterthenorthernwoman (Maon?),noonehasbeenabletoascendtheskies[byingestingpineand/orarborvitaetreeleaves]."24TheseremarksattesttothelastingpopularityofMaon,as wellastothefactthatlegendaryimmortalswereemulatedbyrealpeople. WhatwerethemotivesfordietarypracticessuchasthoseascribedtoadeptslikeWoQuan,QiongShu,Xiuyanggong,andMaon?Thesubstancesingestedby adeptswerecertainlyoftenthoughttohavegreatmedicinalpotency.Symbolicallyandperhapssubconsciously,ashasbeensuggestedbyJeanLeviandKristofer Schipper,25thedietarypracticesofearlyadeptsmayhaveresultedfromadesiretoreturntothelifestyleofpreagrariantimeswhenpeople,untaintedbytheevilsof civilization,supposedlylivedlongerandhappierlives. Butmostimportant,acommongoalformanyadeptswastostopeating.Plantandmineralsubstancesoftenweremeantasaidsforsuppressinghunger.Highly instructivehereisapassagethatmayhavebeenpartofGeHong'soriginalShenxianzhuan.Thispassage,whichismissingfromthepresenteditionsoftheShenxian zhuan,isfoundintheseventhjuanoftheBowuzhi.
TheShenxianzhuansays,"Itisafactthatfoodiswherethe100diseasesandwickeddemonsgather.Thelessyoueat,themoreyourmindwillopenup,andthelongeryourlife spanwillbe.Themoreyoueat,themoreyourmindwillbeclosed,andtheshorteryourlifespanwillbe.26

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Apossibleconclusionthatcouldhavebeendrawnfromthiswasthateatingnothingcouldbringaboutimmortality. ThesubstancesallegedlyingestedbytheimmortalsoftheLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuanincludethefollowing:pineseeds,pinesap,pineneedles,mica,sesame seeds,peachandplumblossoms,stalactite,lycheefruit,deerbamboo(huangjing),tianmendong(asparaguscochinchinensis),chrysanthemumflowers,"stone grease"(atypeofclay),mercury,deerhorn,chestnuts,cypressresin,sulphur,lead,thezhuplant(atractylodesmacrocephala),rushandscallionroots,rapeturnip seeds,mallow(malvaverticillata),turtlebrains,limonite("Yu'sleftoverfood"),cinnabar,brambleroots(rubustephrodes),cantalope,autumnroot(aconitum carmichaeli),seedsofthezhiplant(irisflorentina),thechangpuplant(acorusgramineus),cinnamon,broomplant(kochiascoparia),"pineseedsthatgrowas parasitesonmulberrytrees,"niter,onionsandscallions,thebadouplant(crotontiglium),realgar,sapofthearborvitaetree(biotaorientalis),flowersoftheshigui tree(rhaphiolusindica),and"redflowerpills"(unidentified). Whileperhapsnotallofthesesubstanceswereconsideredhungersuppressants,manyweretakenindividuallyorincludedinrecipesdesignedtofacilitatefasts. Inmostcases,fastingadeptswereprobablypermittedtodrinkwater.TheShenxianzhuantellsusthatacertainhouseservantnamedChenAnshireceivedtwopills fromtwoimmortals,whotoldhimtonevereatagain.Henceforth,ChenAnshi"neverateagain,onlydrinkingwater"(8/34a).Ifconsumedinlargequantities,water alsocouldhelptosuppresshunger.Itisplausibletospeculatethatsomefastingadeptsmayhaveresortedtosuchatactic.However,inchapter4,weshallencounter afastingregimenthatprohibitseventhetakingoffluids. Asidefromingestingsmallamountsofprescribedsubstances,fastsalsoweresustainedthroughtechniquesofvisualization,controlledbreathing,breathholding,air swallowing,salivaswallowing,andtalismanswallowing.Thesetechniquesusuallywerecarriedoutwhileingestinghungersuppressingsubstances,sincetheywere otherwisetoostrenuous. TheLiexianzhuancontainsthefollowingtwopassages:
TheGuardianofthePassYinXiwasaGrandMasteroftheZhou[Dynasty].Hewaswellversedintheesotericstudiesandalwaysimbibedtheessencesandefflorescences.(1/5a) [Chixuzi("theMasteroftheRedBeard")]imbibedthemistsanddidawaywith[grains].27(2/1a)

Thetermessencesandefflorescencesprobablyreferstocelestialnutrientsthatwerebelievedtoissuefromthesunandmoon.Toimbibethem,theadeptwould visualizethesolarandlunarnutrientsdescendingandenteringhismouth.Hewouldthenswallowhisairand/orsaliva,whichwasthoughttocontainthecelestial nutrients."Imbibingthemists"probablydescribesasimilarmethod.28TheLiexian

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zhuanalsotellsusthatChixuziatepineseeds,anherbcalledtianmendong(asparaguscochinchinensis),andatypeofclaycalled"stonegrease."YinXi,weare told,accompaniedhisteacherLaozito"thelandsoftheflowingsands"(foreignnationsinthewest)to"convertthebarbarians."29There,YinXiatesesameseeds. TheShenxianzhuansimilarlytellsusaboutadeptswhofastedwhileemployingspecialtechniques.HuangJingofWuling,30wearetold,trainedaloneinMt.Huo31 foreightyyears.Later,hemovedtoMt.Songwherehepracticed"imbibingqianddoingawaywithgrains(fasting)."Hepracticedmethodsof"swallowingand expelling,""wombbreathing,"and"internalvision."He"summonedtheSixJiaJadeGirlsbyswallowingtheyinandyangtalismans.''Hevisualized"aredstarinfront ofhisdongfang(oneofthespecialcompartmentsor"palaces"thoughttoexistinsideofthehead),"whichwould"growlargerandlargerandbecomelikeafirethat envelopedthebody."Thesemethodsrestoredhimtohisyouthwhenhereachedtheageof200(Shenxianzhuan10/42b). Yuzi(MasterJadehisrealnamewasZhangZhen)servedtheImmortalChangsangziasadisciple,afterwhichhefoundedhisownschoolandauthoredhundredsof "booksontheTao."Sometimeshewouldholdhisbreathandliemotionlessforextendedperiods.Thetextstates,"Whenonetriedtomakehimgetup,hewouldnot getup.Whenpushed,hewouldnotbudge.Whenonetriedtobendhim,hewouldnotbend.Whenonetriedtostretchhimout,hewouldnotstretchout.Hewould staylikethisfor100daysorforseveraltensofdaysbeforefinallyrising"(Shenxianzhuan8/33a). KongAnguoofLu32practicedthe"guidingofqi"andingested"leadpills"(qiandan,perhapsbettertranslatedas"leadandcinnabar").Attheageof200,hehadthe complexionofayoungboy.HehadhundredsofdiscipleswithwhomhelivedinsecrecyinMt.Qian.33Thetextstates,"Everytimeheenteredhischambertoabstain fromgrains(fast),hewouldemergeayearandahalflatermoreyouthfulthanbefore.Whenhewasnotinhischamber,hewouldeatnormally,inthesamewayas ordinarypeopleoftheworld"(9/35b). GanShiofTaiyuan34"wasadeptatguidinghisqiandnotdrinkingandeating."Wealsoaretoldthat"heingestedtianmendong(asparaguscochinchinensis)and practicedtheaffairsofthebedroom(sexualyoga)"(Shenxianzhuan10/42b). The"imbibingofqi"(fuqi)and"swallowingandexpelling"(tuntu)ascribedtoHuangJingweremethodssimilartothoseof"imbibingtheessencesandefflorescences" and"imbibingthemists."Suchmethodsweremeanttosatiateorpreventhungerbyfillingthedigestivesystemwithairand/orsaliva."Swallowingtheyinandyang talismans"referstoswallowingpapertalismansbearingspecialdiagrams.Conceivably,theadept'sfaithinthedivineefficacyofthetalismanscouldhavehadthe psychosomaticeffectofalleviatingorpreventinghunger.Thetermwombbreathinghasbeenusedinvariouswaysovertheyears.Itishardtosayexactlywhatit referstointheShenxianzhuan.However,"wombbreathing"inmostcases

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seemstohaveinvolvedholdingone'sbreathorslowingdownone'sbreathingtonearstoppage. Throughmeditationandcontrolledbreathing,adeptsmayhaveenteredtrancestateswherethebody'smetabolismsloweddowndrastically.Perhapsbystayinginsuch atranceforextendedperiods,adeptsthoughttheycouldineffecthibernateandsurvivewithouteating.Yuziappearstobedepicteddoingthis,asperhapsareKong AnguoandGanShi,if"guidingtheqi"canbeunderstoodasamethodofbreathcontrolandinternalvisualization. Evenifadeptsdidnotenterinto"hibernation"states,itispossible,asJosephNeedhamhaspointedout,thattheanoxaemiacausedbybreathingtechniques(and aggravatedhighaltitudeconditions)ledtoalossofappetitethatmadefastsmorebearable.AsNeedhamhasalsopointedout,anoxaemiacouldalsohavecausedthe visionsandstrangebodilysensationsexperiencedbyadepts.35 SofarwehaveseenthattheLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuancontainvividportrayalsofselfimposedpoverty,wildernessseclusion,andfasting.Ofcourse, celibacyisprobablythepracticethatwemostoftenassociatewiththeword"ascetic."However,ourtwotextscontainrelativelyfewreferencestoit. Aspreviouslymentioned,Pengzu'scriticismofcelibateadeptsrecordedintheShenxianzhuandoesenableustoinferthattherewerecelibateadepts.TheShenxian zhuanalsotellsusthatJiaoXian"hadnocontactwithwomen."ThetextprobablymentionsthisbecauseJiaoXian'scelibacywasconsideredatraitbecomingofa holymanandareasonforhislongevityandindestructibility.36Wecanfurthercitetwomoreepisodesfromourtextsthatbearsomedegreeoftestimonytoanearly celibatetradition. TheLiexianzhuanhasastoryaboutafluteplayingpigherderofGaoyi37namedShangqiuZixu.Attheageofseventy,he"hadnevermarriedandhadnotaged." Whenaskedwhatthereasonwasforhisperpetualyouth,hewouldanswer,"Ifyoueattherootsofthezhu(atractylodesmacrocephala)andchangpu(acorus gramineus)anddrinkwater,youwillnevergethungryandyouwillnotage."Forover300yearshecontinuedtobeseenbypeople.However,nobodywhoemulated hisdieteticsachievedanygoodresultsbecausetheywere"lazy"andunabletopersevereforevenafullyear.Thesepeople(who,wearetold,belongedto''wealthy andnoblefamilies")wouldthenalwayssay,"Hemustpossesssomeothersecretmethod"(2/9b10a). InstatingthatShangquiZixu"hadnevermarriedandhadnotaged,"thetextmaybeimplyingaconnectionbetweensexualabstinence(oratleasttheavoidanceof marriage)andlongevity.Themethodoflongevityexplicitlycitedhereisanausteredietofherbsandwater,andthemainmoralofthestoryappearstobethatonemust persevereinordertoattainimmortality.Butcouldanotherimplicationbethatthe"othersecretmethod"wassexualabstinence?Iamnotsure.Thisepisodebearsonly vaguetestimonytoacelibatetradition,ifany.

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However,thestoryofSheZhengintheShenxianzhuanpresentsaclearexampleofanadeptwhoendorsedcelibacyasamacrobioticmeasure.SheZheng,weare told,wasamanofBadong38whotrainedsomewhereinthekingdomofWuattheendoftheHandynasty(ca.220C.E.).39Hehadtwentydiscipleswhomhetaught to"guidetheirqi,completelyrefrainfrom[theactivitiesof]thebedroom(emphasisadded),andingestsmallpillsofstonebrain(stalactites)"(10/40a). Asweshallseeinchapters4and5,variousTaoisttrainingmethodscalledforcelibacy.Unlessonewascelibate,thesemethodsweredeemedfutileandeven dangerous.Themostimportantpurposeforcelibacywastheretentionofseminalfluid(referredtoasjingor"essence"),whichwasconsideredindispensableforgood healthandlonglife.Lossofseminalfluidwasthoughttoshortenthelifespan. Still,itmustbenotedonceagainthatboththeLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuancontainmanyreferencestoimmortalswhopracticedsexualyoga(i.e.,werenot celibate)anddonotexpressacriticalattitudetowardthem.Also,manyoftheimmortalsdepictedintheLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuanarehouseholders.Of course,sexualyogictechniquesalsoweredesignedtohelpthepractitionerretainhisjing,andinthissenseservedthesamepurposeascelibacy.Thesetechniques requiredthemalepractitionertoresistejaculationatthemomentofclimaxduringintercoursewithhisfemalepartnerandthensendthejingtothebrainthroughthe spine.Practitionersofsexualyogabelievedthattheirmethodsnotonlyhelpedretaintheirjingbutactuallyincreaseditthroughsexualstimulus.40 Insum,Taoistadeptscouldchooseeithercelibacyorsexualyogaastheirmeansforretainingtheirjing.PriortoheavyBuddhistinfluence,celibatemonasticismdid notexistasaninstitutionamongTaoists.MostTaoistsprobablydidnotbelievethatsexualactivitywasinherentlyimmoral. Whilephysiologicalconcernsdictatedthepracticesofasceticstoalargedegree,italsowasconsideredimportantthattheydevelopimpeccableinnercharacter.Most instructiveinthisregardistheShenxianzhuan'sentryonZhangDaoling,thesemilegendaryfounderoftheFivePecksofRiceSchool(HeavenlyMastersSchool).In itheisdepictedasamasteralchemistwhoknewhowtoconcoctanelixirofimmortalitybymeansofthe"NineCrucibles"recipe.41Asthestorygoes,heoneday announcedtohisfollowersthathis"NineCrucibles"recipewouldbetransmittedtoonlytwomen:WangChangand"amanwhowillcomefromtheeast."Whenthis manwhowasnamedZhaoShengarrived,hewasimmediatelyputthroughthefollowingseventrials: FirsttrialWhenZhaoShengarrivedatZhangDaoling'shouse,hewasrefusedentry.Forfortydays,hestayedatthefrontgate,sleepingonthegroundatnight.To addtohisdifficulty,ZhangDaolingsentpeopletoharasshimwithreprimandsandinsults.Finally,hewasinvitedin. SecondtrialZhaoShengwasmadetocampinthefieldsandtoguardthemilletcropfromwildanimals.Oneday,atsundown,hewasvisitedbyagorgeous

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womantraveler,whoaskedtospendthenightwithhimbeforecontinuingonherjourneythenextday.Heagreed,andsheendedupstayingforseveraldays,sinceshe complainedofachinglegs.Sheconstantlytriedtoseducehim,buthemanagedtoresisthercharmstilltheveryend. ThirdtrialZhaoSheng,whilewalkingdowntheroadoneday,sawthirtypotsofgoldsittingontheground.Heleftthemalone. FourthtrialZhaoShengwentintothemountainstogatherfirewoodforZhangDaoling,whereuponhewasattackedbythreetigers.Astheydevouredtheclothes hewore,heremainedclamandsaid,"IambutaTaoistadept.FrommyyouthIhavedonenowrong.ThereforeIcame,notregarding1000li(about415km.)asfar, toserveadivinemasterandseekthewayoflonglife.Whyareyoudoingthistome?Didthedemonsofthemountainsnotsendyouheretotestme?"Soon,thetigers left. FifthtrialZhaoShengwenttothemarketandbought14pi(140m.)ofsilk.Eventhoughhehadpaidthemoney,thesilkmerchantfalselyclaimedthathehadnot. Withoutprotestingorgettingangry,ZhaoShenggavethemerchanthisownclothesaspayment. SixthtrialWhenZhaoShengwasagainguardingthecrops,hewasvisitedbyabeggarofloathsomeappearance.Hisclothingwastattered,hisfacewascovered withdirtandgrime,andhissmellyandfilthybodywascoveredwithfesteringwelts.Movedtoprofoundpity,ZhaoShengfedhimafullmeal,gavehimhisownclothes towear,andsenthimoffwithasupplyofhisownrice. SeventhtrialZhangDaolingtookhisdisciplestothetopofaprecipitousmountaincliff.Growingfromthefaceofthecliffwasapeachtreefulloffruit.Hethentold hisdisciplesthatanyonewhofetchedapeachwouldberevealedprofoundsecrets.Morethan200disciplesgazeddownthecliffandcontemplatedfetchingapeach, butrecoiledoutoffear.ZhaoShengalonewascourageousandsaid,"Ifonehastheprotectionofthegods,howcouldtherebeanydanger?Aholymasterispresent here.Certainlyhewillnotallowmetodieinthisvalley.Ifthemasterhassomethingtoteachus,thentherecertainlymustbesomewaybywhich[thepeaches]canbe gotten."Hethenjumpedoffthecliffandontothetree.Hepicked202peachesandfilledthebreastofhisgarmentwiththem.However,thefaceofthecliffwassteep andhadnohandholdsorfootholds.Hethusthrewthepeachesupward,onebyone.ZhangDaolingthenextendedhisarm,tookZhaoShengbythehand,andpulled himup.Hisarmstretchedtoalengthofroughlysevenmeterswhenhedidthis(4/16b17a). Afterthis,ZhangDaolingtestedthefaithandresolveofhisdisciplesoncemorebyjumpingoffofthecliff.ZhaoShengandtheaforementionedWangChangdidthe same,andlandedonaledge.ThereZhangDaolingtaughtthemtherecipeforthedivineelixir. Inthisnarrative,thegreatestsecretsaretransmittedtoZhaoShengonlyafterpassingallofthetrials.Bypassingthetrials,heexhibitshumility,generosity,

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compassion,willpower,andcourage.Heevenshowsthathedoesnotfeardeathitself. ThethemeoftrialsalsoisfoundintheShenxianzhuan'sentrysonLiBabai,Hugong,andWeiBoyang,whichweshallnowsummarize. LiBabai,anImmortaloftheShuregion(presentdaySichuan),testedthecharacterofacertainTangGongfangbydisguisinghimselfasoneofhisservants.Because hewasmuchmorehardworkingthantheotherservants,hesoonwonTang'saffection.Suddenlyoneday,thegoodservantfellill.AlthoughTangspentexorbitant sumsofmoneyondoctorsandmedicines,hisconditiononlygrewworsehugefesteringweltsdevelopedalloverhisbody.Whentoldbythegoodservantthatthe weltswouldhealonlyifsomebodylickedthem,Tanghadthreemaidservantslickthewelts.WhenherequestedthatTanghimselflickthewelts,hecomplied.Healso askedthatTang'swifedoit,soshecompliedaswell.ThegoodservantthenhadTangbringhimatubofliquortobathein.Afterthegoodservantemergedfromthe tubwithhiswoundsfullyhealed,herevealedhistrueidentity.HethentoldTang,hiswife,andhisthreemaidservantstobatheintheliquor.Whentheycameoutofthe tub,theyhadbeenrestoredtoyouth.LiBabaithentransmittedanalchemicalscripturetoTang,whowentintoMt.Yuntai,concoctedtheelixir,andbecamean immortal(2/8b). TheimmortalHugongsubjectedhisdiscipleFeiChangfangtoaseriesoftrials.Fei,awealthygovernmentofficial,firsthadtostagehisdeathinordertoabandonhis familialandoccupationalresponsibilities.42Havingsuccessfullydoneso,hewenttojoinHugong.43Hugonglefthimamongahordeofgrowling,snarlingtigers.Fei wasundaunted.Thenextday(thetextdoesnotsayhowheescapedthetigers),Hugonglockedhiminsideofastonecave.AboveFei'sheadwasanenormous bouldersuspendedfromtheceilingbyagrassrope.Ashesatundertheboulder,snakeschewedontherope.AfterFeihadwithstoodthisordealwithouttheleastbit offear,Hugongcommendedhimasbeing"teachable"andtoldhimtoeatapileofhideouslymalodorousmanurecontainingmaggotsoveraninchinlength.Fei hesitated,andHugongdeclaredhimunfittoacquirethe"WayoftheImmortals."Hecouldonlybecomea"masteronearth"withalifespanofseveralhundredyears. Feiwasthussentbackintosocietywitha"talismanofenfeoffment,''whichendowedhimwithawiderangeofthaumaturgicpowers,particularlyasahealerandan exorcist(5/20b21b). ThealchemistWeiBoyang,theputativeauthorofthealchemicalclassicZhouyicantongqi,enteredthemountainswiththreedisciplestoconcocta"divineelixir." Whentheelixirwasready,Weifedittoadog,whichdiedonthespot.Weitheningestedtheelixiranddied.Oneofthedisciples,whorefusedtothinkthathisteacher couldhaveconcoctedabadelixir,alsoingestedtheelixir.Heimmediatelydied.Theothertwodisciples,preferringtoliveouttheirnormallifespans,leftthemountain withouttakingtheelixir.Assoonastheyleft,Weigotup,revivedthefaithfuldiscipleandthedog,andtogethertheylefttheworldasimmortals(1/5a).

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ThenotionclearlyconveyedthroughouttheShenxianzhuan,particularlyinitsstoriesof"trials,"isthatthehighestformofimmortalityissoelusivethatitcanonlybe attainedthroughextraordinaryeffort.Beforeonecouldpracticetheultimateart,onehadtobeperfectedphysicallyandspiritually.Thismentalitywasprobablya primaryfactorinmotivatingadeptstowardasceticisminitsextremeforms.Adeptswentthroughlongfastsorsubjectedthemselvestoarduousanddangerousliving conditionstoprovetothemselves,theirmasters,thegods,andtheimmortalsthattheypossessedsufficientstrengthandvirtuetopracticethehighestmethods. AccordingtotheShenxianzhuan,thehighestmethodisalchemy.However,asweshallsee,differentschoolsendorsedvariousothertypesofpracticesasvehicles towardheavenlyimmortality.(BytheSongperiod,itbecamestandardpracticetousealchemicalterminologytodescribetrainingregimenscenteredaroundmeditation andrespirationtechniques.Practitionersoftheseregimenswhichinvolvenomanipulationoringestionofchemicalsareknownas"internalalchemists."Theclaimof someinternalalchemistshasbeenthatmenlikeWeiBoyangandGeHongwerethemselvesinternalalchemists.) Italsocanbesaidthatimmortalitytechniquesrequiredgreatcourage,duetothedangersinvolvedincarryingthemout.Severehealthproblemsanddeathsmayhave occasionallyoccurredasaresultofasceticexcesses.ForaTaoistadept,diseaseanddeathrepresentedfailure.Suchfailurewasunderstoodtooccurwhendifficult techniqueswerepursuedincorrectlyorprematurely.Intheory,eventheharshestausteritiesthosethatweakenedandemaciatedthebodyweresupposedtolead tophysicalrevivalandstrengthening.Eventhemostardentasceticsgenerallydidnotseektodestroythebody.Yetincertaincasesthismayhavebeenexactlywhat theyweredoing. Some"immortality"methodsweretantamounttosuicide.Theadeptwouldpoisonhimselftodeathwithan"immortalitypotion"underthesincerebeliefthathewould somehowproceedtoanimmortalexistencewhileleavingbehindafakecorpse.TheShenxianzhuan'sstoryofWeiBoyangmayhaveissuedfromafactionthat promotedsuchamethod. TheLiexianzhuancontainsstoriesthatdescribemethodsofselfcremationanddrowning.WearetoldthatNingfengzi,whoservedtheYellowEmperoras "SupervisorofPottery,"wasonedayvisitedbyamanwhotaughthimhowtomanipulatefiretocreatefivecoloredsmoke.Later,Ningfengzibuiltafireandburned himselfinit.Thetextstatesthathe"ascendedanddescendedtogetherwiththesmoke."Whenthefirehadburnedout,peoplefoundhisskeletonandburieditinahill northofNing.44Forthisreason,hewasposthumouslynamed"Ningfengzi,''whichmeans"themasterenfeofedatNing"(1/1b).Thisstoryclearlydescribesamethod ofselfcremation.Ningfengzi'sallegedselfcremationalsoismentionedinTaoHongjing's(456536)Zhengao,aswewillseeinchapter5.Presumably,the implicationofthestoryisthatNingfengzihadrisenwiththesmoketobecomeaheavenlyimmortal,whileleavinghisskeleton(orasemblanceofit)behind.

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XiaofuofJizhou,45wearetold,workedfromhisyouthasarepairerofsandalsinthemarketplaceofXizhou.46Aftermanyyears,hehadnotaged.Eventually, peopletooknoticeandcametoinquireabouthissecrets.Herefusedtoinstructanybody,exceptforacertainLiangmu,47towhomhetransmitted"firetechniques." Thetextthencontinueswithwhatappearstobeadescription(albeitobscure)ofaselfcremationthatbroughtaboutheavenlyascension.

Ashe(Xiaofu)wasabouttoascendbeyongthe"threebrightnesses,48hetookleaveofLiangmu.Hebuiltfires,severaltensinnumber,andascended.ManypeopleinXiyi49 worshippedhim.(1/6b)

ApossiblereferencetoselfdrowningisfoundinthestoryofQinGaoofZhao.50QinGao,whohad"wanderedaboutbetweenJizhouandZhuo51jun52forover200 years,"oneday"entered"theZhuoRiver,53takingaseahorsewithhim.Hisdisciplesunderwentritualpurifications,builtashrinebytheriver,andawaitedhisreturn. Heeventuallyemergedfromthewater,mountedaredcarp,andassumedhisseatontheshrinealtar.Inthemorning,10,000peoplecametoseehim.Afterovera monthintheshrineheleft,"enteringtheriver''again(1/13a).54 Theapparentselfdrowing,coupledwithQinGao'sstatusasasectleaderandcultobject,bringtomindeventsthattranspiredduringthearmedrevoltsledbySunEn, aTaoistoftheHeavenlyMastersSchool.55IntheJinshu(OfficialHistoryoftheJinDynasty),wearetoldthatSunEndrownedhimselfafteradevastatingbattle defeatin402C.E.HisfollowersthendeclaredhimaWaterImmortal(shuixian).Inashockingdisplayoffaithandloyalty,over100ofthemproceededtodrown themselves.Also,ononeoccasionwhenSunEn'sfaithfulwereforcedtofleetheirhomesforsurvival,thewomendrownedtheirbabiesinariverandproclaimedto them,"Werejoicethatyouareascendingtothehallsoftheimmortalsbefore[us].Laterweshallfollowyou[there]."56 Itisdifficulttosayhowcommonsuicidalmethodswereamongimmortalityseekers.Asweshallseeinchapter5,suicidalmethodswereheldinparticularlyhigh esteembytheShangqingmovement.However,notallTaoistsviewedsuicidalmethodssofavorably,sincethehighestidealinmostcaseswastoachieveheavenly immortalitywithoutundergoinganyformofdeathwhetheractualorfeigned.Mostnotably,asweshallseeinchapter7,theYuqingjingrepeatedlydenounces religioussuicides. Inlateryears,asceticismtookonmanynewformsandmeanings.However,manyoftheessentialtraitsofTaoistasceticismareconveyedintheLiexianzhuanand Shenxianzhuan.StilllackingamongTaoistasceticswasanykindoforganizationandregulationonalargescale.Adeptsofdifferentfactionsappeartohavehadtheir ownausterities,whichtheycarriedoutfortheirownreasons.Therewasnocommonlysharedcosmologyorethicalsystemthatunderpinnedtheirasceticism.

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Whatexistedwerevariousimmortalitytechniques,manyofwhichrequiredisolation,fasting,orcelibacy. Thissituationbegantochangeconsiderablyinthelatefourthandearlyfifthcenturies,whentheShangqingandLingbaomovementsemergedandleftastronginfluence onTaoismasawhole.Bothmovements,withtheirnewly"revealed"scriptures,setforthcomprehensivesystemsofdoctrineandpracticethatgaveaclearer,more universaldefinitiontothemeaningandpurposeofasceticpractices.Forsomevividportrayalsofthelivesofasceticsduringthefourththroughsixthcenturies,weshall nowturnourattentiontotheDaoxuezhuan.

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ChapterThree TheLivesofTaoistAscetics(2) DepictionsintheDaoxuezhuan

MaShu's(522581)Daoxuezhuan(BiographiesofLearnersoftheTao)isahagiographicworkthatcontainsmuchvaluableinformationonTaoistasceticismduring thefourththroughsixthcenturies.1 ThecompletetextoftheDaoxuezhuannolongersurvives.However,largefragmentsofithavebeenpreservedinWang Xuanhe's(fl.seventhcentury)SandongzhunangandShangqingdaoleishixiang(HY1124/TT765),aswellasvariousothertexts.2 AnaccountofMaShu'slifeispreservedintwoofficialhistories.Theaccounttellsusthathewasarenownedscholarversedin"Buddhistbooks,theBookof ChangesandtheLaozi"whoattemptedtoliveanaustere,reclusivelife.Attheprimeofhislife,hewentintoretirementonMt.Mao.Hedeclinedanappointmentas theMinisterofRevenuefortheChendynasty.Later,hegrudginglyacceptedtheinvitationofthePrinceofPoyang,butrefusedtoliveintheeleganthousebuiltforhim. Instead,hechosetoliveinagrasshutinabamboogrove.Membersoftheroyaltyandnobilityfrequentlybroughthimgifts,butherefusedtheseasbesthecould.3 Ma Shu'sapparentpreferenceforausterityandreclusioninhispersonallifeperhapsservesasapartialexplanationforwhyasceticbehaviorsandtrainingmethodsareso frequentlymentionedintheDaoxuezhuan.Hisownpreferencesprobablydictatedconsiderablywhomhechosetodepict,whathechosetomention,andhowhe mayhaveembellishedtheinformationhehadavailable. TheprominenceofasceticisminthesurvivingDaoxuezhuanfragmentsalsocanbeattributedtotheselectivepreferencesofWangXuanhe,theseventhcentury compileroftheSandongzhunangandShangqingdaoleishixiang.WangXuanheappearstohaveheldahighregardforasceticism,asisreflectedinhowhis Sandongzhunangcontainssectionsentitled"SectiononPovertyandFrugality,""SectiononHidingOne'sBrilliance,""SectiononDietetics,"and"SectiononCutting OffGrains(fasting)."ManyofhisquotesfromtheDaoxuezhuanarefoundinthesesections.

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TheDaoxuezhuanconsistedoftwentyjuan.4 Fragmentsfromentrieson106differentpersonageshavesurvived,andthereisnowayofknowinghowmanymore entriesthereoriginallywere.Noneofthefragmentspreserveanentireentry,althoughsomeofthefragmentssuchasthoseonFanChaiandLuXiujingcanbe piecedtogethertoreconstructlengthyaccounts.Unfortunately,prefatorystatementsstatingthescopeandpurposeoftheworkdonotsurvive.Theoriginaltextinits entiretyprobablyattemptedtogiveacomprehensiveaccountofthedeedsofgreatTaoistfiguresfromallperiods,beginningfrommurkyantiquity.5 Thiscanbe surmisedfromthefactthatsomeofthefragmentsrecordtheancientloresurroundingthemythicalsageemperorsZhuanxu,6 Yao,andShun,7 aswellasthelegendof theLingbaoFiveTalismans.8 ThesurvivingfragmentsalsoincludeexcerptsfromentriesoneighteenpersonagesoftheHanandThreeKingdomsperiods.Among thesepersonagesareHanEmperorWu,ZhangDaoling(seepp.2527),JiaoXian(seepp.1719),SheZheng(seep.25),9 andSunDeng(seep.19).Fragments onsuchearlierfiguresareconsiderablyoutnumberedbyfragmentsonlaterfigures.However,thisisquitelikelybecauselaterauthorstookinterestintheDaoxue zhuanprimarilyforitsinformationonsubsequentfigures,sinceinformationonearlierfigurescouldbefoundinprevioushagiographicalsources. MaShuwrotenotasacritical,objectivehistorian,butasapiousTaoistintentonglorifyinggreatTaoistsandinculcatingreligiousvalues.Forthisreason,hemayhave embellishedorexaggeratedthefacts.Hemayhavespuriouslyattributedcertainsayingtohisprotagoniststomakethemconformtohisownimageofasaint.Thetext fragmentsthereforecannotbefullyrelieduponasbeingfactual.Wecanmerelyspeculatewithintheboundariesofcommonsensethatsomethingresemblingthe accountsmayhavetakenplace.ThesourcesMaShurelieduponmusthavevariedgreatly.Forinformationonearliereventsandpersonages,itappearsherelied heavilyontheShenxianzhuanandotherbooksofTaoistloreavailabletohim.Forinformationonfiguresfromthefourththroughsixthcenturies,hemayhaverelied moreonhearsaythanonwrittensources. However,whencomparedtothetalesoftheLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuan,theinformationintheDaoxuezhuanseemsmorecredible.Manyofitsaccounts areaboutpeoplewholivedinthesamecenturyasMaShu.Whilecurrenteventscancertainlybeexaggeratedormiscommunicated,MaShustillwouldhavebeen betterinformedandrestrainedtothefactswhendescribingpeopleandeventsknownfirsthandbyhiscontemporaries.Perhapsmoreimportant,MaShuseemsnotto havebeenparticularlyinterestedinamazinghisreaderswithmiraculousstories(thoughhedoesrecordsomemiracles).Heappearstohavebeenmuchmore concernedwithprovidingmoralexhortationandinspirationthroughlivingexamples.Forthisreason,hisaccountsoftendescribedeedsandtraitsthatareinnoway miraculousorsensational,butratherquitemundane.Hedescribessuchdeedsandtraitssimplybecausetheyexemplifyloftymoralvirtues.WhileMaShumay

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wellhaveidealizedhisprotagonistsexcessivelytomaketheirlifestoriesconformtohisownvalues,hisaccountsaremuchmoresoberthanthoseoftheLiexianzhuan andShenxianzhuan. TheDaoxuezhuanreflectssomeoftheimportantnewtrendsthatwereoccurringwithinTaoismatthetime.Perhapsmostimportantamongthesewasthe developmentandproliferationofacelibatemonasticismthatwaspatternedaftertheBuddhistmodel.TheDaoxuezhuanalsoprovidessomevaluableearlyevidence concerninghowvegetarianismcametobeenforcedasaTaoistmonasticregulation.Also,theasceticsdepictedintheDaoxuezhuanfrequentlyembodytheidealsof ritualpietyandaltruism,idealsthatwerevigorouslyendorsedbytheLingbaomovementofthefifthcentury. TheDaoxuezhuan'smostvividdescriptionofausterelivingisfoundinthestoryofFanChai.InitwearetoldthatFanChai10livedalone,"spendingentiredaysin silence"inashackmadefromoldragsandthatch.Hewentbareleggedthroughouttheyear,"buthislegsneverchappedandcracked.""Heneverwenttosleep,"but thisdidhimnoharmsince"hisskinwaslikethatofamaidenandhehadabeautifulface."Hewasrespectedandlikedbyall,andhealwayssmiledwhenhe entertainedcompany. Hisonlypossessionswereanemptylunchboxandaclaypot.Theclaypotsubstitutedasapillow.Takingthesebelongingswithhim,hewouldwanderabout,begging fortendaysatatime.Hisdietconsistedentirelyofroughmilletandricewithvegetablestew.Heavoidedeatingnonstickyrice,largemillet,laoandliliquor (unclarifiedsweetwines),andtastyfoodsandfruits.Foreachtendayshelimitedhistotalfoodintaketoaboutonesheng(0.5955liters). Hispersonality,whileamiable,alsowaseccentric.Hewascompletelyindifferenttowardworldlystatus,recognition,andpleasure.Hismovementswerequick,his speechrapidandnearlyunintelligible.Heneverboastedofclairvoyantpowers,nordidhespeakof"spiritualomens."Herefusedtotalktoprestigiousmembersofthe community.Heneverlistenedtomusic.Heoftensatwithhiseyesclosed.Hehadthestrangehabitoflyingdownandtalkingtohimself,utteringphrasesthatmadelittle ornosensetoanyoneelse.Oneofhisfavoritephraseswas"thetroopsofWangJianhavecome."11Hisclothingwasmadefromragsofdifferentcolors.Heworea hatthatappearedtobeseveraldecadesold.Helookedfilthy,yethealwayssmelledfragrantandclean(Sandongzhunang2/1ab). Aswecansee,thismanofca.400C.E.livedlikeavagrantandexhibitedtraitssuggestiveofinsanity.Whilesuchamanmightusuallydrawscornandderision,the Daoxuezhuanportrayshimasbeingasaintofextraordinaryspiritualityandvirtueandsaysthathewasrespectedandwellliked.Theunderstandingisthathe loweredhimselftovagrancybecausehehadtranscendedallfeelingsofprideandshame.Hisspeechandconductwerenonsensicalbecausehisinsightandspirituality eluded

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thecomprehensionofordinarypeople.Indescribinghowheavoidedcontactwithpowerfulpeopleandneverboastedofanysupernormalpowers,thetextextolshis indifferencetowardworldlysuccessandrecognition.NoclearindicationisgiventhathepracticedTaoistmacrobiotics,althoughthisishintedatbythedescriptionsof hisyouthfulcomplexionandhisabilitytoliveonverylittlefoodandnosleep.Fortunately,moreinformationonhimalbeitofaquitefancifulnatureisfoundinother sources.TheDongxianzhuan(Yunjiqiqian110)tellsus

HepracticedtheNonactiveWayoftheTaiping.Whenhesuckedandgargledwithhiseyesalmostfullyshut,afivecoloredradiancerosefromhisnape.(Yunjiqiqian110/8a9a)

Describedhereissomesortofmethodinvolvingtheswallowingofairand/orsaliva,whichprobablywasmeanttofacilitatefasts. TheDaoxuezhuanprovidesoneexampleofamarriedcouplethatoptedforanausterelifestyle.WearetoldthatLiuNingzhiandhiswife(fl.earlyfifthcentury)were bothordainedpriestswhowere"transmittedtheHeavenlyMaster'sWayofConvertingthePeople."Theyusedtheirritualpowerswithgreatsuccessforthebenefitof others(Sandongzhunang1/1b2a).Theybothwereuninterestedinworldlywealth.LiuNingzhigaveawayhishouse,wealth,andthefamilybusinesstohisbrother's household.Herefusedallgiftsofferedtohimbythenobility.Hiswifewasthedaughterofawealthyaristocrat,butwheneverherfathersentthemlavishgifts,Liu Ningzhigavethemawaytorelatives.Hiswifewasperfectlycontenttohavehimdothis.Thecoupleandtheirchildrenlivedinahut"amidsttheweeds"and"wereable tobecontentamidsthardship."Toearntheirlivingtheysoldhayinthemarketplace,chargingtheircustomersnomorethantheycouldafford.Oftheirearnings,they keptonlywhattheyneededfortheirsubsistenceandgavetheresttobeggars.Thistheydideveninyearsoffamine(Sandongzhunang2/2a). TheDaoxuezhuanalsoindicatesthattheypracticedimmortalitytechniques.OneepisodeisrecordedwhereLiuNingzhifeltanexcruciatingpaininhisforeheadwhen meditating.Whenherubbedit,ninejewelscameout.Thejewelsshinedbrilliantlyafterhehadwashedthemincleanwater12(Sandongzhunang5/1b).Wealsoare toldthatthey"livedonthesouthsideofMt.Heng,13wheretheygatheredherbsandpracticeddietetics"14(Sandongzhunang1/1b).Eventually,LiuNingzhitookhis wifeandchildrentolivewithhimhighupinthemountains.Theretheylivedinahutmadeofweeds.Theywerenevertobeseenagain(Sandongzhunang2/2a). AnotherinterestingandsomewhatuniquecaseisthatofKongLingchanofShanyin,Kuaiji.15Wearetoldthathetooktoausteritiesasadirectresultofhismother's death.Whenhismotherdied,hewentintomourningandpracticedausteritiesofanintensitythatmadehim"renownedforhisfilialpiety."Heresolvedtoeatonly porridgeandvegetables,towearonlyplainclothes,andtoabstaincompletelyfromdrinkingandmerrimentfortherestofhislife.Ononeoccasionhewenttovisithis father,whouponseeinghimwasmovedtopitybyhisemaciated

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condition.Hisfatherimploredhimtoeatrichfoods(asafilialson,KongLingchancouldnotdisobeyhim),butoddlyenough,thismadehimill.Hewasneverforcedto eatrichfoodsagain(Sandongzhunang1/17b). Perhapstheshockofhismother'sdeathnotonlyovercamehimwithgrief,butalsobroughtaboutaheightenedawarenessofdeaththatledtoreligiousconversion.In anotherfragment,wearetoldKongLingchanwentontobecomeaneminentTaoistwho"profoundlyresearchedtheessentialsoftheTao."Duetohisacclaim,hewas invitedbyEmperorMing(465472)oftheLiuSongdynastytoresideatthenewlyestablishedHuaxianGuanmonastery,locatednexttotheTombofYuonMt. Kuaiji(Sandongzhunang2/7b,ShangqingDaoleiShixiang1/2b3a).IntheNanshi(OfficialHistoryoftheSouthernDynasties),wearetoldthathecamefroman extremelyprivilegedupbringing.HehadbeenservingasthegovernorofJin'an(northeastofpresentdayMinhouCounty,FujianProvince)whenhereceivedtheroyal invitation(Nanshi4/49,p.1214).TheNanshialsotellsusthatshortlyaftertheinvitation,hewasappointedtothepostofGrandMasterofPalaceLeisureand becamegreatlyrenownedforhisskillsinastrologyandnumerology.Itthusappearsthatdespitehisallegedlyaustereprivatelifestyle,KongLingchanneverdisengaged himselffromsocietyandpolitics.Also,heprobablyneverabandonedfamilylife,sincehedidhaveasonnamedKongGui. WhileLiuNingzhiandKongLingchanareexceptions,mostoftheasceticsdepictedintheDaoxuezhuanwereprobablysolitaryhermitsorcenobites,althoughin manycasesnoclearindicationisfoundwithintheinformationthathassurvived.WearetoldthatZhangZe,16whowasreticentandindifferenttoworldlymatters, livedfrugallyandcontentedlyinpoverty(Sandongzhunang2/2b).YuChengxian17wasateacherandpreacherwhowaswellversedintheLaoziandZhuangzi.He worehempcloth,restedonastrawmat,andpracticedvegetarianismforfortyyears(Sandongzhunang2/3a).MengDaoyang18worehempcloth,atecoarsefood, andownednoprivatepossessions.Wearealsotoldthat"inpracticingtheTaoinworship,[he]didnotavoidcoldnessandheat"(Sandongzhunang2/3a).Allof thesemenmayhavebeencenobitesorhermits,butwehavenowayofascertainingthis. YanJizhiclearlyrenouncedfamilylife,sincewearetoldthat"heabandonedhishometoentertheTao."Wealsoaretoldthatheateavegetariandietandworeonly hempcloth(Sandongzhunang2/2b).19Itcannotbeascertainedwhetherhepursuedhisreligiouslifeasahermitorcenobite.However,asweshallseeshortly,the phrase"abandonedhishome"(shejia)closelyresemblesthestandardphraseusedtodenotetheactofenteringamonasticorder. DengYuzhi(fl.483493)20fitsintothecategoryofahermit.WearetoldthathelivedaloneintheSouthernPeakMt.Hengandworeonlyatatteredmonk'srobe throughouttheyear.Thetextalsoindicatesthathewasinmourningforsomereason,hencedidnotwearhishairinatopknot(Sandongzhunang2/3b).Another Taoisthagiographicalwork,LiaoXian'sNanyuejiuzhenrenzhuan(HY452/TT201ca.late9thc.),offersapossibleexplantion.Therewearetoldthathehad previously

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roamedtheholymountainswithanolderadeptnamedXuLingqui,buthadbeenleftonhisownafterXuLingqi"ascended"inthesecondyearoftheYuanhuireignera (474). AnapparentexampleofacenobiteisDongxiangZongchao.21Wearetoldthathewasindifferenttoworldlyaffairsfromhisearlychildhood.Henevermarriedor tookoffice.Hisdietconsistedonlyofhempandwheat,andheatejustonceadayatnoon.Perhapsmostimportant,wearetoldhelivedina"hutofself refinement"(temple,monastery?)where"fishwasneverserved"andhisfamilymembersanddiscipleswereallvegetarians(Sandongzhunang5/7b). MonasticismwasalongstandingBuddhisttraditionthatsomeTaoistsbegantoemulatebythefifthorsixthcentury.TheDaoxuezhuanisoneofthemostabundant sourcesofevidenceforthisphenomenon.DongxiangZongchao's"hutofrefinement"appearstohavebeensomethingsimilartoamonastery,althoughitappearsthat membersofhisfamilylivedthere(whichwouldnotbeallowedinaBuddhistmonastery). FromearlierperiodswecanfindnumerousexamplesofTaoistadeptswholefttheirfamiliestolivebythemselves,orwithacircleoffellowadepts.Vegetarianismand celibacywerenotunusual.However,duringthefifthandsixthcenturies,itappearsthatcelibacy,vegetarianism,andcenobitismbecamemorecommonamongTaoists. Buddhisticethicscametoprovidemuchofthejustificationforthesepractices. ThestandardBuddhistwordusedtorefertotheactofjoiningamonasticorderischujia,or"leavingthefamily."Anarticleonthephenomenonof"leavingthefamily" inTaoismhasbeenwrittenbyOzakiMasaharu.22Ozaki,basedlargelyoninformationfromtheDaoxuezhuan,speculatesthat"leavingthefamily"becamecommon amongtheTaoistsofsouthernChinaduringthesixthcentury.Ozakipointsoutthatthefollowingfourteenpeoplearedescribedashaving"leftthefamily":ZhangMin, XuMingye,DaiSheng,ZouRong,XuShizi,ZhangYunzhi,ChengTongsun,YinFaren,ZhangYu,ChunyuPuqia,LiLingcheng,JiHuiyan,SongYuxian,andWang Daolian.23Interestinglyenough,thelastfourwerewomen. Ozakipointsoutthatthepeopledescribedashaving"leftthefamily"atleastthoseforwhomtheperiodandlocationoftheiractivityisindicated24wereactivein southernChinaduringthesixthcentury.25However,OzakialsopointsoutthattheDaoxuezhuan'sentryonLuXiujing(406477)stronglysuggeststhat"family leaving"alreadywastakingplaceduringthefifthcentury.Therewearetoldthatwhenhewasstillagovernmentofficial,LuXiujingdeclared,"Itwouldbehardtoever meetwiththeopportunityagain."Thereuponhepromptly"abandonedhiswifeandchildren"topursueTaoisttrainingfulltime26(Sandongqunxianlu2/17a).We alsoaretoldthatwhenhewastrainingonMt.Yunmeng,27hecamedownfromthemountaintemporarilytoseekformedicines.Onthisoccasionhestayedathis family'shomeforseveraldays.Whilehewasthere,hisdaughtersuddenlybecamecriticallyill.Hisfamilybeggedhimtohealher,butherefused,saying,''Ihaveleft

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behindmywifeandfamilyandentrustedmybodytothelimitsofthemysteries.Mycomingbymyhousenowisliketakinguplodgingataninn.WhyshouldIhaveany feelingsofattachment?"Heleftimmediatelyaftersayingthis.Hisdaughter'sdiseasewasmiraculouslycuredtheverynextday(Sandongzhunang1/15b16a). LuXiujing,atleastasheisdepictedintheaforementionedstory,believedthatproperTaoisttrainingrequiredphysicalandemotionaldetachmentfromone'sfamily.Lu XiujingwasthemosteminentTaoistofhistimeandisparticularlynotedforhisliturgiesandhisSandongjingshumulucatalog.28Ifthepreviouslymentioned anecdotesaccuratelydepictthelifestyleandattitudeofLuXiujing,itseemslikelyjudgingfromhisstatuteandauthoritythatasubstantialportionoftheTaoist clergywouldhaveseentheneedtodisengagethemselvesfromfamilylife. Inthisregard,anothernoteworthyfigureamongtheprotagonistsoftheDaoxuezhuanisChuBoyu(394479),anoldercontemporaryofLuXiujing.Fivedifferent sourcesrecordthefollowingepisodeabouthim(thisparticularepisodeisnotpreservedwithintheDaoxuezhuan'ssurvivingfragments):

[Chu]Boyu,fromayoungage,hadthewishtobecomeahermit.[He]hadfewcravingsanddesires.[Whenhewas]18yearsold,hisfathermadehimgetmarried.[Butwhen]his bride[tobe]enteredthefrontgate,Boyuexitedoutthebackgate.ThereuponhewenttoShan29andlivedonMt.Pubu.30(XiaoZixian[489537],Nanqishu[Beijing:Zhonghua Shuju,1972],926927)31

ChuBoyuapparentlybelievedthatmarriagewouldunderminehisreligiouspursuits.ItshouldbenotedthatChuBoyuwasoneoftheprivilegedadeptsofhistimewho hadmanagedtoacquireauthenticShangqingmanuscripts.32Aswewillseeinchapter5,theShangqingscripturesstronglyrecommendcelibacyforseriousadepts. TheDaoxuezhuanindicatesthattheTaoistnunhoodhadcometoexistbythesixthcentury.Amongthosementionedashaving"leftthefamily,"fourwerewomen,as wehaveseen.JiHuiyan,wearetold,hadinitiallyenteredtheBuddhistnunhoodasagirl,butlaterswitchedtoTaoism.Actually,whetherhercaseactuallyrepresents evidenceofTaoistmonasticismisunclearasfarasitcanbeascertained,herTaoistlifemaynothavebeenasacelibatenun.Amongthethreeclearaccountson Taoistnuns,theentryonSongYuxiancontainswhatisperhapsthemostrevealingepisode.

Thenun(lit.,"femalecapwearer")SongYuxianwasawomanofShanyin,Kuaiji.33Becauseshehadbeenendowedwithawoman'sbody,sheexhaustedherwillpowerbutcould notbecomenaturallydevoted.Whenshegotclosetotheageforwearingahairpin(15yearsoldthiswasconsideredamarriageableage),herparentsmarriedherofftotheXu

Page38 family.Shesecretlypackedherritualrobeandboardedthecarriage.Aftershearrivedatthegateof[thehouseof]herhusbandtobe,andthetimecameforthesixrites(the weddingceremony),sheputonheryellowclothskirtandhempenrobe.Inherhandssheheldamagpietailfeatherandanincenseburner.Shedidnotobservetheproprietyofthe bride.Guestsandhostsattheweddingwereaghast.Thegroom'sfamilypressuredher,butcouldnotmakeheryield.Thustheygaveuponherandreturnedhertoherfamily.She wasfinallyabletoleavethefamily.(Sandongzhunang4/10b)

Unfortunately,thereisnoindicationregardingwhenthistookplace.Nonetheless,theaforementionedpassageindicatesthatsomefemaleTaoistsperceivedaserious conflictbetweenmarriageandtheirreligiousaspirations.Alsonoteworthyhereishowthetextstatesthatherfemalebodymadeitmoredifficultforhertoconcentrate onhertraining.Aswewillseeinchapter6,theLingbaoscripturesconveyasimilarmalechauvinisticattitude,maintainingthatwomenareinferiortomenintheir capacitytoseektheTao.Basedonsuchaview,unwaveringfaithanddeterminationweretheonlymeansbywhichwomencouldhopetoovercometheir disadvantage.SongYuxianexhibitedthesevirtuesthroughherstubbornresistanceofmarriage. Interestingly,theDaoxuezhuancontainsinformationindicatingthatthegovernmentplayedasignificantroleinenforcingrulesofdisciplinewithinTaoistmonasteries. Inonepassage,DongxiangZongchaoislaudedforhiscooperationinthisendeavor.

UnderLiangEmperorWu's(Wudi,r.502550)[policyof]the"equalpromotionoftheThreeTeachings,"itwaslegislatedthatall[clergy]mustbevegetarians.Eventhoughthere wasthisedict,fewwereabletoobeyit.[But]Yilun(DongxiangZongchao'sstylename)uphelditandcarrieditout.Thereuponthethrongsofhismonasteryallbecame vegetarians.Ifanybodytriedtoviolatetherulesecretly,heexpelledthem.Evenonoccasionsoffeastsandfestivals,nomeatwaseaten.Peoplefarandnearpraised[his monastery]forbeingtheonlyonethatwaspureandplain.(Sandongzhunang5/7b8a)

Apparently,priortotheEmperorsedict,vegetarianismwasnotstrictlyrequirednorobservedbytheTaoistclergynortheBuddhistclergyforthatmatter.Emperor Wu,intheyear504,publiclyrenouncedTaoismanddeclaredhisfaithinBuddhism.HenceforthhecarriedoutvariousmeasurestopromoteBuddhismandsuppress Taoism.AstaunchobserverofBuddhistpreceptsheatejustonevegetarianmealperdayandbecamecelibateafteragefiftyhewasparticularlyintenton promotingthepreceptofnonkilling.Buddhistsources(Guanghongmingji,Fozutongji)andofficialhistories(Nanshi,Liangshu34)attesttohowheforbade

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theuseofbloodsacrificeinofficialritesandpressuredeverybodyinhiscourttobecomevegetarians.Healsoauthoredalengthytreatise(Duanjiurouwen),35 forbiddingtheBuddhistclergyfromconsumingmeatandalcoholandexplainingthenecessityforvegetarianismandsobriety.36ThestoryofDongxiangZongchao providesanindicationthatthisprohibitiondidnotexcludetheTaoistclergy. Ofcourse,afairnumberofTaoistadeptsinprevioustimesprobablywereineffectvegetarians,sincetheirdietaryregimenscalledforthevirtualshunningofallfoods. Itshouldalsobenoted,however,thattheiravoidanceofmeatservedpredominantlyphysiologicalpurposes.Inchapter6wewillseethatLingbaoscripturesofthe fifthcentury(i.e.,writtenpriortoEmperorWu'spolicies)prescribevegetarianismforadvancedadepts,anddosopartiallybasedonBuddhisticnotionsofkarma. However,pressurefromEmperorWuforcedDongxiangZongchaotodemandvegetarianismforallofhisdisciples,notjustthemostadvanced.Obediencetothe Emperor'sdecreemayhavebeencriticalforthesurvivaloftheTaoistreligion.AdheringtoBuddhisticprincipleswasprobablytheonlywayforTaoiststomitigatethe Emperor'shostility. Theactualextentofthesuppressionforwhich"theequalpromotionoftheThreeTeachings"appearstobeaeuphemismremainsunclear.TheFozutongjiofthe fourteenthcenturytellsusthatin517,EmperorWudecreedthatallTaoistmonasteriesmustceasetooperateandallTaoistclergymustbedefrocked.Whilesome havequestionedwhetherthesuppressionactuallyevertookplace,MichelStrickmannhasarguedthatitindeeddid,largelybasedonanincidentrecordedinthe Zhoushimingtongji(HY302/TT152).Therewearetoldthatathirtyfiveyearoldcelibate"homeleaving"femaleTaoist37''marriedoutofexpediency,"under pressurefromthegovernmentin504.This,ofcourse,wasthesameyearEmperorWurenouncedTaoism.38Itappearsthatbygettingmarried,thisfemaleTaoistwas feigningherownrenunciationofTaoismandreturntosecularlife.SheapparentlydidsotoavoidsomeformofpunishmentthatTaoistsweresufferingatthetime. WhileEmperorWuclearlyplayedanimportantroleinenforcingdisciplineinTaoistmonasteries,itshouldbenotedthatethicaldiscoursesofastronglyBuddhistic tingearefoundinboththeShangqingandLingbaotexts(especiallythelatter).BothofthesecorpusespredateEmperorWu.TheLingbaotextsprovidemanylistsof precepts,someofwhichmayhavebeenwrittenwithamonasticsettinginmind.TheremusthavebeenasignificantcontingentwithintheTaoistfoldthatpromoted BuddhisticethicsandeagerlyemulatedBuddhistformsofdiscipline.MaShuclearlyfavoredmonasticdiscipline,sincehisnarrativepraisesDongxiangZongchaofor hisobediencetotheEmperor'sorders. TheDaoxuezhuanalsolaudssomeofitsprotagonistsfortheirritualpiety.OneexampleistheaforementionedMengDaoyang,who"inpracticingtheTaoinworship, didnotavoidcoldnessandheat."OtherexamplesincludeZhangMinandFangQianzhi.ZhangMin,wearetold,worshippedatthealtarattheheightofwinter, stayingawakeallnightwhileholdingacandleinhisbarelefthand.He

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willinglyanddiligentlytookonmenialtaskssuchascleaningtheritualarena.Healwaysdeferredtoothersduringworshipbysittingawayfromtheshadeonhotdays andrefusingtousewarmgarmentsandquiltsoncolddays(Sandongzhunang1/3b4a).FangQianzhiisdescribedashaving"disregardedhisownbodyinorderto rescue[otherliving]things."39Duringliturgicalrituals(referredtoaszhaior"retreats"),heworshippedsixtimesaday,performingaliturgycalledtheConfessionof theTenDirections.40Heoftenworshippedbyhimselfbecausenobodyelsepossessedhisendurance(Sandongzhunang5/8a). Aswewillseeinchapter6,liturgical"retreat"(zhai)ritualsthatlastednumerousdayswereemphasizedbytheLingbaomovementofthefifthcentury.Accountssuch asthepreviousoneperhapsattestmorethananythingelsetoLingbaoinfluence.ThepassageonFangQianzhiseemstoimplythathissustainedritualpietywasan altruisticact.Thisisprobablybecausetheliturgyhefollowedinvolvedconfessiononbehalfofallcreaturesincludingthesoulsofthedeadfortheirdeliveranceand wellbeing. Inchapter6wealsowillseehowtheLingbaomovementemphasizedaltruismasadefinitivetraitofasaint,andhowthisprobablyhadtodowiththeinfluenceofthe BodhisattvaidealofMahayanaBuddhism.AheightenedemphasisonaltruismiswellreflectedintheDaoxuezhuan.OneexampleistheaforementionedstoryofLiu Ningzhiandhiswife,whogenerouslygavetheirearningstobeggars.MengDaoyang,wearetold,alwaysgavetotheneedybecausehe"wasbynaturebenevolent andcompassionate."Duringfamineshecookedfoodandfedthestarvingpeople.Sincehehimselfwaspoor,healwaysregrettedthathedidnothavemoretogive (Sandongzhunang1/4a). However,themostpoignanttaleofaltruismisthestoryofZhangXuanche.ZhangXuancheworkedasatutorforacertainZhangGuisun.OnedayGuisunsuddenly becamebedriddenwithpalsy,whereuponXuanchededicatedhimselftocaringforhisillness.Forthreeyearsheprovidedandcookedmealsforhim,andwillingly assistedhimintheuseofthebedpanandurinal(Sandongzhunang1/16b).Aroundtheyear557,duringthesocialunrestthatbroughtthecollapseoftheLiang dynasty,XuancheandGuisunfledto"theeasternfringes"(exactlocationunclear).41Theybarelyhadenoughresourcestostayalive.HoweverXuanchealways cookedandsharedhisfoodwithotherswhowerehungry,evenwhenhehadnexttonothing.Heneveratebeforeothershadeatentheirfill,andheconsequently becameweakandemaciated.Hefinallydiedofstarvation.However,thetextendswithanambiguoussentencethatreads,"Butbecauseheputhimselflastandothers first,heeventuallyregainedhislife"(Sandongzhunang1/3ab). Whatismeantby"regainedhislife"isunclear.Thetextmaymeantosaythathisvirtuousactionswonhimthesympathyofthegodsandimmortals,whomiraculously resurrectedhim.Anotherpossibleinterpretationisthathegainedsomeformofotherworldlyimmortality,orperhapsreincarnationintoadesirableexistence.Aswe willseeinchapter5,theShangqingtextsexpressthebeliefthat

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godsandimmortalscanintervenetofavorablyalterthefateofvirtuousdeceasedpersons. ThesurvivingfragmentsoftheDaoxuezhuanincludetwelvepassagesthatmentionfasting.42Someofthesepassagesdonotspecifythefastingmethodsthatwere employed,statingmerelythattheperson"cutoffgrains"or"practiceddietetics."Somementionthesubstancestheprotagonistsingested.WearetoldTaoDanate noodlesandjujubes(Sandongzhunang3/24b),XuMaiatesesameseeds(Sandongzhunang3/24b),XuMai'sdisciplePengChuatetheshuplant(Sandong zhunang3/24b),andthefemaleadeptXiaoZhengatetheleavesofthearborvitaetree(Sandongzhunang3/27b).43 Somepassagesmentionspecialfastingtechniques.WearetoldthatWangJia,44aswellasXuMaiandhisdisciples,practicedthe"imbibingofqi"(Sandong zhunang3/24b25a).XuMaialsoisattributedwiththefeatofholdinghisbreathfor"1,000breaths"(theamountoftimeitnormallytakestomakeathousand respirations).ItshouldfurtherbenotedthatanannotationinTaoHongjing's(456536)Zhengao(13/2a)statesthatXuMaiwastransmittedthe"YinandYang LunchBoxTalismansoftheSixJia"attheageof23byaHeavenlyMastersSchoollibationer(jijiu)namedLiDong.Thisprobablyreferstospecialtalismansthat adeptsswallowedtosuppresshunger.XuMai,significantly,wasthebrotherofXuMiandtheuncleofXuHui,twoimportantearlyfiguresoftheShangqing movement.(TechniquesverysimilartothoseascribedtoXuMaiwillbeexaminedinchapter4). ThestoryofZhangMinisofparticularinterest,inlightofthenewdevelopmentsinTaoistsoteriologythatwereoccuringinthelateSixDynastiesperiod.ZhangMin, wearetold,fastedtothepointofsevereemaciation.
Thereupon[ZhangMin]abandonedhiswifeandchildren,lefthisfamilyandreceivedtheTao.Heatevegetarianfoodandengagedinaperpetualretreat.Therewasneveranytoil inwhichhewouldhesitatetoengagehissevenchi(168.84cm.)ofemptydelusion(hisbody).HehidhimselfinamountaininAnwu45andlivedinsilence.Hedidawaywithfood forovertwentydays.Banditsandviciousbeastslurkedaboutwherehewasstaying.Hisenergyandlifewereweakeninganddwindling.Friendlyvisitorsimploredhimtoeat,and afterawhileheyielded[totheirrequests].Afterhehadmoreorlessbeenrestoredtonormal[health],inthefirstyearoftheDajianeraoftheChen(569),hestoppedeatingagain. Hesaid,"IfIprotectmybody,certainlymyunderstandingwillnotbelonglastingandpenetrating,andIwillnotbenefitthelivingmasses.Idonotplantostaylong[intheworld]. AsforpracticingtheTaoandestablishingproperconduct,whymustittakeplacehere?"[Evenwhen]therewerethosewhotriedtopersuadehim[toendhisfast],herefusedand wouldnotentertain[theirsuggestions].(Sandongzhunang5/8ab)

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Asfarascanbeascertainedfromtheprecedingpassage,ZhangMinmayhaveevenstarvedhimselftodeath.Judgingfromwhatheallegedlysaidwhenrefusingfood duringhissecondfast,heappearstohavebeenpreparedtodie.Taoistfastingwasusuallysupposedtostrengthenthebodyratherthandestroyit.InthecaseofZhang Min,otherprioritiesseemtohavetakenover.Heapparentlyfelthisreligiousquestcouldnotsucceedunlesshestoppedclingingtolifeandfearingdeath.Forsome reason,hethoughthecouldnotbenefitothersunlesshesucceededinhisreligiousquest. Taoistfastingmethodsandotherlongevitytechniquescontinuedtobecarriedoutforphysicalstrengtheningandtransformation.However,thestoryofZhangMin reflectshowthemethodswereincreasinglybeingseenmoreasmeasuresforeliminatingdesiresandgainingahigherlevelofinsightandspirituality.Buddhistinfluence wasprobablylargelyresponsibleforthisphenomenon.ZhangMinappearstohaveemphasizedspiritualcultivationlopsidedly,tothepointwherehewasindifferentto thedeteriorationofhisbody.(DisdainforthebodyalsocanbedetectedinthewordsofMaShu'snarrative,wherethebodyisreferredtoas"sevenchi46ofempty delusion.")ZhangMin'sdesiretobenefit"thelivingmasses"throughhiseffortsconveysthekindofaltruisticsentimentthatisfrequentlyexpressedintheLingbao scriptures.Aswewillseeinchapter6,theLingbaoscripturesalsopromotetheBuddhisticdoctrineoftransmigrationandmaintainthattheultimatesalvationistobe gainedonlyafteragradualprocessofspiritualprogressthattakescountlesslifetimes.ZhangMin'sseemingwillingnesstodiewasperhapssupportedbythisbelief.He mayhavethoughthecouldresumehisreligiousquestinhisnextlifetime,intheeventthathestarvedtodeath.Suchseemstobewhathemeantwhenhesaid,"Asfor practicingtheTaoandperformingmydeeds,whymustittakeplacehere?" Insum,fastingmethodscontinuedtobepracticedduringthefourththroughsixthcenturies.Inmanycases,Buddhisticbeliefsfurtherjustifiedandmotivatedarduous training.InthecaseofZhangMin,Buddhistinfluencemayhavebeenatleastindirectlyresponsibleforcausinghimtodevalueandabusehisbody.TheYuqingjing,as wewillseeinchapter7,denouncesbodilyneglectandabuseasheresy.ZhangMinwouldcertainlyqualifyasahereticbythisstandard,andthepresenceofTaoists likehimmayhavepromptedtheattacksoftheYuqingjing.

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ChapterFour TaoistMethodsofFasting
BecauseTaoisttextsfrequentlymentiontheavoidanceof"grains,"manymodernscholarshavegainedtheimpressionthatTaoistsheldaspecialtabooagainsteating the"fivegrains"(rice,glutinousmillet,panicledmillet,wheat,andsoybeans).1 However,thefactiswhenTaoistsspokeofavoiding"grains,"theyusuallymeantthe attempttoshunallfoods.ThemaindietaryobjectiveofTaoistadeptswastocutdowndrasticallyontheamounttheyate.Thiscertainlymeantdecreasingthe consumptionofgrains(thestaplefood),butitalsomeanttryingtoavoidallotherfoods.The"avoidanceofgrains"wasthusamuchmorearduouspracticethanthe terminitiallyimplies.IntheLunheng,writtenbytheLatterHanskepticWangChong(23100C.E.),wefindapassagethatishighlyrevealinginthisregard.
Somepeopleintheworldregardthosewhoavoidgrains(bigu)anddonoteataspeoplewhopossessthetechniquesoftheTao.TheysaythatpeoplelikeWangZiqiaodiffered fromcommonfolkintheirdietaryhabits,inthattheydidnoteatgrains(gu)[therefore]theytranscendtheworldafterahundredyearsandultimatelybecomeimmortals. This,againisfalse.Whenpeopleareborn,theyareendowedwiththenaturalimpulsesofeatinganddrinking.Thereforetheyhavemouthsandteethontheupperpartsoftheir bodiesandorificesonthelowerpartsoftheirbodies.Theyeatwiththeirmouthsandteeth,andexcretethroughtheirorifices.Thosewhoaccordwiththesenaturalimpulsesarein accordancewiththeproperwayofHeaven.Thosewhogoagainstthesenaturalimpulsesarecontradictingwhattheyareendowedwith. Forapersontonoteatissimilartoabodywearingnoclothes.Youkeepyourskinwarmwithclothingandfillyourbellywithfood.Iftheskiniswarmandthebellyisfull,your spiritwillbeclearandvigorous.Ifyouarehungryandyetdonotfillyourself,orarecoldbutdonotwarmyourself,youwillfreezeandstarve.Howcanapersonwhoisfreezing

Page44 andstarvinglivelong?Also,whenpeoplelive,theytakeqifromfood,muchasplantstakeqifromthesoil.Ifyoupullouttherootsofplantsfromthesoil,theywillwitheranddie. Ifyouclosethemouthofapersonandmakehimnoteat,hewillstarveandnotlivelong.2

Noticeherethatthetermsavoidgrains(bigu)anddonoteat(bushi)areusedalongsideeachotherandappeartobesynonymous.InsayingthatmenlikeWang Ziqiaodidnoteat"grains,"itappearsthatimmortalityseekersreallymeanttosaythattheirheroesdidnoteatatall,otherwiseWangChong'srebuttaldoesnotmake sense.WangChongoffersashisargumentthecommonsenseobservationthateatingandexcretingarenaturalfunctionsessentialtothesustenanceofhumanlife.The issuehereisnotanyperceivedharmfulnessuniquetorice,glutinousmillet,panicledmillet,wheat,orsoybeans.Theword"grains"inthepreviouspassageisprobably bettertranslatedas"foods."(ThepracticeofusingthenameofastaplefoodtoconveyabroadermeaningpersistsinthemodernChineselanguage,wherethephrase "chifan"or"eatrice''meanstoeatafullmeal.) Inchapters2and3wesawhowTaoisthagiographymakesfrequentmentionoffastingandthemethodsemployedforit.InthischapterwewillexaminesomeTaoist fastingmethodsindetail.Bydoingsoitishopedthatthereaderwillgainavividpictureofthedeterminationandresourcefulnessoffastingadepts. TheFastingRegimenoftheZhonghuangjing TheZhonghuangjing3 isatextofobscureoriginanduncertaindate.Itsmaintextcoulddatebacktothefourthcenturyorearlier.Thelengthycommentaryattached tothemaintextprobablywaswrittenaround700C.E.4ThetextisofparticularinterestbecauseitdescribeswhatmaybethemoststrenuousofallTaoistfasting regimens. Theregimen,roughlyoutlined,isasfollows:Theadeptquitseatingsolidfoodsimmediatelyandalsotriesnottodrinkfluids.Hefrequentlyswallowsairthroughhis mouthandintohisesophagus,whichissupposedtosuppresshishungerandfurthermorenourishhisbodywiththe"primalqi"ofthecosmos.Bycontinuingthisfor manydays,theadeptpurgesthedefilingqiofordinaryfoods("grainqi")fromhisbodyandalsoexterminatesitsinternaldemons.Oncethishasbeenaccomplished, thebodybecomestheabodeofsacreddeities,anditslatentdivineqicanbeactivated.Theadeptisthenreadytoproceedtothepracticeof"womb breathing"(taixi),whichinthiscasedenotesarigoroustechniqueofbreathholding.Thebreathholdingactivatesthedivineqiofthefiveviscera(wuzangtheliver, heart,spleen,lungs,andkidneys),whichmiraculouslycreateanimmortalbodyfortheadept.Theadeptcarriesoutvisualizationsduringthe"wombbreathing,"and seeshimselfascendtotheheavenlyrealmsoftheGreatUltimate(taiji)andtheGreatSublimity(taiwei).Insuchaway,hegainsaforetasteoftherealmshehopesto somedayinhabit.

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Letusnowexaminesomeofthemajoraspectsoftheregimeninmoredetail.Themethodofairswallowing(fuqi"imbibingqi")isdescribedroughlyasfollowsinthe commentaryportionoftheZhonghuangjing'sfirstchapter: Atspringtime,duringthethirdmonthofthelunarcalendar,theadeptsetsupameditationchamberequippedwithadesk,bed,andincenseburner.Heburnsincense constantly.Atmidnight,hebeginshismeditation.Heliesonhisback,closeshiseyes,andrelaxeshismind.Afterknockinghisteethtogetherthirtysixtimes,he clenchesbothfiststightlyaroundthethumbsandproceedstoswallowair.Duringthecourseofbreathing,theadeptdoesnotexhaletheairthathehasinhaledintohis lungsrather,heholdsitinhismouthandswallowsit,sendingitthroughhisesophagusandintohisstomach.Thisiscontinueduntilthestomachfeelsfull.The swallowingofaircanberepeatedwheneverhefeelshungry.Duringthisprocess,themouthandthroatwillinevitablybegintofeeldry.Theadeptisthusallowedto drinkcertaintypesoffluidstoquenchhisthirst.Arecipeisgiveninthetextforaspecialsoupthathassesameseeds,powderedtukahoeplant(fuling,pachyma cocos),andsmallamountsofmilkandhoneyasitsingredients.Thissoup,ofwhichtheadeptmaydrinkoneortwocupswhenthirsty,"nurturestheqiandmoistens thebelly."Drinkingthissoupalsoissupposedtohelpkeeptheadeptfromthinkingaboutfood.Theadeptalsocanoptforasoupmadewithmatrimonyvine(gouqi, lyciumchinense),whichhemaydrinkfourtimesaday.Buteventuallyheissupposedtosustainhisfastwithoutdrinkingfluids.Astheadeptcontinueshisfast,his intestinesgraduallybecomepurgedofsolidwastes.Theadeptiswarnedthathisurinemaybegintotakeonayellowishorangecolor(asignofdehydration),andhe mayfeelconstantagitationordepression.However,heisnottoworryifheperseveres,hewill"naturallygettounderstandthemarvelousprinciples."Thetextstates thatalthoughonecaneliminateimpuritiesfromthebodywhiledrinkingtheaforementionedsoups,higherinsightcanbeattainedonlyifoneavoidsbothliquidsandsolid foods.Asthefastissustainedformanydays,thethree''elixirfields"inthebodybegintobe"filledup."Afterthirtydays,thelowerelixirfield(locatedinthebellyina spotbehindthenavel)becomesfull,andtheadeptnolongerexperienceshunger.Aftersixtydays,themiddleelixirfield(locatedintheheart)becomesfull,andtheqi permeatestheentirebodysotheadeptnolongerfeelsfatigueandalwaysfeelslightonhisfeet.Afterninetydays,theupperelixirfield(inthebrain)becomesfull,and theadeptbeginstotakeonavisiblyhealthyandradiantappearance,whilehismindisfreedofconfusedthoughts.Atthispoint,hegainsinsighton"rightandwrong." Spiritually,theadeptnowresidesinthesacredrealmandisableto"initiatetherespirationofhiswomb'sImmortal."After100days,hecan"see"hisfiveviscera.After 300days,hecanseeanyevilspiritsinhisenvironmentandisinvulnerabletotheirdeception.After1,000days,theadept'snameisrecordedinthe"[divine]Emperor's registers"andhis"bodyentersintoSupremeSublimity." Asisalreadyevidentfromtheprecedingdescription,thefastingregimenisextremelyarduous,andtheadeptmustovercomemanyobstaclestosucceed.The

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Zhonghuangjing'ssecondchapter(maintextandcommentary)describesthevariousproblemsandhindrancesthatcancausethefasttofail.Thefirstproblem addressedistheweakeningofthebodythatoccursduringtheearlystagesofthefast.Afterthefirstcoupleofweeksoffasting,thebodybecomesfreeofsolid wastes,andtheadeptbeginstofeelexhaustedandutterlyweak.However,heistoldnottofearforhiswellbeing,nordoubtthatthefastcansucceed.Thebodyfeels weakbecause"theprimalqihasnotyetreachedthestomach."Iftheadeptcontinuestoeatair,theqiwillpenetrateandflowdeeperintothebodydaybyday. Eventually,whenthelowerelixirfieldisfull,theadeptwillnolongerexperiencehunger.Atthispoint,becausetheqihasnotyetpermeatedthefleshandskin,the adeptmaystillfeelweak.Healsomaybecomethinandbearasickly,"yellowish"complexion.However,theadeptmustnotbeafraid,sincehisstrengthwilleventually befullyrestoredifheperseveresinthefast.Theadeptisthustold,''Thosewhoarescaredbytheirweakness,thinnessandyellownesscannotcultivate." Thenextthreeproblemsaddressedpertaintothemalevolentbeingsinthebodythatarereferredtoasthe"ThreeWorms"or"ThreeCorpses."Thesedemonsdwellin thethree"elixirfields,"andeachworktheirownkindofmischiefupontheadept.ThecommentarytellsusthattheUpperWorm,namedPengJu,iswhiteandbluein color.Itcausestheadepttolongfordeliciousfoodsandbecomeinfluencedbyvariousotherphysicaldesires.TheMiddleWorm,namedPengZhi,iswhiteand yellowincolor.Itcausestheadepttobegreedyforwealthandeasilymovedtowardjoyoranger.TheLowerWorm,namedPengJiao,iswhiteandblackincolor.It causestheadepttobefoundoffancyclothing,liquor,andsex.Whentheadeptfirstbeginstofast,theairheswallowsdoesnotpermeatesufficiently,andheis constantlysubjectedtothemischiefoftheThreeWorms.Thiscausesfrequentmoodsofdepressionandanxiety.Healsobecomeseasilytemptedtoindulgeinsensual orculinarypleasures.Hemustthereforemakeaconstantefforttoresistandovercomethesewoesandtemptations.QuotingacertainTaishangshengxuanjing,the commentaryexplainsthatthefastisaprocessduringwhichtheThreeWormsaresuccessivelyexterminatedtheUpperWormdiesafterthirtydays,theMiddleWorm diesaftersixtydays,andtheLowerWormdiesafterninetydays.After100days,theadept'sbodybecomeshealthyandstrong,andhismindbecomes"pure."Heis nolongerindangeroffallingpreytohisdesires.Whenthisstageisreached,theadeptcanseethe"FiveSprouts,"ortheqiofhisfiveviscera,whichalsoare describedasthe"properqiofthefiveagents." Thecommentarytothethirdchapterexplainsthatfoodsofthefiveflavors(acrid,sour,salty,sweet,andbitter)mustbeavoidedcompletelyifoneistoproduce "miraculousqi"fromthefivevisceraanddoawaywithallthoughtsanddesires.Whenthefiveviscerabecomefullwithairor"primalqi,"theqiofeachorganwillturn intoaninternaldeity.Theadeptwillreachahigherlevelofspiritualityandinsightwhereheisfreeofworriesand"understandsthegoodandbadofthehumanworld."

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TheauthorsandcommentatorsoftheZhonghuangjingunderstoodtheinsideofthebodytobeanelaboratenetworkofaperturesandcompartmentsinterconnected bynumerouspassages.5 ThecommentarytothefifthchapterquotesacertainDongshenmingzangjingasfollows:

Thereforeifasingleapertureisclosed,ahundreddiseaseswillarise.Ifasinglevesselisblocked,the100passageswillbeindisorder.Thusifyouimbibeqiyouwillhaveno diseasesandthevariousvesselswillnaturallyinterpenetrate.AmanoftheTaoisimmortalbecausenosubstancesarekeptinhisbelly.(1/11b5thline5thcharacterto7thline9th character)

Fromthiswecanseethatfoodsweredeemedharmfulbecausetheycloggedthebody'saperturesandpassageways,creatingthefundamentalcausefordiseases.This theorymadefastingimperative.Thecommentaryfurtherexplainsthattheadeptmustexpurgatethe"wickedqi"thatisthe"qiofgrains."Thebodyissupposedtobea residingplaceforinnumerablegods.However,thesegodsrefusetoliveamidstimpureqi.Onlywhenthebodyiscleansedofitsimpuritiescanthegodsonceagain returntoittotakeuptheirresidence.Whenthebodyisrestoredtothispure,holystate,scarsandmolesdisappearfromthebody'ssurface. Interestingly,thecommentarytotheeighthchaptermaintainsthatthesensationofhungeritselfiscausedbyfood.Itexplainsthatevenafterthebodyhascompletely stoppedexcretingsolidwastesandseemstohavebeenpurgedofimpurities,theadeptwillstillexperiencetheurgetoeatfoodbecausethe"refinedessencesof grains"formaslimymembranethatcovershisfiveviscera,sixbowels,joints,muscles,andvessels.Theadeptistoldthatifhejustperseveresforanothertwentyto thirtydays,thistroublesomemembranewillleavethebody.Asthisistakingplace,theadeptwillbegintoexcreteblood,puss,fatdeposits,andfinally,theslimy membrane.Hefinallybecomesfreeofimpurities.Theairheeatscomestopermeatetheentireinsideofthebody,whichheisableto"see."Oncethishappens,the adeptloseshisdesireforfood.Furthermore,themindbecomesfreeofthoughtsandworries.Theadeptisagaintoldthatthoughhemayexperienceloneliness, emaciation,andweakness,heneednotfearnordoubt.Indeed,fearanddoubtthemselvesarehisgreatestenemies. Afterundergoingthelengthyfastsustainedbytheimbibingofair,theadeptobtainsastrongerbodyandastateofmindthatisdetachedanddisdainfulofworldly concernsandneeds.Havingthoroughlymasteredthemethodof"imbibingqi,"theadeptcanadvancetothestageof"wombbreathing."Themethodofwomb breathingisroughlyoutlinedinthemaintextofthetwelfthchapter.
Theperfectqiofthefivevisceraaretheflowersofthemagicfungi. Theliverisinchargeoftheeast,anditscolorisblue. Ifyousimplyhold[yourbreath]firmlyfor1,000breaths(theamountoftimeitnormallytakestomake1,000respirations),blueqiwillcirculate

Page48 throughout[yourbody]anditscolorwillbenatural. Theheartisinchargeofthesouth,anditscolorisred. [Ifyou]subdue6itfor1,000breaths,theredcolorwillemerge. Thelungsareinchargeofthewest,andtheircoloriswhite. [Ifyou]subdueitfor1,000breaths,itscolorwillclimax. Thespleenisinchargeofthecenter,anditscolorisyellow. [Ifyou]subdueitfor1,000breaths,itscolorwillflourish.7 Thekidneysareinchargeofthenorth,andtheircolorisblack. [Ifyou]subdueitfor1,000breaths,itscolorwillbeacquired.

Themethodessentiallyseemstoconsistofholdingone'sbreathandconcentratingone'sminduponaspecificorgan,probablywhilelyingdown.Eachofthefive visceraarecorrelatedtotheirproperdirectionandcoloraccordingtotheschemeoffiveagentscosmology.Whileconcentratingonaparticularorgan,theadept wouldprobablyvisualizeitsqi(initspropercolor)emergingfromit.Afterholdinghisbreathandvisualizingforaverylongtime,theadeptwassupposedtoactually seethecoloredqi,andthecoloredqiofthefiveviscerawouldtogetherworktotransformhimintoanimmortal. ThecommentarytothetwelfthchapterquotesacertainTaihuashoushijingthatsays,"Theprimalqienvelopsthetransformations.Whenitspreadsabout[the body],itbecomesthesixsenses(sight,smell,hearing,taste,touch,cognition)."Italsosays,"Theinternalqiisknowledgeandthewombqi8 isthespirit.Ifyouare abletopracticewombbreathing,youwillreturntoinfancyandbecomeresurrected("makeyourhunsoulreturn'')."9 Fromthesestatementsitappearsthatthedivine, refinedformsofqiwereunderstoodtobetheentitiesthatconstitutedtheadept'smentalandsensorycapacities.Itthereforefollowsthatwhendivineformsofqifill andpermeatethebodytostrengthenandtransformit,theadeptattainsgreatpowersofinsightandperception. Thecommentaryfurtherindicatesthattheqiofthefiveviscerahaveafewotherpracticaluseswhenactivatedthroughbreathholdingandvisualization.Theqiofthe liverandheartcanbeusedtocurethediseasesofotherpeople.Thisisdonebyvisualizingtheqiandthen"attacking"thepatient'sdiseasewithit(howthediseaseis "attacked"isnotmadeclear).10Theradiantqiofthelungscanbeusedtoseethroughsolidgroundandsearchforburiedtreasures.Italsocanbeusedto"perceive thegoodandbadofpeople,"meaningperhapsthattheadeptreadsthemindsofothersorforeseestheirfortunes.Byutilizingtheqiofthespleen,theadeptbecomes abletogothroughsolidsurfaces. Aspreviouslymentioned,breathholdingandvisualizationalsowereusedforgainingaforetasteofheavenlyrealms.Thecommentarytotheeleventhchapterdescribes howtodothis.Themethodiscarriedoutinarecliningpositiononabedinsideaspeciallydesignatedmeditationchamber.Theadeptmusthaveafellowadeptpresent tokeeptrackofthenumberofrespirationshemakesduringthenight.

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Itthusappearsthatthemethodmayhavebeenmeanttobecarriedoutthroughouttheentirenight.Ifso,sleepdeprivationmayhavebeenafactorininducingvisions. Onealsosuspectsthatsupervisionwasdeemednecessarybecauseofthepotentialdangerofselfasphyxiation. Theadept,wearetold,lieswithhisfistsfirmlyclenchedaroundthethumbsandemptieshismind.Thetextthensays,"themiraculousqiwillgraduallybeshutin," whichperhapsmeansthathegraduallyslowsdownhisbreathingtothepointofcessation.Herefrainsfrombreathingforaslongashecan,forthespanofuptoten, fifteen,twenty,orevenahundred"breaths." Whentheadeptbecomesabletorefrainfrombreathingfor100"breaths"(andisperhapsdeliriousfromsleepdeprivationandhunger),hebeginstohavevisionsofhis ownthreehunsouls,andlaterhissevenposouls.Henowcanembarkonamysticalflightintotheheavens,togetherwiththethreehunsouls.Whilethisistaking place,thesevenposoulsareleftbehindinthebodytoguardandkeepitintactuntiltheadeptreturnswiththethreehunsouls.Thehunsoulsbelongtotheyang principleandaregood.Theposoulsbelongtotheyinprincipleandareevil.MuchliketheThreeWorms,theposoulslongforthebodytodieandthereforeperform mischieftotrytohastentheadept'sdemise.Theyarecladinblackandcarryblacksealsintheirhands.Strangely,thesevenposoulsalsoarereferredtoas"theDark Mother."Thetextthenpresentsachantthattheadeptistorecitewhenheseestheposouls.
DarkMother,DarkMother,masterofmycorpse(s).11Makemybonesgrow,andnurturemysinews.Donotgoandleavemycorpsebehind.Togetherwithmyhunfather,Iwillgo andwanderinheaven.(2/1blines89)

HavingthuscommandedtheDarkMotherorthesevenposoulstobehaveproperlyinhisabsence,theadeptfocusesonhisthreehunsouls(his"father").Eachare cladinredandcarryaredseal.Theyareoneshiandfivecuninheight(about36cm.).TheirnamesareShuangling,Taiguang,andYoujing.Thetext,initsdescription ofwhatensues,isveryvague.However,itseemsthattheprocessgoesessentiallyasfollows: Theadeptexitshisbodytogetherwiththe"morethanonehundredbraingodsofthePalaceoftheUpperPlane."Lookingbackdownatthebody,theadeptseesthe primalqiinthethreeelixirfields,whichlooklikewhitecloudsandemitapervasiveradiance.Theadeptthencallsoutthenamesofthethreehunsouls.Thenthebrain gods,commandedbythethreehunsouls,pulltheadept's"primalspirit"(yuanshen)highupintotheheavens.(Theexactrelationshipbetweentheprimalspiritandthe hunsoulsisunclear,buttheunderstandingseemstobethattheprimalspiritistheentityintheadeptthatconsciouslythinksandexperiences.) Astheadeptexitshisbody,he"feelshisbody(aninternalbodyequivalenttotheprimalspirit?)comingoutfromadarkroom."Heencountersdemonsand

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spiritsofvarioussizesandappearances.12However,theadeptistoldnottobefrightened.Ifheisfrightened,primalqiwillleakfromhisnose,makinghimunableto leavehisbody.This,explainsthetext,is"becausetheprimalqicorrespondsabovewiththehunspirits."Theimplicationofthisisperhapsthattheadept'sabilityto retainhisbreathdirectlyaffectstheabilityofthehunsoulstopropelhisprimalspiritupward. Throughouttheevening,thepractitionermonitoringtheadeptmustkeeptrackofthenumberofrespirationshemakes.Presumably,thisissotheadeptcangaugehis progress. ThethirteenththroughfifteenthchaptersoftheZhonghuangjingdescribethesplendoroftheheavenlyrealmsoftheGreatUltimateandtheGreatSublimity.The commentaryelaboratesonthethemeofheavenlysplendorbycontrastingthedivinerealmwiththeordinaryworld.Thecommentarytothethirteenthchapterstatesthat "thepalacesandmansionsoftheupperrealmareproducedfromtheobscuredarkness"andthat"theyareallformedfromqioffivecolors."Thisfivecoloredqi,we maynote,isthesamematerialtheadeptactivatesinhisfiveviscera.Ontheotherhand,''thelandofthelowerrealmallcametoexistduetothearbitrarycongealingof wateryqi."The"upperrealm"isfurtherdescribedasaplacewherethereisan"unmovingforcethatisselfso,"where"nobodygivesrisetothelaborsofmovingand functioning."Unlikethemoonandsunofthe"lowerrealm,"whicharethe"pureqiofyinandyang,"thoseoftheupperrealmare"thesubtleqiofthesevenrare treasures."Timemovesmoreslowlyintheupperrealm,whereonedaylastsaslongasafullyearinthelowerrealm. Becausetheadeptdoesnoteatthefoodofthelowerrealm,hecanpartakeinthesplendorsoftheupperrealm.Thecommentaryquotesapassagethatreads,"Ifyou donoteattheessencesofthesoil,youwillliveonandresideintheCityoftheGreatOne."13Thecommentarythenexplains,"Thismeansthatboththebodyandthe mindgettogo."Thiswouldseemtoindicatethattheentirebodyoftheadeptwassupposedtobecomeimmortalandascendtotheheavens.However,thereissome ambiguityastowhethersuchwasthecase. Thefirstsentenceinthemaintextofthefirstchapterreads,"[Inorderto]internallynurtureyourbody(xingform)andspirit[youmust]eliminateyourcravingsand desires."Thecommentaryelaboratesbystatingthattheadeptistonourishhis"truebody(form)thatiswithoutappearance."ApparentlyquotingtheTaoistmystical philosophicalclassic,theXishengjing,14itsays,"ThetrueWayistonurturethespiritandthefalsewayistonurturethe[physical]body."Itthenstatesthatoneisto nurtureone's"primalspiritofthenuminousvalley"withinone'sown"heavenlyvalley"oneofthebody's"39passages."15Fromthesestatementsitwouldappearthat the"body"tobenurturedisaformlessinternalentitythatisequivalenttothe"spirit."However,themaintextonitsowndoesnotclearlysaythatthisisthecase. Intheeleventhandfourteenthchapters,themaintextreferstohowtheadept,asheascendstoheavenlyimmortality,iscladinaresplendentfivecoloredgarment

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adornedwithwings.ThecommentarytotheeleventhchapterquotesacertainZhongtianyujing,whichsaysthewingswillresemblethoseofacicada.The commentarythendrawsaninterestinganalogybetweenthecicadaandthetransformedadept.
Thecicadagrowswingsbecauseitdrinksdewandeatsqi(air).Thusitcanbeknownthatpeopleimbibetheprimalqiandtheheavenlygarmentcongealsuponthebody.

Thecicadalarva,whenitmetamorphoses,castsoffitsshellandfliesoff.Ifonecarriestheaforementionedanalogyfurther,onecouldsaythattheadept,withhisnew internalbody,castsoffhisordinarybodyandproceedstoheavenlyimmortality.Thiscouldbewhatthecommentatormeanttoimply.Whateverthecase,themaintext andcommentarywereprobablywrittenseveralcenturiesapartfromeachother.Itcouldbethattheauthorofthemaintextenvisionedtheimmortalityoftheactual physicalbody,whilethecommentatorbelievedinthesurvivalofaninner,formlessbody. TheFastingRegimensoftheDaojitunajingandTunajing Aswehaveseen,theZhonghuangjingmaintainsthatanadeptcanfasttothepointofsevereweakeningandemaciation,yetfullyrecoverbysimplycontinuingto fast.ThesameassertionismadeinfragmentsthathavesurvivedfromtheDaojitunajingandtheTunajing. Daojitunajing TheDaojitunajing(TheScriptureoftheFoundationoftheTaoonExpellingandTakingIn)isalosttextofuncertaindate.Fragmentsofitsurviveasquotesin theSandongzhunang,whichmeansthatithadbeenincirculationatleastbytheseventhcentury.Itstitleindicatesthatitwasamanualofrespiratorypractices.The word"tu"(toexpelfromthemouth,tospit,toexhale)probablydescribeshowtheadeptexpelstheold,impureqifromhismouth."Na"(totakein,toputin)probably describesthetakinginoffresh,cleanairtocleanseandnourishthebody.Thisexplanationismereguesswork,sincetheportionsofthetextthatdescribedtheactual exerciseshavenotsurvived.However,thepassagetranslatednextmakesitclearthattheexercisesweredesignedtofacilitatearigorousfastsimilartothatdescribed intheZhonghuangjing.
WhenaTaoistadepthascultivatedhisbodyandfastedbymeansofexpellingandtakinginfor10days(onexun),hisvitalenergy(jingqi)16willfeelslightlyfeverish,andhis complexionwillbecomehaggardandyellowish.After20days,hewillfeeldizzyandwillbeclumsyinhis

Page52 movements,andhisjointswillache.Hislargebowelmovementswillbecomesomewhatdifficultandhisurinewilltakeonareddishyellowishcolor.Sometimes,hewillhavebowel movementsthataremuddyatfirstandfirmafterwards.17After30days,hisbodywillbeemaciatedandthinand[hewillfeel]heavyandwearywhenhewalks. After40days,hisfacialcomplexionwillbecomecheerful(ruddy,healthy)andhismindwillbeatease.After50days,thefiveviscerawillbeharmoniouslyregulatedandthevital energywillbenurturedwithin.After60days,thebodywillhavebeenrestoredtoitsformerstrength(thatithadpriortothefast),anditsfunctionswillbewellregulated.After70 days,hisheartwilldislikeboisterousness,andhis[only]aspirationwillbetoflyuponhigh.After80days,hewillbepeacefullycontent,andwillbeinserenesolitude.Hewill believeandunderstandthetechniquesandmethods.After90days,[hisskin]willhavethesmoothlusterofgloryandelegance,andsoundswillbeclearlyheard.After100days, thevitalenergywillallarrive,andtheefficacywillincreasedaybyday. Ifhepracticesthiswithoutceasing,hislifespanwillnaturallybeextended.Afterthreeyears,hisburnsandscarswilldisappear,andhisfacialcomplexionwillhavearadiance. Afterpracticingforsixyears,hisbonemarrowwillbeabundantandhisbrainwillbefilled.Hewillhaveclairvoyantknowledgeregardingmattersofexistingandperishing.After nineyearshaveelapsed,hewillemployandcommanddemonsandspirits,andwilltakeonthetitleofPerfectedMan.AbovehewillassisttheSupremeAugustOne.Hislifespan willequalthatofHeavenandhisradiancewillmergewiththesun.Ifyoutransmit[thislesson]toanunworthyperson,youwillsufferacalamity.(Sandongzhunang3/23ab)

Tunajing TheTunajing(TheScriptureonExpellingandTakingIn)alsoisalostscripturethatwaswrittenbeforeorduringtheseventhcentury.Fragmentsofitare preservedintheSandongzhunangandtheTaipingyulan(agovernmentsponsoredencyclopediacompiledin983).Thepassagetranslatednextisfoundinthe Sandongzhunang(4/1ab).ThelengthofthefastingprocessdescribedinitismuchmorefeasiblethanthatdescribedintheZhonghuangjingandDaojitunajing. Forthisreason,itprobablyprovidesamoreauthenticpictureofthedurationoffastscarriedoutbyrealadepts.

TodoawaywithgrainsandnoteatistheWayofthePrimalSpirit.Afterthefirstoneortwodays,thegrainqiwillnotyethavebeensubdued,andyourfacialappearancewillbe moroseandyellowish.Afterthreedays,

Page53 thegrainqiwillleave,andthevitalenergywillarrive.Afterfourorfivedays,theyinandyangofyourvitalenergywillbeharmoniouslyregulated.Aftersixdays,yoursubtle spiritwillbestableandyouwillhaveclearvisionandhearing.Walkingaboutwillbecomeeasierasyoubecomestrongerbytheday.Aftersevendays,youwillconstantlybeon thevergeoflevitation.ThankstotheUltimateTao,youwillbeincommunicationupabovewiththegodswhendreamingandwhenawake.Aftereightdays,yourspiritwilltravel aboutintheeightlimits.18Youwillbeabletodososilently.Always[whenyoudothis]yourmouthwillnaturallytastesweet.Yourwillandyourbones(mindandbody)will naturallybecomestrong.Afterninedays,thesubtlespiritwillbeinorder.Ifyourbodyisweak,itwillbecomestrong.Yourspiritandqi(orperhaps,"divineqi")willbesolidified daybyday.Withoutgoing,youwillnaturallybefaraway.Withoutcoming,youwillnaturallybenear.Yourfacialappearancewilldailybecomemorejoyful.Aftertendays,the variousgodswillarriveatyourgateswhichareallclosed.JadeGirlswillattendyouonyourrightandleft.Youwillriseuplightlylikeaswallowthatfluttersamidsttheclouds.The Taowillthusbeacquired.

ImbibingtheFiveQi Immortalityseekersbelievedbenevolentdeitieslivedinremoteheavenlyrealms,andinthesun,moon,stars,andplanets.Theybelievedthesedeitieswouldgenerously nourishthemwithwonderfullifegivingqiifinvokedproperly.Variousmethodsweredevisedforbringingthisabout,andperhapsthemostwidelyemployedamong suchmethodswasthemethodofImbibingtheFiveQi.The"FiveQi"alsoknownasthe"FiveSprouts"orthe"CloudSprouts"aretheqiofthefiveagents(wood, fire,earth,metal,andwater)thatissuefromthefivedirections(east,south,center,west,andnorth).Basedontheschemeoffiveagentscosmology,theFiveQiare furthercorrelatedtothefivecolors(blue,red,yellow,white,andblack),thefiveplanets(Jupiter,Mars,Saturn,Venus,andMercury),andthefiveviscera(liver,heart, spleen,lungs,andkidneys). WhilenourishingandtransformingtheirbodieswiththepowerofthecelestialFiveQi,adeptswouldengageinfasts.Theintensityanddurationofthefastsprobably variedamongadeptsoverthecenturies.ItseemslogicaltothinkthatthefastswereusuallynotasintenseaswhatisprescribedintheZhonghuangjing.Whileadepts wereideallysupposedtomakethecelestialFiveQitheirsolesourceofnutrition,theywerefullyawareofthedangersoftryingtodoso.Forthisreason,adeptswere usuallyadvisedtosupplementtheirdietwithspecialsubstancesandpotions.WhilethebestadeptsmayhaveattemptedtofastandimbibethecelestialFiveQiona permanentbasis,mostadeptsprobablydidsojusttemporarilyandperiodicallywhileobservingamoremoderatedietonnormaloccasions.

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TheearliestandmostbasicmethodforimbibingtheFiveQithatsurvivestodayforourscrutinyisfoundinatextcalledtheTaishanglingbaowufuxu (HY388/TT183).Thistext,whichshallbereferredtoastheWufuxufromhereon,describesmacrobiotictechniquesofvariouskindsandprovidesillustrationsof variousthaumaturgicandprotectivetalismans.Italsocontainsmythnarrativesandashortliturgy.MostofthemethodsintheWufuxuprobablyoriginatedfrom diversefactionsofLatterHandynasty(25220C.E.)immortalityseekers.Thesefactionseachpromotedbeliefsandpracticesoftheirown.However,onethingthey appeartohavehadincommonwasthattheywereconnectedinsomewaywiththemileuofmagicians(fangshi)whopropagatedthewei("weft")apocrypha.19The methodsoftheWufuxuwerewrittendownandassembledtogetherinvariousstages,andthetextwascompletedinitspresentformsometimearound410C.E.20 AccordingtotheWufuxu(1/11b14b),theFiveQiissuefromtheloftyheavenlyrealmsofthefivedirections.Theeasternheavenisthe"HeavenoftheNineQiof theGreenSprouts."Itsqihasthecolorofthe"firstsproutsofspringgrass."Theeasternheavenisasradiantasthesun.ItcontainspalaceswheretheJadeGirlofthe BlueWaistandtheMostHighTrueKingdwell.Thesetwodeitiesrideabouttheuniverse,mountedupondivinebeasts.21Theyfortifytheworld'syinandyangethers withthe"qioftheNineHeavens"andthe''flowingfragranceoftheNineSprings."Thetextfollowswithsimilardescriptionsoftheheavensoftheotherfourdirections. Thedetailsofthesedescriptionscanbesummarizedasfollows:
(South)Name:HeavenoftheThreeQiofVermilionCinnabar. Qi:Vermilion,"likethecrimsoncloudsthatcoverthesun." Deities:JadeGirlofGreatCinnabar,ElderofthePrimalQi. (Center)Name:TheMountainoftheGrandEmperorofthePrimalCavern. Qi:Yellow Deity:GrandEmperor22 (West)Name:HeavenoftheSevenQioftheBrightStones. Qi:White,"likethemoonthatdropsdownamidsttheradiantclouds." Deities:PlainGirloftheMostHigh,GrandMasterofthePrimalQi. (North)Name:HeavenoftheFiveQioftheBlackDelicacies. Qi:"Likewhengalewindsblowoveraburningforest(blackassmoke)." Deity:JadeGirlofNocturnalRadiance.

Asisthecasewiththeeasternheaven,theqiandthedeitiesoftheotherfourheavensaredescribedasroamingaboutandpermeatingtheuniversewiththeir nourishment. ThemethodforimbibingtheFiveQiistobecarriedoutatdawn"whentheroostercries."Theadeptsilentlyrecitesfiveshortchantsthataredirectedateachofthe fivedirections.Thechantsgoasfollows:

Page55 (East)Intheeastarethegreensprouts. Ieatthegreensprouts, Anddrinkfromthemorningflowers. (South)Inthesouthisthevermilioncinnabar. Ieatthevermilioncinnabar, Anddrinkfromthecinnabarpond. (Center)Inthecenterwuji, IsthemagnificentMt.Tai. Ieatitssubtleqi, Anddrinkfromitssweetsprings. (West)Inthewestarethebrightrocks. Ieatthebrightrocks, Anddrinkthemiraculousfluid. (North)Inthenortharetheblackdelicacies. Ieattheblackdelicacies, Anddrinkthejadesyrup.(3/21ab)

Aftereachchant,hestimulatesthesalivaryglandsbyrubbingvariouspartsofthemouthwithhistongueandswallowsthesalivathreetimes.
Themethodforpickingthegreensprouts[istobepracticed]whentheroostercries.Afterrecitingthechant,useyourtonguetorubthesurfaceofyourupperteeth,lickyourlips, rinseyourmouth[withsaliva]andswallowitthreetimes.AfterrecitingtheVermilionCinnabarchant,useyourtonguetorubthesurfaceofyourlowerteeth,lickyourlips,rinse yourmouth[withsaliva]andswallowitthreetimes.Afterrecitingthechantofthewujiinthecenter,stickyourtongueupwardsanduseittostabthexuanying,23lickyourlips andswallowit(thesaliva)threetimes.AfterrecitingtheBrightStoneschant,useyourtonguetorubthesurfaceofyourteeth,lickyourlips,rinseyourmouth[withsaliva]and swallowitthreetimes.[After]eachswallowing,knockyourteethtogether27(fourteen)times.AfterrecitingtheBlackDelicacieschant,useyourtonguetorubbeneaththe tongue.Whileholdingyourbreathinsidewithyournose,swallowit(thesaliva)threetimes.Thisiscalled,'drinkingandeatinginaselfsomanner'[and]'theWayofWomb breathing.'Foreachswallowing,maketheJadeWater(saliva)fillthemouth.(3/16a)

Theprecedingpassageseemstosuggestthattheadeptistoholdhisbreathonlyduringtheswallowingofthenorthernqi.However,elsewhere,thetextstates,"When finished[withthechantingandswallowing],thebreathheldinyournosewillhavecometoalimit,sograduallyreleaseit.Ifyoumake[theholdingofbreaths]surpass fiveormore[chantingsandswallowings]thetruewaywillbecompleted"

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(3/21b).Providedthetranslationisaccurate,itappearsthattheadepttriestoholdhisbreaththroughouttheentireprocedure. Thesalivatheadeptdrinksisunderstoodtobenourishmentfromtheheavens.Theculminativeeffectsofdrinkingitaredescribedasfollows:
Alwaysdrinkfromthespring(swallowsaliva),knocking[together]thejade[pieces](theteeth)anddoingawaywithfood.[Ifyoudoso]youwillreverttoayouthfulvisage.The 100evilswillavoidyoufromadistance,andyouwillcommandandcontrolthethrongsofspirits.Youwillhavelonglifeandperpetualvisionyourlifespanwillextendto hundredsofthousandsofyears.Youreyeswillbecomesquareshapedwithpenetratingvision,andyourintestineswilltransformintomuscles.(3/17a)

Theconstantsalivaswallowingtransformstheadeptintoanimmortal,superhumanbeingwithnodigestivesystem.Thedigestivesystembecomesobsoletebecausehe nolongereatsfood. TheShangqingmovementofthefourthcenturyandtheLingbaomovementofthefifthcenturylaterdevisedtheirownmethodsforimbibingtheFiveQi,basedlargely uponthemodelprovidedbytheWufuxu.24 ImbibingtheEssencesoftheSunandMoon AlthoughTaoistsdevisedmethodsforfeedingoffvariousheavenlybodies,methodsforfeedingoffthesunandmoonwereespeciallycommon.Twooftheearliest methodsforfeedingoffthesunandmoonaredescribedintheWufuxuandtheLaozizhongjing(atextprobablywritteninthelatesecondorearlythirdcentury C.E.25). AccordingtotheWufuxu,thesolaressenceistobeeatenbetweensunriseandhighnoononthefirst,third,fifth,seventh,ninth,andfifteenthdaysofthemonth.The methodiscarriedoutasfollows: Theadeptfirstvisualizesthesuninsideofhisheart.Insideofthesunisablackcanopy,andunderthecanopyisasmallredchild.Redvaporpermeatesandsurrounds theadept'sbody.Thevaporthenrisesfromhisheadandwrapsitselfaroundthesunupinthesky.Theadeptaddressesthesunwiththewords,"LordSun,thePrimal Yang,returntomyCrimsonPalace(heart)andcombineyourvirtuewithme.Together[weshall]nurturethesmallchild"(1/25b).Hethenvisualizestheessenceofthe sundescendingdownintohisnostrilsandmouth,andswallowsittwentyseventimes.Thesolaressencefillshisheart.Fromthispoint,threedeitiesdwellintheheart, seatedonacouchofgoldandjade.TheFatheroftheGreatOnesitsontheleft,theMotherofBlackRadiancesitsontheright,andtheBabyChildsitsinthemiddle. They(orjusttheBabyChild?)dineon"thedivineliquorofjadeefflorescencesandtheheavenlyfungiandherbs."Byvisualizingthus,theadeptenableshimselfto "neverhungernorthirst,andtohavelonglife."

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Thelunaressenceiseatenatmidnightonthefifteenthofthemonth(thenightofthefullmoon).Theadeptfacesthemoon26andchants,"LordMoon,thePrimalYin, returntotheElixirFieldandcombineyourvirtuewithme.Together[weshall]nurturethesmallchild"(1/25b).Hevisualizesthe"whitevaporandyellowessenceof themoon"comingintohisnoseandmouth,andswallowsittwentyonetimes.Thus,"thelunaressencelodgesinthekidneysand[theadept]obtainslonglife"(1/26a). Inadditiontofeedingoffthesunandmoon,theWufuxualsoadvisestheadepttoeattheessenceofthenorthpolestar.Thisistobedoneatsunrise,noon,sunset, andmidnight,althoughthedaysonwhichtodothisarenotspecified.Theadeptvisualizesthe"GreatAugustStaroftheNorthernExtreme"andchantsthewords "SupremeEmperorofAugustHeaven,theMostHighLordoftheTao[I],yourdescendant,theinsignificantcommonmansoandso(theadeptsayshisnamehere) amfondoftheTaoandwishtoobtainlonglife."Hevisualizesthestellaressencecomingdowntothespacebetweenhiseyebrows,afterwhichitflowsintohisnostrils andmouth.Heswallowsitfifteentimesandvisualizesitfillinghisheart,gallbladderandspleen.Inthespleenheseesthe"MotheroftheTao,"whois"inchargeof feedingandnurturingthebaby."Again,thetextstatesthatiftheadeptpracticesthismethodhewillobtainlonglifeandneverbethirstynorhungry. Itisnotspecifiedhowrapidlytheadeptshoulddecreasehisdietaryintake,norforthatmatterisitclearlyindicatedthattheadeptissupposedtotrytofast.Butthese visualizationsprobablywereconductedduringfasts,sincetheypurportedtoeliminatehungerandthirst.Throughthenumerousswallowings,theadeptwouldfillhis stomachwithairand/orsaliva(thetextdoesnotclearlyspecify),andthiswouldhopefullyhelpsubduehishunger. TheLaozizhongjing'smethodinvolvessimilarvisualizationsthatpertaintofeedinganinternal"baby."However,the"sun"and"moon"thatnourishthebabyexist insidethebody.
Alwaysvisualizethesunandmoonbeneathyournipples.Insidethesunandmoonareyellowessenceandredqi.[Theyellowessenceandredqi]entertheCrimsonPalace (heart),andthen[enter]thePurpleChamberoftheYellowCourt.TheyellowessenceandredqifilluptheGreatStorehouse(stomach).Thebaby,seatedinthepassagewayofthe stomachandfacingdirectlytowardsthesouth,drinksandeatstheyellowessenceandredqi.Therebyheissatiated.The100diseaseswillbeeliminatedandthe10,000calamities willnotafflictyou.Ifyoualwaysvisualizethis,youwillascendandbecomeaPerfectedBeing.(Yunjiqiqian18/7ab)

Priortotheaforementionedpassage,thetextstatesthatthebabyinthestomachis"myownbody."Lateron,inthetwelfthsection,itstates,"Visualizeyourownbody inthepassageofthestomach"(Yunjiqiqian18/7b).Apparently,theadeptidentifieswiththebabybecausethebabypersonifiesthecoreofhisinner

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natureandphysicalvitality.Theinternalsolarandlunarnutrientsaresenttothebabythroughvisualizationalonetheadeptdoesnotswallowairorsaliva.Soifthis methoddidindeedhelpsuppresshunger,itwasperhapsduetoapsychosomaticeffectmadepossiblebytheadept'sfaith. Manyothermethodsforimbibingsolarandlunaressencesweredevisedoverthecenturies.Theyarefartoonumeroustocoverhere.BoththeShangqingandLingbao movementsstronglyendorsedsuchmethods.27 TalismanSwallowing Asmentionedinchapter2(p.23),theShenxianzhuantellsusthatHuangJing"summonedtheSixJiaJadeGirlsbyswallowingtheyinandYangtalismans."A detaileddescriptionofwhatmaybethisverysamemethodisfoundinatextofunknowndatecalledtheShenxianshiqijinguimiaolu(TheMarvelousRecordinthe GoldenBoxontheImbibingofQioftheDivineImmortals,HY835/TT571).Thedescriptionoccursinasectionentitled,"TheMethodofImbibingtheYinandYang TalismansandSummoningtheSixJiaJadeGirls."Thereitstatesthatthemethodisperformedwhile"avoidinggrains,"intheeventthattheadepthasbecome"worried thathisfive[visceral]spiritsmaywanderoutofthebodyandevildelusionsmightafflictandagitatehim"(1a). Atsunrise,theadeptstandsfacingtheeast,holdingapapertalismaninhislefthandandacupofwaterinhisright.Herecitesthewords,"[I],soandsoamfondofthe trueTaoand[I]eattheqiofCentralHarmony.Chengyi,JadeGirlofGreatObscurityofthejiaziday(ofthesexegenarycycle)[Iimploreyouto]servemeand attendmewithalunchboxsothatwhereverImaybe,mymethodswillbe[successfully]accomplished,andIwillacquirewhateveritisIseek.Donotallowmeto thirstandhunger.[Bringenoughfoodsothat]anarmyofanysize,orpeopleofanynumbercanhavetheirhungersatisfied"(1ab).Afterrecitingthesewords,he swallowsthetalismanandwashesitdownwiththewater.Theritualiscontinuedforsixtydays,dividedintosixtendaysegmentsduringwhichsixdifferentJadeGirls areaddressed.Onoddnumbereddaysofthesexegenarycycle,theyangtalismaniseaten.Onevennumbereddays,theyintalismaniseaten. AnothertalismanswallowingmethoddesignedtosubduehungerisdescribedinafragmentfromalatethirdcenturyscripturecalledtheSanhuangwen(Writsofthe ThreeEmperors).28ItispreservedintheWushangbiyao(HY1130/TT768779),aTaoistencyclopediacommissionedbyEmperorWuoftheNorthernZhou dynasty(Wudi,r.561578).Itdescribeshowtouseacertain"TalismanoftheBlueWomboftheVermilionOfficial."
This[talisman]wasreceivedbytheFatherandMotheroftheNineHeavensfromtheQueenMotheroftheWest.Onmorningsoflongmonths,swallow[oneofthesetalismans] writteninred.Onmorningsof

Page59 shortmonths,swallowonewritteninblack.Alwaysburnincenseandpayyourrespects[tothegods]allnightlongforonenightbeforeswallowingit.Thisallowsapersontonot hunger.Italsoreplenisheshisjingandsupplementshisbrain.Itmakesthebodylightandgivesitabeautifulcomplexion.Itextendsthelifespanlimitlessly.IfaTaoistadeptdoes notseethistext,hisswallowingofqiandpracticeoftheTaowillbebutfutilehardships.(25/7b8a)

Evidently,thetalismanwastobeusedbyfastingadeptswhopracticedmethodsofairswallowing.Iftalismansdidindeedhelpsuppresshunger,thismayhavebeen becauseapsychosomaticeffectwasbroughtaboutbytheadept'sfaithinthetalisman. SuckingonaSeed IntheWufuxuamethodisfoundcalled"YueZichang'sMethodofHoldingaJujubeSeedintheMouth."Themethodconsistssimplyofsuckingontheseedofa jujube,andtherebydrinkingone'sownsaliva.

Thewaytolonglifeistoalwaysholdajujubeseedinyourmouth[andsuckonit]inthesamewayababysuckles.Afteralongwhile,salivawillfillthemouth.Swallowtwothirds ofitandthenswallowtheremaindertogetherwithair.Thisiscalled"recyclingthejing."[Thejing]circulatesandreturnstothebeginning[inaroutethatis]likeajadering.While youaredoingawaywithgrains,youwillcometoaminorcrisisafterfivedaysandyourheadwillfeeldizzy.Afterawhile,[thedizziness]willstop.After14days,yourheadwillfeel dizzyagain,[but]thedizzinesswillstopafterawhile.After21days,yourqiwillbestable.Ifyouwanttoeat,youcaneat,andifyoudonotwanttoeat,[youreating]willnaturally cease.Whileyouaredoingawaywithgrains,youmustnotengageinsexualintercourse.Youmayeatsmallamountsofjujubesanddriedmeats.Drinknomorethanonesheng (200ml.)ofliquor.Themethodisthesameforbothmenandwomen.(2/36ab)

Bydrinkinghissaliva,theadeptfeedsoffofhisrecycledjing.Thewordjing,incertaincontexts,candenotethe"essences"ornutrientsinfoods.Intheprevious passage,itseemstodenotethebody'sinternalnutrientsthatareessentialforthefastingadept'ssurvival.Theunderlyingassumptionseemstobethatsemen(also referredtoasjing)isavaluableinternalsourceofnutrition,andthisisprobablywhysexualactivityisforbiddenduringthefast.Theadeptstarveshimselftowherethe bodyshowsclearsignsofstress.However,thefastisonlymandatoryfortwentyonedays,duringwhichsomesolidfoods(driedmeatsandjujubes)canbeeatenin smallquantities.

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DrugRecipes AlthoughtheidealforTaoistadeptswastoeatnothing,thiswasunfeasibleinmostorallcases.Forthisreason,Taoistsingestedvarioussubstancespreferablyin smallamountstostaveoffhungerandsustainthebodythroughitstravails.Also,inmostcases,thesubstanceswereascribedsalubrious,lifeextendingpropertiesof theirownthatmadethemdesirable.ThemostabundantcollectionofearlyhungersuppressingdrugrecipesisfoundintheWufuxu.Manyhavealsobeenpreserved inthewritingsoftheShangqingmovementofthefourthcentury. RecipesintheWufuxu TheingredientsfoundmostcommonlyintherecipesoftheWufuxuaresesameseeds,pokeroot,deerbamboo,andgrains.Weshallnowexamineafewsamplesof therecipesthatfeaturetheseingredients. Onerecipethatfeaturessesameseedsasthemainingredientis"ThePerfectedMan'sMethodforAbstainingCompletelyfromGrains."Therecipeisgiveninthetext asfollows:
Taketwodou(about4liters)ofsesameseedsandfivesheng(about1liter)offagara(Chinesepepper,zanthoxylumplanispinum).Firstremovetheblackskins(ofthesesame seeds).Poundthetwoingredientstogetherandsift.Atfirsteatfivege(about100grams)[ofthemixture]threetimesaday.Ifyouhavenowater(todrinkwithit),youcanuse honeyto[mixintothepowderto]makepills.Takeonepillthesizeofachickeneggfourtimesperday.Naturally,youwillnothunger.Duringyearsoffamineyoucaneatthis medicinebyitselfandabstaincompletelyfromgrains.Ifthirsty,drinkonlywater.Donoteatanythingelse.Ifyoueatanythingelseyouwillbecomehungry.[Thismedicine]gives you100timesyournormalenergy.Coldnessandheatwillnolongerafflictyou.[Themedicine]cancurethe100diseases.DivineImmortalhoodwillnaturallybebroughtabout.29 (2/5b6a)

Thismethodpurportstoenabletheadepttosurviveonnothingelsebutwaterandtheprescribedpotion.Itisclearthattheauthorhadtheshunningofallordinary foodsinmindwhenhespokeof"avoidinggrains."Thepassagealsoisinterestinginthatitrecommendsthepotionasameansforsurvivingfamines.Thisconcernwith faminesseemstobearastrongconnectiontocertainbeliefsconveyedfrequentlyintheWufuxubeliefsthatanticipatedregularandinevitablecyclesofcosmicstrife, devastation,andrestoration. Pokeroot(zhanglu,phytolaccaacinosa)isatoxic30plantcommonlyusedasadiuretic.Itstoxicitymayhavebeenwhatmadeitaneffectivehungersuppressant. Thisistheimpressiononegetsfromthefollowingrecipe:

Page61 Addonedou(about2liters)oftianmendong(asparaguscochinchinensis)powdertotenjin(about2kilograms)ofyeastand3dou(about6liters)ofrice.Letthepokerootssit [inthemixture]forsixdays.Thereuponbegintoeatthemwhileobservingritualprohibitions.Infivedaysyourfoodintakewillstarttodecrease.After20days,grainswillbe eliminatedandyourintestineswillbesofatthattheycanonlyholdair.Thevariousworms(theThreeWorms?)willallleave.Yourearsandeyeswillhearandseeclearly.Allof yourmolesandscarswilldisappear.Whenthemoonrestsintheyuguiconstellationandthedayreachesthedinghour(2A.M.),gatherthepokerootplant.Eatapiecethesizeofa jujubethreetimesperday.Taoistadeptsalwaysgrowthisplantinagardenbytheirmeditationchambers.Itallowsapersontocommunicatewiththegods.(2/11a)

Thepokeroot'spoisonaffectedthebodyrapidlyanddrastically.Apparentlyitmadetheadepteatlessbecausethepoisoncausedaninflammationintheintestines. Thestatement"yourintestineswillbesofatthattheycanonlyholdair"suggeststhatadeptswhoingestedpokerootwereexpectedtopracticeairswallowing.The phrase"itallowsapersontocommunicatewiththegods"suggeststhatpokerootmayhavealsohadahallucinatoryeffectonadepts.Aswecansee,pokerootalso wasthoughttohelpexterminatetheThreeWorms,anditseemslikelythatitwasascribedthiscapacitysimplybecauseitispoisonous. Furtheron,thetextgivesarecipeforpokerootpillsthataremeantspecificallyforkillingtheThreeWorms.31Itthenstatesthatiftheadepttakesthreeofthepills daily,theThreeWormswillcomeoutdecomposedinhisstool.TheLowerCorpsecomesoutafterthirtydays,theMiddleCorpseaftersixtydays,andtheUpper Corpseafter100days.TheUpperCorpseisblackandshapedlikeahand.TheMiddleCorpseisblueandshapedlikeafoot.TheLowerCorpseiswhiteand shapedlikeanegg.Thetextthengoesontodescribehowthewormsdotheirevildeedsandhowtheymustbeexpelledforanyimmortalitytechniquetobeeffective. Oncetheyareexpelled,theadept"neveragainfeelshungrynorthirsty,andhisheartiscalmandfreeofthoughts"(2/24b).Italsosaysthatpokerootbringsaboutthe sameresultswhenmadeintoapowderandtakenbyitself.Berriesofthepagodatree(huai,sophorajaponica)alsocanbeeatentoservethesamepurpose. However,thetextthengoesontoindicatethatthequickestwaytoexpeltheThreeWormsisbyimbibingtheFiveQi.
Thosewhocanadeptlyimbibeqineednotusetheserecipes.Furthermore,theperfectqiarethegreensprouts,theessencesofthefivedirections.IfaTaoistadeptimbibesthem (theqiofthefivedirections),theThreeWormswillrunoutin21days.(2/24b)

However,imbibingtheFiveQialonewouldhavebeentoostrenuousformostadepts.Therefore,theyweregiventhealternativeofexpellingtheThree

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Wormsandovercominghungermoregraduallythroughtheingestionofprescribedsubstances. Deerbamboo(polygonatumsibiricum)isanontoxicplant.ItsChinesenameishuangjing,whichtranslatedliterallymeans"yellowessence."TheWufuxustates thatdeerbambooisthe"essenceofthesun"thatcongealsinthe"nineheavens,"driftsaboutanddispersesamongthemountains.Nourishedbythecloudsandrain,it transformsandgrowsintoanherb.Theingestionofdeerbambooisinthissenseatechniqueforimbibingsolaressences.Wealsoaretoldthatdeerbamboogrowson theslopesoftheTaihangmountainrange32andisyellowincolorandsweetinflavor(2/18ab). Deerbamboocanbeeateninsmallquantitiesifonesimplywantstobenefitfromitsmedicinalqualities.Italsocanbeeateninlargerquantitiestosubstituteforfood.It canbepreparedandeateninvariousways.Itsrootscanbesteamed,dried,andmadeintoapowder,ofwhichaspoonfulistobeingestedeachday.Itsberriescan besoakedindrinkingwatertomakejuice.Therootscanbeboiledandmixedwithsoybeanpowder,thenmadeintosmallcakes.Theadeptalsocandrinkthewater inwhichtherootshavebeenboiled.Thestemandtheleavescanbemixedintoporridgeandeaten.Thewonderfuleffectsofdeerbambooaretobebroughtabout notonlybypreparingandingestingitproperly,butbyobservinganaustereandunworldlylifestyle.Onepassagestatesthatforthedrugtoconferlongevity,theadept must"abandongloryandelegance."Forthedrugtoconferimmortality,hemust"abandonthesecularworld"andlivealoneinthemountains(2/19a). Thefollowingrecipecanbeusedformakingdeerbamboopills:
Duringthesecondandeighthmonthstaketherootsandshaveoffthefuzz.Washthoroughlyandcutintofinepieces.Boilonehu(about20liters)[ofthedeerbamboopieces]in sixdou(about12liters)ofwater,usingafireofmoderatestrengthfrommorningtillevening.Whenthemedicinehascookedthoroughly,removeit[fromthefire]andcoolit.Press andcrushitwithyourhands.Strainoutthefluidwithawinepresstomakepills.Removetheimpuritiesanddryitouttomakeapowder.Keepitinakettle.Ifyou[usethepowder] tomakepills(perhapsbymixingwithhoney?)thesizeofchickeneggsandingestthreeperday,youcanavoidgrainsandstopeating.Youwillfeelneithercoldnessnorheat,and yourgoingaboutwillbeswiftasagallopinghorse.Ifapersonisabletoabstainfrom[theactivitiesof]thebedroom(sexualintercourse),hewillnotage,hislifespanwillhaveno limitandhewillbecomeanimmortal.Ifhedoesnotabstainfromtheactivitiesofthebedroom,thelongesthecanliveis200years.(2/21ab)

Aswecansee,deerbamboowasthoughttohavemaximumefficacywhentheadeptfastedandremainedcelibate.Althoughitwasdeemedeffectiveevenwithout austerities,athoroughgoingasceticisminvolvingsolitude,fasting,andcelibacywas

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deemednecessaryforitsmaximumeffecttobegained.Ontheotherhand,deerbamboowasthoughttobecompletelyineffectiveifone'slifestylewasblatantly contrarytosuchstandards.ThetextthusstatesthatSunQuan(182252C.E.),thekingoftheThreeKingdomsWustate,atedeerbamboo.However,nopositive effectscameaboutbecausehe"didnotabstainfrom[theactivitiesof]thebedroomanddidvariousuncalmthings.""Uncalmthings"probablyreferstohismilitary pursuitsanddecadentlifestyle(22ab). Deerbamboowasmeanttoserveassurvivalfoodduringtimesofcrisisselfimposedorotherwise.Thetextsaysthatwhenoneingestsdeerbamboo,"heneednot avoidtigersandwolvesnorfearmilitaryupheaval."Italsosays,"Whenyougoaboutinthemountainsyoucan[pickitand]eatitrawtoyourmouth'ssatisfaction,and drink[only]waterwhenthirsty."Deerbamboo,wearetold,issometimesreferredtoas"foodforalleviatingtheplightofthepoor."Thisisbecause"inayearoffamine itcanbegiventooldpeopleandchildrenwhocaneatitwhilenoteatinggrains"(2/22a). SomeofthehungersuppressingrecipesintheWufuxuincludegrainsastheirmainingredients.Fromthisitagainseemsclearthatthereductionoftheoveralldietary intakewastheprimaryconcernofTaoistdietetics,ratherthanatabooongrains.Twoexamplesofhungersuppressingrecipesthatincludegrainsfollow:
TheDivineImmortal'sMethodofEatingBlueMillet Takeonedou(about2liters)ofbluemillet(atypeoflargegrainedmilletwithabluishcolor).Washandsteepinsomehighqualityliquorforthreedays.[Then]steamwithout lettinganythingleakout.Steam100timesandletitsitoutintheopen100times.Itispreferabletonotexposeittosunlight.Storeitinasoftleathersack.Thereby,whenyouwant toenterthemountainsandtravellongdistances,youcaneat[themillet]once(amounttobeeatenisnotspecified),anditwillsustainyoufortendaysasyougowithouteating.If youeatitagainafterthetendays,youcangowithouteatingfor49days.Ifyoueatitagainafterthe49days,youwillbeabletomake490yearsyourinterval[betweenmeals]. Thereisavariantrecipethatsaystouseblackmillet.Yetanotherrecipesaystousethreedou.(2/34b) MethodforAbstainingfromGrains Usefivege(100ml.)eachofnonglutinousrice,millet,wheat,soybeansandhempseed.Frythebeansbeforegrindingthemintopowder.Mixtheingredientstogetherwithonejin ofhoney.Putoveraflameandbringtoaboil100times.Thenputitintocoldwater[tocoolitoff]andmakeintopillsthesizeofplumpits.Takeonepillperdose(howoftenthepill istobetakenisnotspecified).Youwillbeabletogofortherestofyourlifewithoutgettinghungry.Eachingredientistobetreated(ground?).Onlythebeansneedtobefried. (2/36a)

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RecipesintheShangqingTexts Aswewillseeinchapter5,theShangqingtextsstronglyendorsefastingandmakeitaprerequisiteforreceivingandstudyingtheholiestscriptures.Theythuscontain numerousdescriptionsoffastingtechniques.AlthoughtheShangqingmovementemergedduringthelatterhalfofthefourthcentury,therecipesthemselvesare probablyearlierintheirorigins.Hereweshallexaminetwooftheirmostimportantdrugrecipesxunfanand''whiterocks." Thetwomainingredientsusedforpreparingxunfanarericeandtheleavesofashrubcalledthenanzhu(vacciniumbracteatum).33Nanzhuleavesontheirown werethoughttohavehungeralleviatingqualities.AsurvivingfragmentoftheDengzhenyinjue(animportantcollectionofShangqingwritings)statesthattheycanbe usedtorelievehungerduringtimesoffamineorextremepoverty.34Itlogicallyfollowedthatnanzhuleavescouldbeusedbyanadeptwhowasvoluntarilydecreasing hisdietaryintake. ThemostdetaileddiscussiononxunfanthatwehaveavailableisasectionintheYunjiqiqian(74/1a7b)entitledTaijizhenrenqingjingganshixunfanshangxian lingfang,35whichweshallrefertofromhereonastheXunfanlingfang.Therewearetoldthattheadeptshouldgraduallyreducehisfoodintakewhileingesting xunfan.Atfirst,theadeptshouldlimithimselftoaquotaof2.5sheng(about0.5liters)offoodperday.Afterayear,heshouldreducethedailyquotatotwosheng. Afterthreeyears,heshouldreduceittoonesheng.Afterfouryears,heshouldreduceitto0.5sheng,andheshouldstopeatingfoodentirelybytheendoffiveyears. Atthispoint,theadeptwillbecome"lightandbright"andgain"greateffects."Hebecomesableto"eatninemealsinonedayorgowithouteatingthroughouttheyear." Anannotationtothetextaddsthatthereductionofthefoodintakewillproceedmoreeasilyiftheadept'sdietconsistsofwheatnoodles(Yunjiqiqian74/6b7a). AccordingtotheXunfanlingfang,onehuandfivedou(app.30liters)ofnonglutinousriceareusedtoconcoctasinglebatchofxunfan.Fivejin(about1.1kg.)of nanzhuleavesthreejiniftheyaredriedareboiledtoproduceadarkreddishbluefluid,whichislefttocool.Afterithascooled,theadeptusesthefluidtowash andcooktherice.Thecookedriceisthenlefttodryoutcompletely. Theadepteatstwoshengofthexunfan(thedriedrice)perdayandisnotallowedtoeatanymeats,exceptdriedones.Also,heisnottoengageinanysexual activity,becauseifhedoes,"impuritywillspreadaboutandthemedicinewillbeineffective"(Yunjiqiqian74/3a).Iftheadeptwantstoaccelerateandenhancethe efficacyofthexunfan,hecangrindsevenliang(about97grams)36ofhollowazurite(kongqing),onejin(222.73grams)37ofcinnabar(mercuricsulfide,dansha), twojinoftukahoe,andfiveliang(about7grams)ofjing(vitexnegundo)treeleavestoaveryfinetexture.Hethenmixesthesegroundingredientsintothefluidfor washingandcookingtherice.Thetextalsodescribestheeffectsofhollowazuriteandcinnabarandtheprohibitionsinvolvedintheiringestion.

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Hollowazurite,wearetold,satiatesthestomach,improvestheeyesight,strengthensthesinews,supplementsthefluids,increasesthejing,andmakestheface youthful.However,ifthepersoningestinghollowazuriteengagesinsexualintercourse("bedroomactivities"),his(orher?)"qiwillbedefiled"andhis"spiritwillperish." Theconsequenceisimmediatedeath(Yunjiqiqian74/4a). Cinnabar,wearetold,fillsthebones,increasestheblood,strengthensthewill,supplementsthebrain,increasestheqi,and"regulates"thelungs.Itenhancesthe circulationand"harmonizes"thejoints.However,peoplewhoingestcinnabarmustnoteatmeat,"treaduponimpurity,"orengageinsexualactivity.Iftheyviolate theseinjunctions,theywillsufferfromcoughing,abdominalailments,and"chronicbonewitheringdiseases"38(Yunjiqiqian74/4ab). Ascanbeseen,thedietaryandsexualprohibitionsbecomestricterandmuchmoreemphaticwhenhollowazuriteandcinnabararetaken.Hollowazuriteismildly toxicandcinnabarishighlytoxic.EventhoughtheancientChinesewerewellawareoftheirtoxicity,bothwerecommonlyemployedtotreatbodilyailments.39While bothmineralsareundoubtedlyincludedinthexunfanrecipebecauseoftheirascribedmedicinalbenefits,theirtoxicityinitselfmayalsohavebeenadesiredquality, duetotheneedtoexterminatetheThreeWorms. ApassageintheZhengao,animportantcollectionofShangqingwritings,recommendsadeptsto"boilandeatwhiterocks"whenthey"avoidgrainsandenterthe mountains."ThetextthenstatesthatanimmortalnamedBaishizi(MasteroftheWhiteRocks)hadinventedthismethodforeatingwhiterocks,afterhavingreceived hisinspirationfromapassageinacertainTaisuzhuan40thatread,"Whiterockshavejing"(5/14ab). AnotherversionofthestoryofBaishiziisfoundintheShenxianzhuan.41Asmayberecalled,theShenxianzhuan'sentryonJiaoXianalsomentionstheboilingof whiterocks.Sowhatspecificallywere"whiterocks"?Apparently,theywerepiecesofwhitequartz.VariousShangqingwritingsdescribeamethodforboilingwhite quartzpieces,andtheclaimseemstohavebeenthatthiswastheverysamemethodmasteredbyBaishizi.Itisdescribedindetailinthreedifferentsources42and mentionedfrequentlyintheSandongzhunang.4344Inourbriefexaminationofthemethod,wewillprimarilyfollowthetextofYunjiqiqian74/7b13a("Taishang jushengyuzhuwushiyingfa"[TheMostHighMethodforBoilingFiveQuartzPiecesinSesameOil]). Therecipecallsfor10jin(onejin=222.73g.)ofshallots,1.5hu(onehu=20.23l)ofblacksesameseedoil,5dou(onedou=2.023l)ofhoney,26huof mountainspringwater,and5unscratched,unblemishedpiecesofwhitequartz.Theadeptfirstpolishesthequartzpiecesonawhetstoneuntiltheybecomeshapedlike tinysparroweggs.Hethencarriesoutaretreatofthirtytosixtydays.Then,ontheninthdayoftheninthmonth,hesetsupanearthenhearthandplacesalargeiron kettleonit.Atthehourofyou(6P.M.),theadept,facingeast,kneelsinfrontofthekettleandtossesthequartzpiecesonebyoneintothekettle,recitingaverseand

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holdinghisbreathfor"fivebreaths"beforeeachtoss.Theversesmentionthenamesoftheeachofthe"fiverocks,"alongwiththebodilyorganstheypurportto sustain.Eachchantinvokestheprotectionofspecificgods. Theadeptthenstandsupandputstheshallots,honey,andsesameoilintothekettle,onebyone.Headdswaterandcoversthekettlewithawoodenlid.Thenext morning,helightsaweakfireunderthekettle.Asthewaterevaporates,hekeepsaddingwateruntilitisallusedup.Afterallofthewaterhasevaporated,thekettleis lefttocoolforfivedays.Then,atdawn,theadeptswallowsthefivequartzpiecesonebyonewiththesaucetheywerecookedin,andwashesthemdownwithwater. Thechantsarerepeatedbeforeswallowingeachrock.Inthedaysfollowingthis,theadeptcontinuestoeattwoge(onege=0.2023l)ofthesauceperday,together withliquor,untilitisallgone.Theadeptmaythenmakeawholenewbatchifhesowishes.ApassagefromtheDengzhenyinjuestatesthatthismethodenables adeptstotransformtheirbodiestowheretheybecomeabletoeatenormousquantitiesoffood("ninemealsinoneday")iftheysowish,withouthinderingtheflowof qiintheirbodies.However,atthesametime,theyalsobecomeabletosurvivewithoutfood.Thepassagefurtherstates,"Theycanalsogotheentireyearwithout gettinghungry,reversingtheiragingprocessandreturningtoyouthfulness."Thus,themethodforeatingwhitequartzpiecesisclaimedtobeoneofthebestmethods for"cuttingoffgrains."45 Curiously,however,thetextoftheYunjiqiqiandoesnotmentionthiscapacitytotransformthedigestivesystem.Thisisperhapsbecauseitwastakenforgrantedthat themethodwouldhavesuchaneffect.Rather,emphasisisputuponthecapacityofthe"fiverocks"topreserveandprotectthefivevisceraandsubsequentlybring aboutatrulymiraculousphenomenon.ThisamazingpropertyisdescribedmostvividlyinapassagefromtheDengzhenyinjue,preservedintheSandongzhunang (3/7ab).Thispassageclaimsthatthe"fiverocks"worktheirmarvelouseffectsaftertheadeptdies.They"protectandsettlethefiveviscera,"andthisinturncauses thehunandposouls,andanentitycalledtheGreatSpirit(dashen),toremainwiththecorpseafterdeath.Eventhoughtheskinandfleshdecompose,thefiveviscera, thebowels,theThreeOrigins(elixirfields?),thebrain,theskeleton,andthebonemarrowremainintact.Afteranintervalthatrangesfrombetweenthreetoforty years,theGreatSpiritpreservedinacranialcompartmentknownastheDongfangmiraculouslyregeneratestheflesh,blood,andotherbodilyfluids.Theadept therebybecomesresurrectedwithabodysuperiortothatwhichhehadpriortohisdeath. Becausethiscapacitytobringaboutresurrectionisthepointofemphasis,therecipeintheYunjiqiqianisprefacedbyanarrative46aboutacertainZhaoChengzi. ZhaoChengzi,wearetold,boiledandingestedthe"fiverocks,"andlaterondied.Thenarrativethentellsofahowacertainman,whilestrollingalonginthe mountains,discoveredthebodyofZhaoChengzi.Allthatremainedofthebodywerethedriedbonesandthefiveviscera,preservedinperfect

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condition.Whitequartzpiecesglimmeredfromwithineachviscus.Theman,reasoningthathemusthavehappeneduponthecorpseofaTaoistadeptwhohadfailed histrials,decidedtotakeandtheneatthequartzpiecesforhisownbenefit.However,afterhehaddonethis,the"fiverocks"flewrightoutofhismouthandreturned toZhaoChengzi'sfiveviscera.Later,ZhaoChengziwasresurrected.Themanwhostolethequartzpieceswaslessfortunateheandhisentirefamilydiedofleprosy. FinalComments Taoistadeptswenttogreatpainsandresortedtoaseeminglylimitlessvarietyofmeasuresintheirendeavortostopeating.Thematerialweexaminedfromthe Zhonghuangjinginparticulargivesusanunderstandingofsomeofthebasicphysiologicaltheoriesthatdictatedfasting.TheWufuxu,ontheotherhand,doesnot carryoutdetaileddiscussionsonphysiology.Rather,inthattextwefindastrongpreoccupationwiththeneedtosurvivefamines.Thispreoccupationseemstohave resultedfromthebeliefthattheworldwasdoomedtoundergoregularandinevitablecyclesofstrife,devastation,andrestoration. Severalofthefastingmethodsjustexaminedrequirecelibacy.Thisisunderstandableinlightofthefactthatfastingadeptsweretryingasmuchaspossibletosustain themselvesonthepreciousvitalforcesoftheirownbodies.Nobodilyfluidwasmorecherishedthanjing(semen).Taoistsreasonedthatifsemen(jing)couldcreate anewlifewhenadministeredoutwardlyinsexualintercourse,itwouldcertainlyexercisethesamelifebestowingpropertyifretainedwithin.47Furthermore,aswas mentioned(seep.59),thewordjingcansometimesdenotethe"essences"ornutrientsinfoods,andtheunderstandingmayhavebeenthatsemen(jing)isaninternal nutrient.Whentryingtoshunallnutrientsfromwithout,onecouldnotaffordtodepleteone'snutrientsfromwithin. Italsoappearsthatinsomecasesfastingadeptspracticedcelibacytogainthesupportofdivinebeingsandtoexperiencevisionsofthem.Asmayberecalled,the TunajingsaysthatthefastingadeptwillbeattendedbyJadeGirlsaftertendays(seep.53).WhencarryingoutthetalismanswallowingmethodoftheShenxian shiqijinguimiaolu,theadeptimplorestheSixJiaJadeGirlstobringhim"lunchboxes"(seep.58).ItwasbelievedthatJadeGirlscouldcometotheaidoffasting adepts.Adeptsalsodesiredto"see"theJadeGirlsandtherebygainassuranceoftheirsupport.Mostinterestingly,celibacywasconsideredaprerequisiteforgetting toseethem.EvidenceforthisisgiveninthefollowingfragmentfromtheSanhuangwen:
IfyouwanttoascendasanImmortal,youmustabstaincompletelyfromtheyinandyang(sexualintercourse).YouwilltherebybeabletoseeJadeGirls.Thosewhoareunableto seekascensionasimmortalsandare

Page68 unabletoabstainfromtheyinandyang,canonlybeckonPlainGirls.(Wushangbiyao25/1b)

Bycuttingoffhisthisworldlysexualrelationsandpassions,theadeptgainsencounterswithbeautifuldivinewomen.TheideaseemstobethattheJadeGirlsprovide theadeptwithfemininecompanionshipaswellasnourishment.Thus,inhistrancevisions,theadeptistobecompensatedfortheculinaryandsexualpleasureshehas sacrificed.Thevisions,whentheydidoccur,probablyresultedpartlyfromthesublimationofdesires.

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ChapterFive AsceticismintheShangqingTexts
ThebiographicalsectionoftheNanshi(OfficialHistoryoftheSouthernDynasties)recordsthestoryofacertainDengYu,theMasteroftheSouthernPeak.Initwe aretoldthatDengYushunnedgovernmentserviceandlivedinatinywoodenshackonMt.Heng.Henevercamedownfromthemountain.Foroverthirtyyearshe "cutoffgrains"andlivedonmicapowderandstreamwater.Herecited"thescripture(s)oftheDadong"dayandnight.EmperorWuoftheLiangdynastyadmiredhim greatly.Onetime,DengYupreparedanelixirfortheEmperor,whoforsomereason"didnotdaretakeit."Instead,hestoreditinatowerandworshippeditregularly onTaoistfestivaldays(presumably,thistookplacebeforeEmperorWu'srenunciationofTaoismin504).Oneday,DengYuwasvisitedbytheDivineImmortalLady Weiandanentourageofthirtyyouthfulfemaleimmortals.Afteralengthyconversation,theimmortalsproclaimedtohimthathewaspredestinedtoattainimmortality andthattheyhadbeenwatchingoverhimforalongtime.InthefourteenthyearoftheTianjianreignera(515C.E.),hesawtwolargebluebirdsfrolickingbeforehim. Afterthebirdshadleft,heproclaimedtohisdisciples,"Seekingithasbeenveryarduous,buthavingattainedit,Iamveryrelaxed.Thebluebirdsjustcame,and[thus] thetimehascome."Hediedafewdayslater"withnoillness,''andtheentiremountainwasfilledwithfragrantairthatwas"unlikeanythingthateverexistedinthe world."1 ThestoryofDengYuprovidesuswithagoodexampleofanasceticwhofollowedthebeliefsandembodiedtheidealsoftheShangqingmovement.The"scripture(s) oftheDadong"mostlikelyreferstotheShangqingscriptures.AnotherpossibilityisthatitrefersspecificallytotheDadongzhenjing,whichwasconsideredthe holiestofalltheShangqingscriptures.The"DivineImmortalLadyWei"referstoWeiHuacun,afemaleadeptwhoallegedlyattainedimmortalityandactedasthe primarypreceptressintherevelationsthatinspiredtheShangqingscriptures.DengYu'svisionofbeautifulyoungwomenbearsasimilaritytothevisionsexperienced byYangXi,therecipientofthesocalledrevelations.HighlyintriguinghereisEmperorWu'sreluctancetoingestDengYu'selixir.Onewonders

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whethertheelixirwastoxic,particularlybecausetoxicpotionsareendorsedintheShangqingtexts. TheoriginalShangqingtextswereauthoredbythevisionarymysticYangXi(330?)inthetownofJurong(inpresentdayJiangsuProvince)between364and370 C.E.Thecontentsofthetextswereallegedlyrevealedtohimbydivinebeingsinvisions.YangXipassedthetextsontoXuMi(303373,acourtofficial)andXuHui (341370,XuMi'sson).XuHuieventuallyleftthesecularworldtodevotehimselftothescripturesandtheirprescribedmethodsonMt.Mao.2 IsabelleRobinetemphasizesthatYangXiwasamysticoravisionary,asopposedtoamedium.Assheexplains,amediumactsasasimple,unsophisticated mouthpieceforthegodorspiritthatpossesseshimorher.Theinformationbroughtforthbyamediumtypicallyconsistsoffragmentaryresponsestotheconcernsof specificsituations.YangXi,ontheotherhand,producedafullfledgedreligioussystemwithacomprehensiveschemeofcosmology,soteriologyandpraxis.Also, unlikeatypicalmedium,YangXiwashighlycultured.HiswritingsreflectadeepfamiliaritywiththeConfucianclassicsandmostotherformsofintellectualliterature availableathistime.Healsowasafirstratecalligrapher,andtheexcellenceofhiscalligraphylatercametobethestandardbywhichthegreatTaoistscholarTao Hongjingdistinguishedhisauthenticmanuscriptsfromforgeriesmanufacturedbyotherhands.3 YangXiproducedareligiousliteraturethatfitthetastesofthereligiouslyinclinedsegmentoftheeducatedelite.Morespecifically,ashasbeenpointedoutby MiyakawaHisayukiandMichelStrickmann,4 Shangqingdoctrinesservedtheagendaoftheeliteclanswhohadmigratedsouthwardandestablishedthemselvesinthe WuregionafterthefalloftheHandynasty.Later,whentheWesternJincapitalofLuoyangwasconqueredin311bynonChinesepeoples,5 thesesouthernclans becamerelegatedtoasubservientroleundertheimperialfamilyandnorthernaristocratswhohadfledsouthwardandestablishedanewcapitalatJiankang(present dayNanjing).Powerstrugglesbetweenthenorthernandsouthernaristocratsexistedinthesphereofreligionaswellasinpolitics.Manyofthenorthernersbelonged totheHeavenlyMastersSchool,whichhadsetouttowinconvertsinthesouthanddestroythetemplesoflocalpopularcults.TheXufamily(beginningwithXuMi's fatheranduncle)hadchosentocollaboratewiththenewelitebyservingasofficialsundertheirregimeandconvertingtotheHeavenlyMastersSchool.While subservienceonthesecularplanewasirreversible,theappearanceoftheShangqingscriptureselevatedtheXustoaprivilegedpositioninthereligioussphere.By owningShangqingtextmanuscripts,theXusbelievedtheypossessedthesolemeansbywhichamortalcouldcommunicatewiththeholiestdivinebeingsandattainthe highestlevelsofimmortality.Theirbeliefsandclaimsweresoontobesharedbyalimitedcircleofkinfolkandfellowsouthernaristocratswhogainedaccesstothe texts.Theimmortalitytowhichtheyclaimedexclusiveaccesswassupposedlyfarsuperiortothatwhichcouldbegainedthroughthepracticesofthe

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HeavenlyMastersSchoolandtheoldersouthernmacrobiotictraditions.WhilethefirstShangqingproponentsdidnotdenythelegitimacyofsuchearliermovements, theyrelegatedtheirpracticestothestatusof"minormethods"(xiaofa)."Minormethods"weremethodsthatwerethoughttoprolonglifeandhelpqualityanadeptto learn''superiormethods."The"superiormethods"consistedprimarilyoftheincantationsandvisualmeditationsoftheShangqingtexts,amongwhichtheDadong zhenjingwasconsideredtheholiest.ThustheproponentsoftheShangqingtextsbecamethecustodiansofawhattheybelievedwasthehighestreligiouspath. RobinetstatesthatthesignificanceoftheShangqingtextsdoesnotliesomuchintheiroriginality,6 butratherinhowtheysynthesizevariousearlierbeliefsand practicesandblendthemintoacomprehensivereligioussystem.Robinetpointsoutthatthedevelopmentandeventualproliferationofthisreligioussystemrepresented acrucialjunctureinTaoisthistory.Taoistimmortalityseekingwaspreviously"ayoungsysteminperpetualgestation,"whichemphasizedtheexperienceandinspiration oftheindividual.TheShangqingmovementturneditintoafixedsystemthatcouldprovideabasisforanestablishedschool.TheShangqingtextspurportedtobethe productofasingle,allimportantrevelation.Ratherthangainone'sownuniquereligiousillumination,itnowbecameimportanttolearnthemessagerevealedtoYang Xiandtosomehowrelivehisexperience.Thismeantbeinginitiatedintotheschoolandgainingaccesstotheallimportantscriptures.7 TheearliestShangqingproponentswerefewinnumber.Theylackedaformal,independentorganizationoftheirown.Buteventuallythefameandacclaimofthe scripturesbegantogrowastheyweretransmittedtomorepeople.Thisgrowingacclaimprovokedtheactivityofimitatorswhoproducedtheirowntexts.Most importantamongsuchtextsweretheLingbaoscriptures.ThesuccessoftheLingbaoscripturesinturninspiredthewritingofnewer,apocryphalShangqingtextsthat incorporatedLingbaodoctrines.ItsoonbecameverydifficulttoidentifytheoriginalShangqingtexts,astheoriginalsetofmanuscriptshadbecomedividedamong differenthandsandsetsofcopiedmanuscriptshadbeeninfiltratedwithapocryphalmaterial.8 Duringthesecondhalfofthefifthcentury,certaineruditeTaoistsmadeeffortstoidentifytheoriginalShangqingtexts.ThefirstsucheffortwasinitiatedbyGuHuan. Shortlybeforetheyear465,GuHuan,whohadtranscribedtheoriginalmanuscriptsinthecustodyofacertainMafamily,metintheShanmountains(ineastern Zhejiang)withDuJingchanandZhuSengbiao.Dupossessedoriginalmanuscriptsthathehadinheritedfromhisfather,andZhuhadreceivedoriginalmanuscriptsfrom hismentorChuBoyu.ThethreemenexaminedthetextstheyhadinhandandproducedtheZhenji(TracesofthePerfected),ananthologyofwritingsthattheyhad determinedwereauthenticproductsoftherevelations.Regrettably,thiscompilationhasbeenlost.9 AsimilarendeavorwaslatercarriedoutbyTaoHongjing(456536).BorntoaclanalliedbymarriagetotheXus,hewasaninitiatedTaoistadeptandesteemed

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officialoftheQidynasty.HesawhisfirstauthenticYangXimanuscriptduringhisTaoistapprenticeshipunderSunYouyue(apupilofLuXiujing).10Hewasso impressedbyitsliterarystyleandcalligraphythathewasimmediatelyconvincedofitsdivineinspiration.Hebecameincreasinglypreoccupiedwithgatheringand studyingShangqingmanuscripts,andheeventuallyretiredfromhisgovernmentpostin492tostudythetextsfulltimeonMt.Mao.Thefruitsofhisstudieswerethe Zhengao(ProclamationsofthePerfected,HY1010/TT537640)andtheDengzhenyinjue(SecretLessonsfortheAscenttoPerfection,HY421/TT193).11 TheZhengao,whichsurvivesasacompletework,containsmostlywritingsbyYangXithatpurporttoconveytheteachingsrevealedtohiminhisvisions.However, somepassagesappeartobeexcerptsfromcertaintextsYangXihadinhispossession.TheZhengaoalsopreservessomeprivatecorrespondencesbetweenYangXi andthetwoXus.AlongsidethesematerialsarefoundannotationsbyTaoHongjing.TaoHongjingalsoaddedapostfacethatnarratesthehistoryoftherevelationand transmissionoftheShangqingtexts. TheDengzhenyinjueisanannotatedcollectionofmethodsandritualsfromYangXi'swritings.Unfortunately,mostofithasbeenlost.Whatsurvivesisfoundina shorteditionthatpreservesonlyasmallportionoftheoriginal,12andinfragmentsquotedinvarioussourcessuchastheSandongzhunangandTaipingyulan. Needlesstosay,wearegreatlyindebtedtoTaoHongjingforenablingustoknowmuchofwhatwecanabouttheShangqingmovement.Furthermore,hewas responsibleforestablishingaformalShangqingSchoolonMt.Mao.Thankstohispersonalprestigeandconnections,hisschoolmanagedtocurrythefavorofLiang EmperorWu,anardentBuddhistwhodenouncedandsuppressedTaoism(seepp.3839).13TheShangqingSchool(alsoknownastheMaoShanSchool) flourishedthroughouttheremainderoftheSixDynastiesandTangperiodsasoneoftheforemostschoolsofTaoism. TheShangqingmovementperpetuatedandreinforcedtheasceticspiritofsinglemindedstriving.IndoingsoitpartiallydrewuponBuddhistteachings.However,the movementdrewmuchmoreheavilyfromthephysiologicaltheoriesandmysticismofitsindigenousTaoistpredecessorsandpromotedasceticismasameansof maintainingthebodyandgainingthesympathyofgodsandimmortals.Itinheritedandfurtherdevelopedmanyoftheasceticpractices(especiallyfastingmethods) frompreviousyearsandmadethemintoprerequisitesforthetransmissionoftheholiestShangqingscriptures.14 TheBuddhistInfluence ErikZrcherandIsabelleRobinethavepointedoutthattheimpactofBuddhistbeliefsontheShangqingtextsissuperficial,particularlywhencomparedtotheimpact thatBuddhismleftontheLingbaotexts.TheBuddhistelementsinthe

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Shangqingtextsusuallyamounttolittlemorethantermsandphrasestakenoutofcontextandchangedorobscuredintheirmeaning.15However,amoreprofound levelofBuddhistinfluencecanbeidentifiedinagroupofpassagesfoundintheZhengao(6/6a12a,9/6ab,and9/19b20a).Modernscholarshiphasrevealedthat thesepassagesweretakenandadaptedfromaBuddhistsutracalledtheSishi'erzhangjing16(TheFortytwoChapterSutrathissutrawasallegedtobethefirst BuddhistsutraevertobetranslatedintoChinese17).IntheZhengao,theborrowedpassagesareimbeddedwithindiscoursesthatwereallegedlyrevealedbyTaoist immortals.ThepassagesexpresssomefundamentalBuddhistbeliefsandattitudesandbetraythefactthatTaoistshadbeguntotakeafewBuddhisttenetstoheart.By theirnature,thesetenetsencouragedsingleminded,painstakingeffort,whileproclaimingthefutilityofamundanelifeboundwithdesiresandfamilialattachments. PerhapsthemostfundamentaltenetofBuddhismisthattheessenceofallexistenceissuffering(thefirstoftheBuddha'sFourNobleTruths).Onepassageinthe ZhengaodrawsthisverytenetfromtheSishierzhangjingandutilizesittoexhortTaoistadeptstowardpainstakingreligioustraining.

TheBlueBoyofFangzhuappearedandproclaimed,"ForapersontopracticetheTaoisalsotosuffer,buttonotpracticetheTaoisalsotosuffer.Peoplefromtheirbirthreach oldage,andfromoldagereach[thestageof]illness.Protectingtheirbodiestheyreach[thepointof]death.18Theirsufferingislimitless.Intheirmindstheyworryandthey accumulatetransgressions.Withtheirbirthsanddeathsunending,theirsufferingisdifficultto[accuratelyandsufficiently]describe(emphasisadded).Evenmoresoitis becausemanydonotlivetotheiroldageordainedbyHeaven![Bysayingthat]topracticetheTaoisalsotosuffer,ImeanthattomaintainthePerfectpurelyandimmaculately,to guardthemysteriousandlongforthemiraculous,tosearchforateacherwhilestruggling,toundergohundredsoftrials,tokeepyourheartdiligentwithoutfailure,toexertyour determinationfirmlyandclearlythesearealsotheutmostinsuffering."(Zhengao6/6a)19 (TheitalicizedportionsofthispassagewereborrowedfromthethirtyfifthchapteroftheSishi'erzhangjing.)

Theaforementionedpassageassertsthattheprocessoftrainingentailsmuchsuffering.Yetoneshouldnotshyawayfromit,sincetheessenceoflifeunderany circumstanceissuffering.Italsoisnoteworthythatthepassagementionsanendlesscycleofbirthsanddeaths.Thedoctrineofreincarnationwasapparentlyaccepted bytheearlyShangqingmovement,eventhoughfewotherreferencestoitcanbefoundintheShangqingtexts. WhenTaoistsacceptedthedoctrineofreincarnation,theycametobelievethattheyhadgainedtheirstatusasTaoistadepts(andashumans)byaccumulatinggreat

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meritovercountlesspastincarnations.Thiscreatedasenseofurgencytomakegoodontheirelusiveprivilegebystrivinghardtogainimmortality.Failuremeant undergoingcountlessfurtherrebirthsbeforetheprivilegecouldberegained.WhilethisattitudeisconveyedmostfrequentlyandforcefullyintheLingbaoscriptures(as weshallseeinchapter6),itisalsoexpressedinthefollowingwordsofTaoHongjing,foundwithinhisannotationstotheDengzhenyinjue:

Over10,000kalpasyouformedyourcausesandnowyouhavethislife.Onceyoulosethislife,itwilllikelybeanother10,000kalpas[beforeyougetanotherrebirthasprivileged asthis].Howcanyounotbravelyandfiercelydevoteyourlaborstoherebyfromthis[existence]pursueeternallife?(2/18b)

AnotherpertinentthemefoundintheZhengao'sborrowingsfromtheSishi'erzhangjingistheeliminationofdesires.Oneborrowedpassagecomparestheprocessof eliminatingdesirestothatofpickinguppearls.Itstatesthatthepearlswilleventuallyallbegatheredifpickeduponebyone,anddesirescanbecompletelyeliminated byremovingthemonebyone.20Thepassagegoesontodescribehowafatiguedandheavilyburdenedox,whentrudgingthroughthickmud,wishesonlytogetout ofthemudtogainsomemeasureofease.ATaoistadept,ittellsus,mustyearntobefreefromhisemotionsanddesiresevenmorethantheoxyearnstoleavethe mud.OnlyifhecontemplatestheTaowiththissinglemindedyearningcanheescapesufferingand"acquiretheTao"(Zhengao6/6ab).Anotherpassagecomparesa personwhodesireswealthandsextoanignorantchildwhowantstolicksweethoneyoffthesharpbladeofasword.Thechildwillnotbefullysatisfiedevenifhe licksthehoneyandfurthermorerunstheriskofhavinghistonguesevered.Similarly,onewhocraveswealthandsexisneversatisfiedwhenheindulgeshimselfand doeshimselfgreatharmintheprocess(Zhengao6/8b).21 Perhapsmostsignificantly,theZhengao'sborrowingsfromtheSishi'erzhangjingsingleoutsexualdesireastheworstkindofdesireandexplicitlyenjointhereader toavoidmarriage. Oneborrowedpassagestates,"Asforwhatisgreatamonglongingsanddesires,nothingisgreaterthanlust.Theguiltitbringsonhasnolimit,anditisamatterthat cannotbeforgiven."Thepassagegoesontosurmisethatifthereexistedanyotherformofdesireasharmfulaslust,nobodywouldbecapableofpracticingtheTao (Zhengao6/9b).22 YetanotherpassageborrowedfromtheSishi'erzhangjingurgesitsreadertoavoidorabandonmarriedlife,claimingthatitisamisfortunegreaterthanincarceration andbondage.Itgoesontostatethataprisonerstillpossessessomehopeofrelease,butamarriedmandoesnot,sincehewillinglybindshimselftohispredicament outofhisaffectionforhiswifeandchildren.Furthermore,theharmwroughtbythetheemotionsanddesiresinvolvedinmarriageiscomparabletothatofatiger'sbite (Zhengao6/8b9a).23

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TheBuddhistsolutiontotheaforementionedproblemhasalwaysbeentoenteramonasticcommunity.Asmentionedinchapter3,celibatemonasticismbasedonthe BuddhistmodelappearstohavecomeintopracticeamongsomeTaoistsbythesixthcentury.AlthoughtheearliestrecipientsandproponentsoftheShangqing scripturesdidnotbelongtomonasticinstitutions,thetrulyseriousamongthemwereprobablycelibate.ItisrecordedthatXuHui,whenheretiredfrompubliclifeto trainonMt.Mao,divorcedhiswifeandreturnedhertoheroriginalfamily.24ItalsoisknownthatTaoHongjingnevermarried.Noindicationisgiveninanysource aboutwhetherYangXiwasmarried,buthepresumablywouldhavepracticedcelibacyifhedesiredtofollowtheteachingsofhistexts. NonBuddhisticReasonsforCelibacy Taoistshavealwayshadtheirownreasonsforpreferringcelibacy,evenpriortosignificantBuddhistinfluence.Thesereasonswereprimarilyphysiologicalratherthan ethical,andtheircontinuedimportanceiswellreflectedintheShangqingtexts. ApassageinZhengao10/23b24astates,"IfaTaoistadeptseekstobecomeanimmortal,hemustnotcopulatewithwomen.Eachtimeyoucopulate,younullifya fullyear'smedicinalstrength.Ifyouingestnothingandengageinbedroomactivities,youwilllosethirtyyearsoffyourlifespan." Themeaningof"medicinalstrength"(yaoli)isunclear.Itprobablyreferstothesalubriouseffectsaccumulatedthroughtheregularingestionofprescribedmedicines.It alsomayrefertothegoodeffectsoftrainingingeneral,if"medicine"ismeantfiguratively.Whateveritmeans,theideaisthatsexualactivitycounterractsthe"medicinal strength,"especiallyifone"ingestsnothing.''Apparently,specialmedicinesweresupposedtobetakentosupplementthejingifonecouldnotmanagetobecelibate. FoundinZhengao10/18b19ais"TheOralLessonofFengYanshou,thePerfectedManofSupremePurity."Thereitisstatedthatadeptsmust"pacifytheirhearts andnurturetheirspirits,practicedieteticsandcuretheirdiseases,makethePalaceoftheBrainfullandabundant,andnotuseuptheirprimaljing."Itthenwarns againstdepletingthebody'svitalitythroughsexualintercourseandejaculation,andspeaksofhowsexualintercoursenullifiesone's"medicinalstrength."
Ifapersonwhostudies[theperpetuationof]lifecopulatesonce,hewillnullifyasingleyear'smedicinalstrength.Ifhecopulatestwice,hewillnullifytwoyear'smedicinal strength.Ifheexceedsthreecopulations,themedicinethathenullifies[willbesomuchthatitwillbe]allgonefromthebody.

Italsostatesthatsexualintercourseissodetrimentaltothepursuitofimmortalitythatitcanevencause"thosewhohavebeenmysteriouslyselected(lit.,"pulledout"), whosenameshavebeenwritteningoldupontheJadeRegistersin

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theGreatUltimate,"25tobesusceptibleto"nonlife"(Zhengao10/18b19a).26Thisprobablymeansthateventhosepredestinedtoimmortalitybyvirtueoftheir heredityandpastmeritscanfallvictimtodeathasaresultoftheevilsofsexualactivity. "TheOralLessonoftheFemaleImmortal,thewifeofLiuGang"(Zhengao10/25ab)saysflatly,"Thosewhoseekimmortalitymustnotassociatewithwomen."This injunctionisparticularlyimportantontheninthdayofthethirdmonth,theseconddayofthesixthmonth,thesixthdayoftheninthmonth,andthethirddayofthe twelfthmonth.Onthesedays,adeptsaretoldtoremainintheirroomsandmakesurenottolookatwomen.Theexplanationforthisisasfollows:

IftheSixCorpses(theThreeCorpsesoftheadepthimselfandofthewomanthathelooksat?)causechaos,thebloodinyourviscerawillbedisturbedandaroused,yourthree hunsoulswillbeunguarded,yourspiritwillweakenandyourqiwillleave.Allofthese[factors]willaccumulate,andbringaboutdeath.Asforwhyyouavoid[women]onthese days,itisnotonlytoblockofflasciviousness.Itis[also]topacifythefemalepalaces.Thefemalepalaces27areintheShen28andthemalepalacesareintheyin.29Yinandshen punisheachother.Bothexecuteeachother.30OnthesedaystheThreeCorpsesofmenandwomencomeoutfromthepupilsoftheeyes.FemaleCorpsesbeckonthemale,and maleCorpsesbeckonthefemale.Misfortuneandharmpassbackandforth,makingthespiritperishandthusblemishingyourrectitude.Evenifapersondoesnotnoticeit,his bodyisexposedandhasalreadybeenharmedbecausetheThreeCorpsesfightwithintheeyes,whilebloodisshedwithintheNiwan(acompartmentinthebrain).Onthesedays, evenifitisagirlwhoyouareextremelyfondof,orawifeofaclosefriend,youabsolutelymustnotlookthemfacetoface.MypredecessorandteacherbecameanImmortalby simplypracticingthismethod.The[proscription]doesnotapplyto[your]closestofrelativestowhomyouhavenothoughts[ofsexualattraction].(Zhengao10/25ab)

Whilesomeofthedetailsinthepreviousexplanationarehardtocomprehend,thegististhatthedemonicforcesinthebodiesofmenandwomenlustandminglewith eachother,regardlessoftheconsciousintentionsofthosetheyinhabit. Zhengao10/21b22adescribesamethoddesignedtoeliminatelustfulimpulsesbycontrollingthehunandposoulsandexterminatingthe"evilcorpses."On prescribeddays,31theadeptobservesaretreatofpurificationpreferablyabstainingfromsleepandpaintsareddotunderhislefteyeandayellowdotunderhis rightnostril.Heknockshisteethtogether,recitesachant,knockshisteethtogetheragain,swallowssalivathreetimes,andpressesthedotsseventimeseach.Thetext explainsthatthelefteyeandrightnostrilaretheroutesthroughwhichevilspiritsexitandenter.Theredandyellowdotsrepresentthehotraysofthesunand

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moonthatburntheinternaldemonstodeath.Aftercarryingthisoutfaithfullyforthreeyears,theadeptissupposedtoloseallsexualdesire. CertaintrainingmethodsendorsedintheShangqingtextsrequiredcelibacyfortheirfulleffectiveness,aswellasforsafety.Oneparticularmeditationtechniquecalled the"WayoftheBlackandWhite"(xuanbaizhidao)describedinboththeZhengaoandtheDengzhenyinjuebearsaparticularlystronginjunction.Themethod istobecarriedoutfromsunrisetillnoon.TheadeptvisualizesblackqiintheNiwan(inthebrain),whiteqiintheheart,andyellowqiinsidethebelly.Thethreeqi emergefromthebodyandenvelopit,transformingintofireandmakingtheadept"interpenetrateandperceivethebodyasthoughinsideandoutsidewereone."The adeptthenswallowsair120times.Afterdescribingthemethod,thetextwarns

Themeatofthesixvarietiesoflivestock,alongwithfoodthathasthefiveacridflavors,isabsolutelyprohibited.Youmustseparateyourplaceofsleeping[fromthatofyour spouse]andcontemplateamidstillness.Theaffairsofthebedroomareabsolutelyprohibited.Ifyouengageintheaffairsofthebedroom,youwillimmediatelydie(emphasis added).ThismethodissimilartotheGuardingoftheOne,butitisashortcutthatabbreviates[thecomplicateddetails].Itsinjunctionagainstsexisstricterthanthatofthe GuardingoftheOne.TheinjunctionentailedintheGuardingoftheOneonlyrequiresmoderationofit(sexualactivity).(Zhengao10/2ab,Dengzhenyinjue2/21ab)

Aswecansee,theimportanceofcelibacyvariedaccordingtothemethod.WhenpracticingtheWayoftheBlackandWhite,completecelibacywasimperativefor one'sverysurvival.TheGuardingoftheOnerequiredonlymoderationinsexualactivity.However,themethodthoughttoworkfasterwithlessbothersomedetails wasthemethodoftheBlackandWhite.Celibacywasthoughttoenableadeptstopursuethebetterofthetwomethods. AtthetimeoftheShangqingrevelations,amethodofsexualyogacalledthe"MethodoftheRedRealmoftheYellowBook"wasbeingpracticedwithintheHeavenly MastersSchool.IntheZhengao,wefindtwodiscoursesattributedrespectivelytoPerfectedManQingxuandLadyZiweithatassessthebenefitsanddrawbacks ofthismethod.Whileacknowledgingitsefficacytoaveryslightdegree,thesediscoursesultimatelydeemitaminormethod,thedangersofwhichfaroutweighthe benefits. ThediscourseofPerfectedManQingxu(WangBao)startsbyclaimingthatthefirstHeavenlyMasterZhangDaoling"merelyuseditasamethodforsowingseedsin receivingtheteachingsandcarryingoutevangelism."Theexactmeaningofthisisunclear,butitperhapsmeansthatafterbeingentrustedbyTaishangLaojun(the deifiedLaozi)withthetaskofindoctrinatingthemasses,theHeavenlyMasterusedthemethodto"sowseeds"offaithandopenthegatewaytosalvationforthoseof lesserspiritualcaliber.''PerfectedManQingxu"goesontostatethat

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themethodisnotsomethingthataPerfectedMan(oranadeptaspiringtobecomeone)concernshimselfwith.Hefurtherstatesthathehasneverseenthemethod succeed,eventhoughhehasrepeatedlyseenitfailandleadtodivinepunishment.Evenifonedefiestheoddsoftenmilliontooneandsucceedsatit,thebestpossible resultis"nondeath"(i.e.,mereearthboundimmortality).ZhangDaoling'sheavenlyascensionwascertainlynotachievedthroughit.Finally,hestatesthatthemethod shouldnotevenbespokenof,andthatthosewhopracticethesuperiormethodswhileharboringlustfulthoughtswillbeinterrogatedandpunishedbytheThree Officials(thejudgesofthenetherworld).32Hedescribestheactionsofsuchadeptsfigurativelyas"carryingjadeandwalkingintoafire"or"buryingadoginagolden coffin"(Zhengao2/1ab). ThediscourseofLadyZiweidescribestheWayoftheRedRealmoftheYellowBookasaninferiormethodthatconferslongevityandnothingmore,andstatesthat themethodistoovulgartoevenbediscussedbycelestialPerfectedBeings."LadyZiwei"alsowarnsagainstthedangersofpracticingthesuperiorShangqingmethods whileharboringlecherousthoughts.ShestatesthatthepunishmentsforthisincludemeniallaborundertheThreeOfficialsanddisqualificationfromelectionasa heavenlyimmortal.Posthumousritesofexpiationthenbecometheonlyhopeforsalvation,butsuchritesdonotconferthehigherformsofsalvation.Finally,she declares,"Putsuccinctly,ifyouarechaste,spiritswilldescend[toyourmidst].Ifyouaredevoted,youcancommandgods"(Zhengao2/1b). Gainingdirectencounterswithimmortalsandgodswasindeedoneofthemainreasonsformaintainingcelibacyandeliminatinglust.ApassageinZhengao6/14a proclaims
Thosewhoareperfecthavenofeelingsof[erotic]passionanddesire,noranythoughtsofmanandwoman.If[thoughtsof]redandwhiteexistinone'sbosom,33thesympathyof Perfectedbeingswillnotcomeaboutasaresponse,andDivineWomenandSuperiorWorthieswillnotdescend[beforeyou].(Zhengao6/14a)

Attheendofchapter4itwassuggestedthattherepressionandsublimationofsexualdesiresmayhaveinducedvisionsofattractivefemaleimmortals.Suchappearsto havebeenthecasewithearlyShangqingadepts.Infact,someadeptscompensatedforthesacrificeofworldlyromancebyenteringintodivine"partnerships"with immortalsoftheoppositesex.TheZhengaoindicatesthatYangXiwas"betrothed"byhisimmortalpreceptressWeiHuacuntoaPerfectedWomannamedJiuhua Zhenfei(PerfectedPrincessoftheNineFlowers),whoboretheappearanceofathirteenorfourteenyearoldgirl.Shewastofrequentlyvisithiminhisvisionsand wasscheduledtobecomehiscompanioninthecelestialrealms.34XuMiwaspromisedasimilarliaisonwithLadyWangYouyingoftheCloudyForest.InZhengao 2/16b21anumerouspoemsarefoundthatareascribedtoLadyWangandaddressedtoXuMi.Theseinformhimoftheirbetrothalandurgehimtotrainmore

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diligentlytoexpeditetheirunion.Theseunions,however,weretobecompletelyspiritualandplatonic,devoidofsexualcontactandpassion.35Inoneofhermessages toXuMi,"LadyWang"explainsasfollowswhytheirunioncouldnotyetberealized:
However,yourpollutedthoughtshavenotyetbeenpurged,andyourvulgargreedisfirmwithinyou.Yourlustfulthoughtshavenotyetbeencutoff,36andyourholypond (mind?)isnotyetclear.Wecannotyetdiscusswitheachotherthetimeoftheinsideandoutside(?),andrevelintheminglingof[our]twoforms.(Zhengao2/17b18a)

AnotherinterestingmanifestationofthismysticismofsublimatedsexualityistobefoundinoneofthemanyfastingmethodsendorsedbytheShangqingmovement.The methodispreservedintwotextstheYupeijindangjing37andtheMingtangyuanzhenjingjue.38Tocarryitout,theadeptvisualizesaredsunwithninepurple raysinthedaytimeandayellowmoonwithtenwhiteraysatnight.Thesun/moonhoversafewmetersawayfromhisface,anditsraysenterhismouth.Inthecenterof thesun/moonheseestheJadeWomanoftheCinnabarAuroraoftheHighestMysteriesoftheGreatestMystery,whospewsredqifromhermouth.Thisredqi enterstheadept'smouthandisswallowedninetytimes.Afterthis,hevisualizesthesun/moon,withtheJadeWomaninsideit,approachinghisface.Thetextthentells theadeptto"commandthattheJadeWoman'smouthpressakissuponyourownmouth,causingtheliquorofthepneumatocomedownintothemouth."39The adeptthenswallowsthis"liquorofthepneuma"(hissaliva)ninetytimes.Thetextthensaysthattheadeptshouldvisualizethesunandthemoonwithequalfrequency asoftenashecan.Thetextfinallystatesthatafterfiveyearsofpracticingthemethod,theadeptwillactuallybevisitedbytheJadeWomanoftheGreatMystery.This JadeWomancanturnintoseveraltensofJadeGirls,whotheadeptwillhaveunderhiscommand. GainingDivineSympathy TheShangqingtextsdescribemysticalencountersofvariouskinds.Forbringingtheseabout,asceticdisciplineingeneralnotjustcelibacywasdeemedessential. Throughasceticdisciplineandinnerdevotion,adeptshopedtowinthesympathyofgodsandimmortalswhocouldsustainthemwiththeirdivinepowersandreveal secretimmortalitymethodstothem. OneofthemostcompellingpassagesintheZhengaoisapoemaboutananonymousadeptwhoovercamecrushingfeelingsofdespair,homesickness,andloneliness topursuemeditationaloneinthewilderness.
Themasterentrustedhimselftohisspiritandqi, Throwinghis[bodily]formintotheeasternforest.

Page80 Hebathedhimselfamidstthedesolatehill, Separatinghimselffrom[personsof]likeheart. WheneverhegazedeastwardtowardtheCanghai,40 Hesighedatthequicknessofhisgoing(theimminenceofhiseventualdeath). Whenlookingwestwardatthelimitsoftheclouds, Despairarosefromwithinhim. Vaguelyenvisioninghishomevillage, Hisfeelingsofmelancholypiledup. Ashelongedtoheadonhiswayhome, Hesimplyredirectedhisfeetandrestrainedhimself. Herebyhestabilizedhismindandthoughtofonething. Secluded,heputhistrustinthemiraculousvoid. Climbingupontosteepandprecariouscliffs, HelookeduptotheMysterious(theTao)inanxiousanticipation. Whiledarkeninghisaspirationswithinhisdwelling, HewanderedamidthecloudsandrosetoPerfection. [Thus]forthefirsttimehefeltlikehis[bodily]formwasnothisownsubstance. Finallyhelosthisbodyandfollowedhisspirit. Withhismindwanderingbeyondtheragingwinds, Theroadtotheworldwasforevercutoff. Hisfeetwerehappyinthedesolateforests, Ashisexternalhazardswereallblockedoff. Heexertedhiswillpowerwithouttiring, Andwasdevotedandsincerewithoutrelent. Hefinallyencounteredanenlightenedmaster, Andreceivedastrangetechnique. Inpurityhediscussedthenewmarvels[withhismaster], Assoundsofjaderesonatedsecretly. Heexpelledandtookin[qi]withapeacefulexpression, Refininghissoulandprotectinghisbones. Withharmoniousqi[hismind]waspacifiedanderadicated[ofthoughts], Andnolongerwasthereaninsideandoutside.(Zhengao18/10a)

Theadept'sefforts,wearetold,resultedinanencounterwithan"enlightenedmaster"whoconferredspecialtechniquesuponhim.Afterthis,hemeditatedand apparentlyfasted(if"expelledandtakingin"referstoafastingtechnique),bringingaboutanecstaticwanderingoutsideofthebodyandadissolvingofthedistinction between"inside"and"outside.''Ifthepreviousaccountisinanywaybasedonactualevents,theadeptmayhaveencounteredhis"master"invisionsresemblingthose ofYangXi,andfastingmayhavehelpedinducehistrances.

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TheShangqingtextsconveyaferventfaithinsympatheticandsupportivedivinebeings.Suchfaithencouragedadeptstosubjectthemselvestolonely,miserable,and dangerouscircumstances.OnepassageascribedtoacertainLadyZhonghoureferstodiligentadeptsas"thosewholeavetheirlivesinthehandsoftheSuperior PerfectedBeingsandentrusttheirbodiesandqitothemanagementofthegods"(Zhengao8/9b).Eventually,itwashopedthatbyexhibitingdevotionandsincerityto theimmortalsandgods,anencounterwouldbeearned,whetherinavisionorinperson.Duringsuchencounters,divinebeingswerethoughttoconfermethodsthat couldbringaboutimmortality. TheimportanceofsheerdevotionandearnestnessisreflectedinastorypresentedasaproclamationbytheimmortalDinglujun.41Initwearetoldthattherewasa manwhowishedtoseektheTaobutdidnotknowhow.Allhecoulddowasworshipawitheredtreemorningandeveningandproclaim,"Ibegforlonglife."Hedid thisrelentlesslyfortwentyeightyears,afterwhichflowersbloomedfromthetreeonemorning.Aperson(aPerfectedBeing?)thencamebeforehimandtoldhimto eattheirhoneylikenectar.Afterdoingastold,hebecameanimmortal(Zhengao12/12b13a,WushangBiyao65/1b). Theaforementionedstoryisfollowedinthetextbytwomorestoriesthatbearthesamemoral.OneisaboutamannamedLiuShaowengwhowasbestowedtheWay ofImmortalitybytheElderoftheWesternPeak,aftertraininginMt.Huaandworshippingthemountainfortwentyyears.Theotherstoryisaboutamanwho worshippedtheYellowRiverfortenyearsandearnedanencounterwiththeMarquisoftheYellowRiverandtheEarloftheYellowRiver.Thesedeitiestaughthim methodsforwalkingonwaterwithoutdrowning.Later,thisman"acquiredtheTao"andwassightedontheCentralPeakMt.Song. Sympatheticdivineinterventionalsowasthoughttooccurafterdeath.FoundinZhengao16/6b7aisanautobiographicalpoemascribedtoacertainXinXuanzi,the sonofthehighofficialXinYinwhoservedunderHanEmperorMing(Mingdi,r.5875C.E.).Inthepoem,XinXuanzistartsoutbydescribinghowhehadbeen"fond oftheTao"fromhisyouthandhadpursued"bittertraining."He''observedthedoctrinesandprecepts"andatejustonevegetarianmealperday(apossibleimplication hereisthatXinXuanzialsowasapracticingBuddhist).Hecutoffhisworldlyattachmentsandwanderedaboutinthemountainsandforests.However,hedidnot realizethathisancestorshadcommittedmanytransgressionsandthathehadinheritedtheirguilt.Asaresult,XinXuanzidiedprematurely(apparentlybydrowning).42 However,byvirtueofhis"bittertraining,"hehadgainedthesympathyoftwodeities,theQueenMotheroftheWestandtheNorthernEmperorofFengdu(the underworld).ThelattercommandedhissubordinateunderworlddeitiestotransformXinXuanziintoa"miracleworkinggod."Attheendofthepoem,XinXuanzi statesthatthisalltookplace"200yearsago,"andthatheispresentlyawaitingthetimewhenhewillproceedtotheSouthernPalaceofZhulingtobecometransformed intoanimmortal(Zhengao16/6b7a).43

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TheconceptofhereditaryguilthadbeenembracedbyTaoistssinceatleastthesecondcentury.44Evenafterthedoctrineofreincarnationwasaccepted,Taoists continuedtobelievethatonecouldbetormentedorblessedbytheconsequencesofthedemeritsormeritsofone'sancestors.45TheShangqingtextsinvariousplaces conveyabeliefinthefierySouthernPalaceofZhuling,wherethedeadcanbesenttobetransformedintoimmortalsbytheholyflames.46TheShangqingtextsalso claimthattheiradvancedmethodscantransformanadept'sancestorsinthefiresoftheSouthernPalaceandmakethemimmortal,thusfreeingtheadeptofhis hereditaryguilt.47 AtrulyambitiousShangqingadeptsoughtaccesstothegreatestsecretstoavoidphysicaldeathaltogetherandachievedirectascensiontothehighestheavens.Forthis tobecomepossible,itwasthoughtthattheadepthadtoconstantlyprovehisworthtothegodsandimmortals.Thusthethemeoftrials,soprominentintheShenxian zhuan(seepp.2528),alsoappearsintheShangqingtexts.TheZhengao5/2a10adealsextensivelywithtrialsandispresentedintheformofdiscourses proclaimedbyacertain"Lord"(jun).48The"Lord"firstpresentsalistofscripturesandmethods(2a4b)andstatesthatifonereceivesandmastersthese,onewill becomeaPerfectedManoftheNinePalaces,49astatussuperiortothatofamereImmortal(4a).50The''Lord"thenstatesthathewilltransmittheTao,butwarns thattherecipientthispresumablyreferstoYangXiand/orthetwoXusmustundergotrialsadministeredbyhisownmentor,thePineMasteroftheSouthern Peak.51The"Lord"thenstates,"IfonepassesallofthetwelvetrialsoftheWayofImmortality,onecanbetransmittedthesescriptures.Thesetwelvetrialsaregreat trials.All[ofthem]areoverseenbythePerfectedMenoftheGreatUltimate.Canyounotbecareful?(5b)" Sometimesthetrialswerethoughttobetoodifficultforeventhebestadepts.InZhengao5/5b6a,"theLord"tellsthestoryofQingwugongwhotrainedinMt.Hua for471years,52butfailedthreeofthetwelvetrials.Later,whenhesucceededinconcoctinganddrinkingthe"goldenliquid,"hewasconferredonlythestatusof Immortal(xianren)anddidnotbecomeaPerfectedMan(zhenren). AnotherstoryoffailureisthatofLiuFenglin,amanoftheZhouperiod(ca.1100256B.C.E.).HefirsttrainedonMt.Songgaofor400years,duringwhichhe attemptedtoconcocta"divineelixir"threetimes,onlytobefoiledby"wickedcreatures."HethenmovedtoMt.Weiyu53where,wearetold,heisstillliving.Heis abletoholdhisbreathforthreedayswithoutbreathingandisover1,000yearsold.Hegainedhisearthboundimmortalitybyingestinggoldenthread(huanglianor coptischinensis).However,hehasnotascendedasaheavenlyimmortalbecausehehasfailedmanytrials(Zhengao5/9b). Asuccessstory,ontheotherhand,isthatofHuangguanzi.Interestingly,thetexttellsusthat"fromhisyouthhewasfondoftheTao,andhisfamilyreveredthewayof theBuddha."Everymorningforfortynineyears,Huangguanzikowtowed,worshipped,and"beggedforlonglife."Eventually,hebegantopracticedietetics

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onMt.Jiao,54wherehepassedall140trialsadministeredbyaPerfectedManoftheGreatUltimate.Becauseofthis,hewasabletoingestthe"golden elixir"(jindan)55andrecitetheDadongzhenjing.Hewasconferredtheloftyrankof"ImmortalChamberlainoftheLeftoftheGreatUltimate."56 "TheLord"alsotellsstoriesthatdescribethetypesoftrialsthattookplace.Thefirstsuchstory(5/5b)isaboutLiuWeidaoofZhongshan,57whohadbeentrainingin Mt.Bozhong58fortwelveyearswhenanimmortalcametoadministertrials.Theimmortalmadehimlieunderaboulder100,000jin(about20,000kg.)inweight, suspendedfromasinglewhitehair.Liulaytherefortwelveyearswithoutshowinganysignsoffright.Afterpassingnumerousothertrials,he"ascendedtoheavenin broaddaylight." Anotherstory(5/7b)isaboutacertainMr.Fu,whoinhisyouthtrainedinastonegrottoinMt.Jiao.Aftersevenyears,hewasvisitedbyLordLaooftheGreat Ultimate.LordLaohandedhimawoodenawlandtoldhimthathecouldobtaintheTaoifhedrilledaholethroughastoneslabfivechi(about1m.)thick.Mr.Fu spentfortysevenyearspursuingthistaskdayandnightwithoutceasing,untilhefinallydrilledaholeallthewaythroughtheslab.Hethenobtaineda"divineelixir," ascendedintotheheavenofTaiqing,andbecamethePerfectedManoftheSouthernPeak. OtherpassagesintheShangqingtextsconveythebeliefthattrialscanoccuratunexpectedmomentsinanysituation.ApassageintheZhengao8/2abascribedto theLadyoftheYixianPalace59(thedeceasedmotherofXuHui)andaddressedtoXuHuistates,"ForapersontostudytheTaoisliketraveling10,000li(over 4000km.).Whereverhegoesheundergoeseverything,whetheritbecoldness,heat,good,bad,grass,trees,wateroreathandtherehefindstrials"(Zhengao8/2a b).Providedmyinterpretationiscorrect,thepassageisstatingthattrialsconfrontTaoistadeptsatalltimesandsituations.Thus,anadeptalwayshadtobeprepared. IntheZhengao5/7a,"theLord"describeshowPerfectedBeingscanassumedisguiseswhenadministeringtheirtrials.
PerfectedMenconcealtheirTaomarvelsandmanifestthemselvesinuglyforms.Sometimestheywillbewearingtattered[garments],theirbodieswillbeemaciated,ortheywill havetheappearancesofidiots.WhenapersonwantstostudytheTao,[PerfectedBeings]administerthesetrials,butpeopleareinvariablyunabletorecognizethem.Whenthey donotrecognizethem,theywillhavefailedthetrials.Youmustalwaysbecarefulaboutthis.(Zhengao5/7a)

Asmentionedinchapter2,storiesoftheSongperiodonwarddescribehowthePerfectedManLDongbinassumestheguiseofabeggartotestthecharacterof people.Shangqingproponentsascribedsimilartacticstotheirimmortals.Topasssuchatrial,anadeptneededtheattentiveness,perceptiveness,andhumilityto

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identifythesaintamongthevagrantsandtobowtohimforinstruction.Anyarrogantcompulsiontobederisiveorcondescendingtowardtheunderprivilegedhadtobe overcome. Thissamemoralisconveyedinanincidentdescribedinthe"esotericbiography"(neizhuan)ofPeijun,oneofthemanyancientimmortalsreveredwithintheShangqing tradition.60InitwearetoldthatPeijunwasbornin178B.C.E.toaBuddhistfamilyinXiayang,Fufeng(thisisclearlyananachronism).61Hewasaveryreligious youth.Attheageoften,heacquiredthehabitofmeditatingandreadingscripturesdayandnightwithoutsleeping.Hisfirsttrialoccurredwhenhewastravelingtoa BuddhisttemplewithhistwofriendsZhaoKangziandHaoJichengtocelebratetheBuddha'sbirthdayontheeighthdayofthefourthmonth.

Itwasacloudyandrainyday.Theresuddenlyappearedapaupercladinanoldsinglelayeredgarmentandyellowturban,whofollowedtheLord's(Peijun's)carriagefrombehind andbeggedtobegivenaride.TheLord(Peijun)paidhisrespects[tothepauper]andaskedhim[whohewas],butdidnotreceiveananswer.TheLordgotoffthecarriageandlet himgeton.KangziandJichenggotveryangryandasked[Peijun]whyhewasallowingsuchapersonintotheircarriage.Buttheyfinallyconsentedtolet[thepauper]ridewith themattheLord'surging.TheLordhimselffollowed[thecarriage]frombehindonfootwithnochangeinexpression.Themangivenaridealsoactednaturally,andshowedno signsofshame.Justastheywereabouttoreachthetemple,[thepauper]said,"Myhouseisnearhere,"andgotoffthecarriage.Suddenly,theylosthim.(Yunjiqiqian105/1ab)

ThehagiographygoesontodescribehowPeijunmetotherdivinebeingsandwasconferredvariousmethodsandscriptures.Doestheaforementionedstoryintendto implythatthepauperwastheBuddhahimself?Thisishighlypossible. Insum,theShangqingtextsassertthatdivinebeingsalwaysobservetheprogressofadeptsandarepreparedtohelpthemiftheypossessgoodcharacterandshow sufficienteffort.WhenShangqingadherentsengagedinasceticism,theymusthavefoundencouragementinthisbelief. EvilsintheWorldlyEnvironment TheShangqingtextsalsoconveythegrimfeelingthatmanifoldevilslurkwithintheworld.Theferventyearningfordivinesympathyandassistanceishighly understandableinlightofthis.Antiworldlysentimentsundoubtedlystrengthenedtheresolveofadeptstoescapetheworldthroughheavenlyimmortalascension. ThetragicstoryofLChengzidescribedintheZhengaolucidlyconveysthebeliefthatadeptsaresurroundedbydemonswhowishonlytoruinthem.LChengzi,we aretold,hadbeenfondofpracticingmacrobioticsandstudyingthe

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Taofromhisyouth.Whenhewasinhisforties,hewentintotrainingonMt.Jing.62Oneday,whenhewasoverseventyyearsold,he"underwentatrialatthehands ofthemountainspiritofMt.Jing."Thetextisobscureregardingwhatexactlythetrialwas,butapparentlythemountainspiritdeceivedLChengzibydisguisingitself asaPerfectedBeing.Thetextstates,"Chengzi,mistakingitforaPerfectedBeing,worshippedit."Hethengotbittenbyagiantsnake(thetextprobablymeanstosay thatthemountainspirittransformedintothegiantsnakeandbitLChengzi).Hiswoundwasnearlyfatal,buthesurvivedthecrisisbyvisualizingthe"MostHigh One"(adeity)andmeditatinguponthe"sevenstars''(theUrsaMajor).Later,helosthislefteyetothetrickeryofyetotherdemons(howexactlythishappenedisnot specified).Sadly,thestoryconcludeswiththestatement,"IntheendheneveracquiredtheTao,andhediedinthemountains."Thetextthenwarnsitsreaderstobe carefulnottosufferthesamefate,andexplainsthatLChengzi'sfailurewascausedbyhis"wickedthoughts,"whichmadehimlacktruedevotionandsingle mindedness(Zhengao5/9a). ThebasicmessagehereisthatthelifeoftheTaoistadeptisextremelyhazardous,sinceheisinconstantperilatthehandsofevilforces.Nonetheless,hissurvivalcan beguaranteedifhecanevoketheprotectionofdivinebeingsbykeepinghismindpureandbyremainingdiligentinhistraining.Basedonsuchaview,itwouldbe conceivablethatdemonscouldrenderadeptsvulnerablebyplantingwickedthoughtsintheirminds.Aswehaveseen,lustwasregardedasthemostdamagingof wickedthoughts.Notsurprisinglythen,wearetoldinZhengao5/13bthatdemonsexploitthesexualdesiresofadepts.
TheLordsaid,"Intheworldthereareevilandpowerfuldemonsofthelowerearth.Manyofthemturnthemselvesintowomeninordertotemptandtestpeople."(Zhengao5/13b)

Thetextgoesontosaythatifanadeptencountersawomanwhohethinksmaybeademon,heshouldholdhisbreathandvisualizethehengandfustarsoftheUrsa Majorwhilecomposinghismindandbody.Heshouldthenlookatthe"pearlswithinthecircles"(thepupilsofthewoman?).Iftheyhaveamurkyappearance,sheisa demon.Iftheyhavearadianceinthem,sheisa"personoftheTaoofImmortalhood."Encountersofthiskindmostlikelyoccurredinvisionssuchasthose experiencedbyYangXi.Hereweseemtohaveinstructionsthatwereintendedforthosewhopartookinmysticalexperiences.Asspeculatedbefore,theencounters thatasceticshadwithfemaleimmortalslikelyresultedfromtherepressionandsublimationofsexualdesires.Ifso,wefindindicationherethatasceticswereinfrequent conflictwiththeirsexualdesires,whichconfrontedthemintheformoftemptingvisions.Ourtext,however,attributessuchtemptingvisionstotheworkofdemons. Inordinaryeverydayexperience,demonictrialswerethoughttocomeintheformofdiseases.OneparticularShangqingscripture,theXiaomojing,providesus

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withinterestinginformationabouthowtheShangqingmovementunderstooddiseases.63Thistextfeatureslonglists(1/6a14a)ofdivinemedicinesthatarenot availableinthisworld.Adepts,whentheyfellill,weresupposedtobeabletocuretheirdiseasesbymerelyrecitingthenamesofthesemedicines.Thetextalso containsashortnarrativethatdescribeshowtheimmortalChisongzi,64priorto"attainingtheTao,"overcameillness.Accordingtothenarrative,hebecameillwhen trainingonMt.Jinhua.65Hisillnessremainedseriousforsixteenyears,eventhoughhecontinuedto"contemplatePerfectionandpreservehisjing."Amidthis suffering,ChisongzipursuedtheTaomoresinglemindedlythaneverandobtainedaninnerpeace.Henolongergrievedoverhisillnessnorworriedwhetherhewas goingtodie.Still,"thesocalledspiritsanddemonsoftheSixHeavens"66continuedtohinderhistrainingbyafflictinghimwithdiseases.Insomecases,thedemons didsoattherequestof"SuperiorBeings,"whowishedtotestChisongzi'sfortitude.However,Chisongziproceededtoobservearetreatofpurification(qingzhai), recite''the[sectionon]Wisdom,"andsing"[thesectionon]EliminatingtheDevils"3,000times(thisapparentlymeanstosaythatherecitedthenamesofthecelestial medicines).Oncehehaddoneso,allofhisailmentswerehealed,hisheart"openedup,"andhefeltajoysurpassinganyjoyhehadfeltpriortohisillness(Xiaomo jing1/2a). Thenarrativeisfollowedbyanexplanationofthe"purpose"ofdiseases.Thefirstpurposeofdiseases,wearetold,isto"testthesincerityoftheheart."Thesecond purposeistoexpurgatetheThreeCorpsesandotherimpureforcesinthebody.Thethirdpurposeisto"eliminatewhatisimproper"(fromthemind?).Thefourth purposeistorefinewhatis"dustyandimpure"(thebody?).Thetextthenstatesthatthosewhoaresinglemindedintheirreligiousquestcanbequicklycuredof illnesses.Thosewhoaresincereanddiligent,yetpronetodistractionandconfusion,willalsobecured,albeitnotasquickly(Xiaomojing1/2ab). Diseasesweregenerallythoughttobecausedbydemonswithentirelymaliciousmotives.However,aswecansee,theXiaomojingmaintainsthattheyalsoserve goodpurposes,andforthisreasontheysometimesoccurundertheapprovalofbenevolentdivinebeings.Throughdiseases,divinebeingscouldgaugeandfacilitate theprogressofadepts.TheXiaomojingevenclaimsthatdiseasescanbebeneficialtothebody,sincetheyhelppurgeitofmalignantforces.Oneisremindedhereof howtheZhonghuangjing,Tunajing,andDaojitunajingascribethesameeffecttotheselfimposedordealoffasting(seepp.4453). ThegrimworldviewoftheShangqingmovementwasunderpinnedbybeliefsconcerningcyclicalcosmiceras,orkalpas.Theword"kalpa"(transliteratedintoChinese asjie)wasoneofthefirstBuddhisttermsborrowedandusedbyTaoists.InaBuddhistcontext,itmeans"aperiodoftime"generallyaverylongperiodoftime duringwhichworldsundergotheprocessofcreation,maturation,decline,anddestruction.ThewordwasborrowedandusedbyTaoiststoexplaintheirownbeliefs. TheearliestChinesetheoriesoncosmicerasweredevelopedwellbefore

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theShangqingmovement,andtracesofthesetheoriescanbefoundinveryearlytextssuchastheHanshu,67theWufuxu,andtheLaozizhongjing.68Several differentShangqingtextsprovideuswithexpositionsconcerningcosmiceras.69Althoughtheseexpositionsdonotalwaysagreeintheirdetails,theydoconcurintheir generaloutlines.Theyallspeakintermsofrecurringcyclesofgreatandsmallkalpas.AGreatKalpaconstitutesalengthyperiodoftimethatelapsesbetweenthe world'screationanddevastation.SmallKalpasaresmallerdivisionsoftimethattogethermakeupthesumtotaloftimecontainedwithinaGreatKalpa.Calamities occurattheendofbothgreatandsmallkalpas.However,thecalamitiesatthecloseoftheGreatKalpasaremuchmoresevere.AttheendofaSmallKalpa, politicalunrestandnaturaldisasterskillofftheevilpeople,allowingonlytherighteoustosurvive.AttheendofaGreatKalpa,theworldiscompletelydestroyed.A "SacredLord"thenarrivesonthescenetoselecttherighteouswhowillsurviveanddwellintheutopiathathewillestablish. Sadly,earlyShangqingproponentsbelievedthattheworldwasrapidlyapproachingtheendofaGreatKalpa.Theybelievedtheforcesofevilanddestruction pervadeditmorethanever.ThisviewiswellreflectedinZhengao8/8b,inapassageallegedlyproclaimedbytheimmortalLordBaomingtowardXuMiduringatime ofillness.
Rightnow,when[thespiritsanddemons]oftheSixHeavens(themundanerealm)70areeverywhere,andthe[tracesof]theGreatPeaceareweak,[living]soulsareunableto cooperatewithandobey[theTao],andareonlyabletobringaboutthevariousformsofwickedness.Therefore,thespirituallightisremote,andwickednesstakesadvantageof itsproperduty.71Youareadvancedinageandhavebeenwithoutvirtueforalongtime.Thechaosandconfusionsofdemonicaccusationshavepiledup[andcausedyour illness].(Zhengao8/8b)

XuMiisthustoldthatheisavictimnotonlyofhisoldageandpasttransgressions,butalsooftheerainwhichhelives.Itisatimewhentheprimitivebliss(Great Peace)hasbeenlonglostandhasyettoberestored.Onthevergeoftheapocalypse,theworldisoverrunbyevilspiritswhoareeagertoexploittheweaknessesand shortcomingsofhumanbeings. TheShangqingtextsbemoananddisdaintheevilwaysofworldlypeopleattheendoftheage.Inherentherewasthedangerthatthishatredofhumanevilcould degenerateintohatredtowardthepeoplethemselves.Towhatextentthisdangermaterializedisdifficulttosay.However,onepassagefoundintheZhengao10/24b issomewhatdisturbinginthisregard.

TheOralLessonofChenAnshi:72AsforaTaoistadept'styingandcombinghishair,hiseatinganddrinking,andhishandlingofhisfootwearandbedding,hemustnotletthose whoarenotTaoistadeptssee

Page88 hisgrooming,interferewithhisdining,movehisfootwear,orusehisbedding.[Thisisbecause]thedemonsthatresidewithinthepobodies ofthoseworldlycorpseswillcome andinvadeyourownspirit(s).ThereasonwhyTaoistadeptsliveinthemountainsandforeststoconcealthemselvesisbecausetheywanttodistancethemselvesfromtheclamor andfilth,anddetachthemselvesfromthedutiesofthehumanrealm.Thisisforfearthatthe100oddexternalobjectswillviolatetheirnatureandlifedestiny.Bediscreetaboutit (yourtraining).(Zhengao10/24b)

73

Thedisdainforpeopleexpressedherebordersonthepathological.OrdinarypeoplenotengagedinTaoisttrainingarecalled"worldlycorpses."Theevilforcesthat infesttheirbodiesaredeemedcapableofinfectingtheadept. Ofcourse,wealsoaretoldthatevenwhenadeptsdetachedthemselvesfromevilpeople,theystillhadtocontendwithdemons.Theoriesofdemonologyare articulatedintwoscripturesthatweshallrefertoasYuqingyinshu174andYuqingyinshu275(YuqingyinshutranslatesintoTheHiddenBookof[theRealmof] JadePurity).AccordingtoRobinet,theretextsareearlyShangqingapocrypha(textswrittenbyShangqingproponentsaftertheinitialrevelationstoYangXi).The methodsdescribedinthemweremeanttocomplementtherecitationoftheDadongzhenjing.76 Yuqingyinshu1(16b17a),inapassageascribedtoadeitycalledtheKingoftheDivineEmpyreanoftheJadePurity,explainswhydemonsareallowedtoflourish intheworld.Itdescribeshow"demonsanddevils"(guimo)employvariousclevertacticsanddisguisestowreakhavocinthemundaneworld("theSixHeavens"77). Theydoso,however,undertheapprovalofthebenevolentdivinebeingsofthe"ThreeHeavens."Thetextstatesthatthe"wickedabominations"ofthedemonsand devils"accordwiththecyclesoftheSixHeavens.''Thisapparentlymeansthatthedemonsanddevilsorchestratethestrifeandcalamitiesthatarepreordainedto occurattheendofthecosmiccycle.Theirdeedsarepunishmentsfortheevilpopulaceofadecrepitage,whoseimpureheartsarefilledwithaconnivingcleverness andarecalcitrancetothemoralstandardsofthegodsandimmortals.Forthisreason,the"HighandSuperiorBeings"allowthedemonsanddevilstoinflictsuffering uponpeoplesotheymightrepent.Thepassageendsbysayingthatwhenthecosmiccyclecomestoanend,thedemonswillhavenopurposetoserveandwillhence ceasetoexist.Thisisbecausethesurvivingpopulacewillbepureofheartandnaturallyfittoattainimmortality(16b17a). BothYuqingyinshu1andYuqingyinshu2describemethodsbywhichtheadeptcanutilizethepowerofgoodgodstoprotecthimselffromdemons.Although adeptshadtoliveincautiousfearofdemons,theycouldfindsolaceinthebeliefthatdemonswereultimatelyinferiorandsubservienttotheforcesofgood.Yuqing yinshu2providesadeptswithafurthersenseofsecuritybydescribinghowtheDemonKings,thechieftainsofthedemonichordes,canberenderedpowerless

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beneaththemightoftheGreatKingofJadePuritywhoEliminatesDevils(YuqingXiaomoDawang). Yuqingyinshu2tellsusthattheNorthernMonarchGreatDemonKingandhisdemonicthrongsdwellinpalacesperchedonthegiganticMt.Luofeng.TheGreat DemonKingconstantlyseekstounderminethestrivingsofadeptsbecause"hedislikesitwhenpeopleattainimmortality."Thisisbecauseherealizesthattheywill surpasshiminpowerandstatusiftheysucceedatbecomingimmortals.Inotherwords,theGrandDemonKingismotivatedbyvainfeelingsofenvy.Hopingto confuseadepts,heridesaboutintheskyinachariot,singing"thefolkballadin3,000lyrics."Sadly,wearetold,manyadeptsfallpreytohistactics(3a). However,whilelivingintheselfdelusionofbeing"King,"theGreatDemonKingissubservienttotheGreatKingwhoEliminatesDevils.Consequently,theGreat DemonKingeventuallyhastoperformadutythatcompletelycontradictshisownwishes.

WhenstudentsoflateragesattainImmortalhood,theGreatKingwhoEliminatesDevilsalwaysorderstheGrandDemonKingtoprotectandelevate[theadept]andtestify[on hisbehalf].Thereupon[theadept]canflyaboutin[theHeavenof]UpperPurity.(2b)

Toavoidperformingthistask,theDemonKingtrieshardtopreventtheadeptfromsucceeding.Yuqingyinshu2providestheadeptwithvariousmeanstoovercome thetrialssetforthbytheGreatDemonKing.TheseincludeknowingthemanynamesoftheGreatDemonKingandhispalace,knowingthelyricstothefolkballad sungbytheGreatDemonKing,andrecitingthe"incantationsofthe100GodsoftheKingwhoEliminatesDevils."Thetextthenstates,"Whenthedemonictrialshave beenextinguished,PerfectSpiritswillbeabletodescend[intoyourmidst]andyoucanseetheirPerfectForms.InbroaddaylightyouwillflyuptothePalaceofJade Purity"(3a). Yuqingyinshu2goesontodescribeasetofeightDemonKingsoftheEightDirections,whoonthedaysoftheeightseasonaltransitions(bajie)78taketurnsflying aboutandimposingtrialsuponadepts.Thetextprovidestheadeptwithlengthychantstoreciteonthesedays.Ifthesechantsarerecitedwithoutfailforadesignated numberofyears,theadeptbecomesabletodirectlyencounterthegoodgodsofeachrespectivedirection,towhomtheDemonKingsarecompletelysubservient. Aswewillseeinchapter6,thisconceptofDemonKingsalsocanbefoundintheLingbaoscriptures.TheLingbaoscripturescontainreferencestothemalicious DemonKingsoftheFiveDirections,whoarepowerlessbeforetheFiveMonarchs(orFiveVenerables).InbothShangqingandLingbaodoctrine,itisrecognized thatthemostprecarioustrialsandtemptationsoccurattheadvancedstagesoftraining.Atthesestages,adeptscarriedoutahighdegreeofselfdenialwhileattempting tocommunewiththedivine.Theytaxedtheresourcesoftheir

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mindsandbodiestothepointofperilandsuppressedtheirmostbasicandpowerfuldesires.Doingsoprobablymadethemhighlyvulnerabletodisease,depression, fear,anddelusion.TheDemonKingsseemtopersonifythesedifficultiesanddangers. ThePlaceofAsceticismintheHierarchyofSpiritualProgress Thehopefordivinesympathyandinterventionencouragedadeptstopersevereinausterities.However,italsoisconceivablethatsuchanemphasisondivinegrace couldhaveunderminedtheimportanceofasceticpersonaleffort.Ifsalvationiscreditedtotheworkofdivinebeings,theconclusioncouldbedrawnthatoneshould entrustoneselfentirelytotheirgraceandabandonstrenuouspersonaleffort.Toacertaindegree,thiswaswhathappenedintheShangqingmovement.Priorascetic trainingmethodsweredevaluedinacertainsenseontheirown,theywerenolongerconsideredcapableofconferringthehighestformsofimmortality.Rather,the combinedpracticeofvarioussuchmethodswasdeemedusefulforeliminatingdesiresandconditioningthebody.Suchaneffortwasbelievedtoevokedivine sympathyandhelpqualifytheadeptforaccesstotheholyscriptures.Also,itmustbenotedthatcertainShangqingtheoriesabouttheafterlifetendedtovindicateless austereformsofreligiosity.Avenuestowardsalvationwereconceivedforthosewhoshowedcertainmoralvirtues,withoutundergoingrigoroustraining.Forexample, afragmentoftheBaojianjing(TheScriptureofthePreciousSword)79citedinZhengao16/10a112a7states,"peopleofutmostfilialpietyand/orutmostloyalty" couldbecomedixiazhuzheorMastersintheUnderground,minorofficialsintheunderworldofMt.Fengdu(alsoknownasMt.Luofeng)wherethedeadwere judgedandsentenced.80After140yearstheyweretobeconferredteachingsthatwouldenablethemtobecome"minorImmortals."Similarprocessesofslow advancementaredescribedforthosewho"havethevirtueofsuperiorsages."81Peoplewhoexhibitedrighteousness,integrity,frugality,andchastitycouldbecome "puredemons"or"goodandluminousdemons.''"Puredemons"and"goodandluminousdemons"weretobepromotedtotherankofMasterintheUnderground after280yearsand400years,respectively,andfromthereweretoeventuallygettheopportunityforfurtheradvancement.One'sfatealsocouldbedeterminedbythe deedsofancestors.AswehaveseeninthestoryofXinXuanzi,hereditaryguiltwasthoughttounderminetheeffortsofsincereascetics.Contrarily,ifonehadvirtuous ancestors,onecouldattainimmortalityoramoreprivilegedreincarnationastheresultoftheirmerit,asindicatedinthefollowingpassagefromtheBaojianjing:
IfyourancestorshavemeritwiththeThreeOfficials,[themerit]willflowdowntotheirdescendants.Sometimestherefinementandtransformation[intoanimmortal]willbepassed onfromonegenerationtoanother.Oronemaygetrebornintoadifferentfamily.Thesethingsare

Page91 causedbythehiddenmeritofthesevengenerationsofancestors.Rootsandleavesconnectwitheachother.(Zhengao16/12a,Daodianlun2/12a)

However,Shangqingdoctrinesultimatelyaffirmedtheneedforasceticpersonaleffort.Theslowerandlowerformsofsalvationavailabletononasceticswerenottobe desiredbyseriousadepts.Ascetictrainingwasstillindispensableifonewantedtoqualifytoreceivetheholyscriptures.Onceonereceivedthescriptures,onewould recitethemandcarryouttheirprescribedvisualmeditations.82Themaximumeffectofthiswasnottobegainedwithoutthesimultaneousobservanceofrigorousself discipline. Ashasbeenmentioned,theholiestShangqingscripturewastheDadongzhenjing.TheCiyijingcontainsmethodsthatweretobecarriedoutinpreparationfor receivingtheDadongzhenjing.TheextanteditionoftheCiyijing(DongzhengaoshangyudidadongciyiyujianwulaobaojingHY1302/TT1025)discussesthe rulesforthetransmissionoftheDadongzhenjing.Onpages1b2awefindthefollowingpassage:

Ifyoupossessthisscripture,youmustpractice[themethodsincludedin]thetext.Youmustalwayshideyourselfquietlyinasecludedroom,scatterfragrances(sprinkleperfume, burnincense?)andsweepawaythedust.[Makeyour]spiritresideinthedarkforests.Avoidanddistanceyourselffromthehumanrealm.[Livein]lonesomeserenityand abandon[worldly]affairs.Getridofyour[worldly]burdensandbringinPerfection.Makeyourheartvastandforgetaboutcompeting.Entrustyourselftoandaccordwiththe rootsoftheprofound.Livealoneinthedarkroom.Cutoffgrainsanddoawaywithspices.Theblandlyflavoredskiesabovewillspewforththeirliquidsandharmonizeyour fluids.Withyoursolitaryform,doawaywithyourcompanion.Inthedarknessgazeatyourthreehunsouls.Undergobittertraining(kuxing)foralongtime.Donoteatafterthe noonhour.Engageinabitterretreatforthreeyears,andthenyoucanreceiveandreadtheDadongzhenjing.

Thus,accordingtotheCiyijing,anadeptaspiringtothehighestformofsalvationhadtoleavesocialandfamilylifetoengageinasecludedretreatof"bitter training"(kuxing)forthreeyears.Asisclearlydescribed,thispurificationrequires"cuttingoffgrains"(whichprobablymeanttolimittheintakeofallfoods)and completefastingafterthenoonhour.ThislatterrequirementwhichalsoisemphasizedinLingbaotextswascustomaryamongBuddhistmonksandislikelyaresult ofBuddhistinfluence.Theidealformofnourishmentduringthisthreeyearretreatisthe''liquid"fromtheheavens,whichpresumablymeansthattheadeptisto "nourish"himselfwithtechniquesofsalivaswallowing.Thephrase"withyoursolitaryformdoawaywithyourcompanion"suggeststhatcelibacyalsowas

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required.TheCiyijingstatestoothatretreatsofashorterlengtharerequiredforthetransmissionofotherholytexts. AshasbeenpointedoutbyRobinet,theCiyijingisnotoneoftheoriginalShangqingscriptures.Itisacollectionofdiscoursesandmethods,someofwhichcame fromYangXi'shand,butalsootherswhichareapocryphal.Thefirstnineteenpageswhichincludethepassagequotedearlierweremostcertainlyauthoredafter therevelations,sincetheyreflectsomeinfluencefromLingbaodoctrines.83Therefore,wecannot,basedontheaforementionedquotedpassage,concludethatthe austeritiesreferredtoinitwererequiredforthetransmissionoftheDadongzhenjingduringtheearliestyearsoftheShangqingmovement.Thereis,however,clearer evidencethatthe"avoidanceofgrains"wasalwaysarequirement.InthefifthjuanoftheZhengaowefindapassagethatstates

Whenstudying[thewayoflong]lifeamidsthumans,youshouldeatmedicinesonly.Ifyoudonotcutoffgrains,youwillbeunabletohearthe[teachingsofthe]Dadong (emphasisadded).Asforthemethodsforcuttingoffgrains,therearemethodsintheworld.(Zhengao5/15b)84

Theprecisemeaningof"theDadong"isdifficulttodetermine.ItmayreferspecificallytotheDadongzhenjing,ormoregenerallytotheholyscripturesandadvanced methodsoftheShangqingmovement.85Whateverthecase,wecanseethattheShangqingmovementmadefastingmandatoryforitsmostambitiousadepts. TheGlorificationofSuicidalMethods CertainmethodstantamounttoreligioussuicidewerepromotedbytheShangqingmovement.86MichelStrickmannhassuggestedthepossibilitythatXuHui,whodied inhislatetwenties,hadhimselfemployedsuchamethod.HealsohasspeculatedthatTaoHongjing'sadolescentdiscipleZhouZilianghaddonethesame.Ofcourse, suicidalmethodsactuallypurportedtobeimmortalitytechniques,sinceintheorytheadeptwouldonlyseemtodie,whileactuallyproceedingtoanew,eternallife. TheZhengao10/5acontainsaveryexplicitdescriptionofasuicidalmethod.Thereitstatesthatifanadeptingestsaspoonfulofthe"WhitePowderofthePerfected oftheGreatUltimateforAbandoningtheWaistband,"87hewillfeelasharp,stabbingpainintheheart.Afterthreedayshewillbecomethirstyanddrinkahu(about 20liters)ofwater,afterwhichhediesorsoitseems.Thecorpselaterdisappears,leavingonlytheclothes.Atthispoint,theadeptbecomesan"immortalreleasedin broaddaylight."88 IntheZhengaowealsofindpassageseulogizingmenwho"staged"theirdeaths,someinaverygruesomemanner.Lupigong,89wearetold,"swallowedjadeflowers (highestqualityjade),"afterwhich''flowingwormscameoutfromthedoor[ofhishouse]."ChouJizi90swallowed"goldenliquid,"afterwhichthestench

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ofhisdecayingbodycouldbesmelledasfaras100liaway.TheYellowEmperorconcoctedtheElixiroftheNineCauldronsatMt.JingandwasburiedatQiaoling. 91SimaJizhu92ingestedthe"CloudPowder,"afterwhichhe"sankandascended,"andhadhisheadandlegsburiedindifferentlocations.MoQiuswallowedthe rainbowelixiranddrownedhimself.MasterNingingestedparaffinandwalkedintoafire.93WuGuangpickedleeksandenteredintoapureandcoolpool.94 Bochengretainedhisqi,andhisintestinesandstomach"rottedthreetimes''95(Zhengao4/15ab).ThereferencetoBochengisparticularlyinterestinginthatitseems tosaythathe"pretended"todieofstarvationbypracticingatechniqueofbreathholdingorairswallowing. Elsewhere,theZhengaoexplainsthatsuchmenactuallyattainedimmortality,butindoingsofeignedtheirdeathsthroughthe"liberationfromthecorse"(shijie).They didsobecausethey"wantedtocutoffthefeelingsaboutlifeanddeath,andshowthepeoplethatthereisalimit[tolife],"andbecausethey"wantedtocutthemselves offfrommenoftheworld,andblockoffthe[worldly]yearningsofsecularfolk."Theirallegeddeathiscompletelydifferentfromthatofordinarypeople,"whose corpsesrotintheGreatYin(netherworld),andwhosefleshfeedsthemolecricketsandants"(Zhengao14/17ab). Suicidalmethodsarethusjustifiedandlaudedasservingadidacticpurpose.Noteworthyhereistheparadoxialnotion,conveyedalsointheShenxianzhuan,thatone hadtostopfearingdeathandgraspingforlife,ifonewastogaineternallife.Onecouldperhapssaythatthesuicidalmethodsweretheconsummateexpressionofthe Shangqingmovement'sworlddenyingspirit.However,itcouldalsobesaidthatsuicideisacowardlyactaquickandeasywayout.Itwouldseemthatthevirtuesof devotion,courage,andstrengthwerebetterembodiedbyadeptswhotrainedlongandhardwithoutcuttingtheirlivesshort. Inthisregard,itwouldbeinterestingtoknowexactlyhowhighlytheShangqingmovementregardedthesuicidaltechniques.Fromtheevidenceavailable,itisdifficult todeterminewhethertherankofimmortalitygainedthroughsuicidalmethodswasthoughttobeashighasthatgainedbyrecitingandcarryingoutthevisualizationsof theDadongzhenjing.ItshouldbenotedthattheWufuxu(preShangqinginitscontent)describesasuicidalmethod,butstatesthatthemethodis"apathtakenby lowerlevelimmortals."96Basedonthisprecedent,itwouldseemdoubtfulthattheShangqingmovementwouldhaveattributedthehighestefficacytosuicidal methods.Butifso,whywouldXuHuicommitreligioussuicide?Wemayneverknow.

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ChapterSix AsceticismintheLingbaoScriptures
TheLingbaoscriptures1 werewrittensometimebetween420and471C.E.,probablybymorethanoneauthor.2 Whilewedonotknowexactlywhotheauthorsand earliestproponentsofthetextswere,itappearsmostlikelythattheyincludedsomemembersoftheGeclan.TheGeclanwasaprominentsouthernaristocraticclan thathadpreviouslyproducedtwoveryfamousfiguresinthehistoryofTaoismamuchfabledthirdcenturyadeptnamedGeXuan,andhisnephewGeHong,the greatalchemicalwriter.Theformer,asweshallsee,isfrequentlydepictedintheLingbaoscripturesasbeinganidealsaint.Interestinglyenough,theGeclanwas intermarriedwiththeXuclanthathadreceivedandpropagatedtheShangqingtexts.3 Notsurprisingly,theimpactofShangqingdoctrinescanbeidentifiedinsomeof theLingbaoscriptures.TheearliestLingbaoproponentsalsowereconnectedinsomewaywiththeHeavenlyMastersSchool.Thisisapparentfromhowsome LingbaotextsexpressahighregardforthefirstHeavenlyMasterZhangDaolingandpromoteritualpracticesandethicalpreceptsthatbetrayHeavenlyMasters Schoolinfluence. TheLingbaocorpusexpoundsasyncreticdoctrinalsystemthatcombinesoldandnewelements.ThemostprominenttraitoftheLingbaoscripturesisthattheypresent theirformofTaoismasthegreatestreligiouspathandassertthisclaimthroughelaboratemyths.Thesemythsclaimthatthegreatestofallgods,thePrimordial HeavenlyWorthy(theTaopersonified),revealstheLingbaoscripturestotheworldatvariousjunctureswithinthecosmiccycles.Hedoesthistobringabout happinessandsalvationtoalllivingbeings.Themythsalsoclaimthatthemostsacredofallwritings,theLingbaoFivePerfectWrits,4 originatedasprimordialcosmic prototypesformedfromcelestialradiancesandethers,andthattheseprototypesemittheforcethatcreatesandsustainsthecosmos.Thesoteriologicalvisionofthe LingbaotextsismuchmoreuniversalthanthatoftheShangqingtexts.TheLingbaomovementasserteditsclaimtoexclusivetruthmuchmoreforcefullyandaimedto savealllivingbeings,howeverwretched.Forthisreason,theLingbaomovementclaimedtobetheGreatVehicle(dasheng,Mahayana),comparedto

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whichallotherreligiouspathsarebuttheSmallVehicle(xiaosheng,Hinayana).Inmakingthisclaim,theLingbaomovementmostcertainlyimitatedMahayana Buddhism.Asawhole,thesystemaccommodatesthereligiousneedsoflesssophisticatedbelieverstoamuchgreaterdegreethantheShangqingsystemby emphasizingrudimentarymoralindoctrinationandcommunalfestivals. Asweshallsee,theidealofuniversalsalvationandthedoctrineofreincarnationbothhadaprofoundimpactupontheformandmeaningthatasceticismtookinthe Lingbaomovement.TheLingbaoscripturesstronglyendorseasceticpracticesofthekindpursuedbyTaoistsinpreviousyears.Indoingso,theyalsoassertthat adeptsmustbethoroughlyaltruisticintheirendeavorsandmustconformtospecificstandardsofpersonaldisciplineandritualpiety.(ShortdescriptionsoftheLingbao scripturescitedinthediscussionthatfollowsareprovidedintheappendix.) TheNewSaintlyIdeal TheLingbaoscriptures,muchliketheShangqingscriptures,claimtocontaintruthsrevealedfromdivinerealms.Thescripturesfrequentlytaketheformofnarratives whereinintricatediscussionsoccurbetweengreatteachers(gods,immortals,orgreatadepts)andtheirstudents.ThefamousadeptGeXuanappearsfrequently, sometimesastheteacherandsometimesasthestudent.HealsoisdepictedastheblessedrecipientofLingbaoscriptures.Inallinstances,herepresentstheparagon ofsaintliness. TheZhenyiquanjiefalunmiaojingistheprologuetoasetofthreescripturesputativelytransmittedtoGeXuanbythreedifferent"PerfectedMenoftheMysterious One"namedYuluoqiao,Guangmiaoyin,andZhendingguang.Accordingtothistext,the"oldtexts"ofthethreescripturesexistedpriortothecreationofthepresent world,werestoredintheDarkTerraceoftheSixDirectionsoftheMostHigh,andwereguardedbyJadeGirlsandJadeBoys.Theyaretransmittedtohumansonce every40,000kalpas.ThetextstatesthatitwasdeterminedthatGeXuanwouldbecometheirblessedrecipient.Itthendescribestheeventsthatleddirectlytothe transmission.
TheImmortalDukeontheLeftoftheGreatUltimate(GeXuan),onMt.Tiantai,engagedinasilentretreatandexpiatedhistransgressions.Burningincense,heconfessedand repented.HecontemplateduponthePerfectandkepthismindupontheTao.Within100daysadivinelightappearedfaintlyatoptheemptydarkness.Thecloudylusterflickered onandoff,sometimesdispersingandsometimesconcentrating,illuminatingthehallofretreatinawindingfashion.TheImmortalDukehimselfrealizedthathisthoroughgoing [selfimposed]sufferinghaddistantlymovedtheHeavenlyPerfectedBeings.Hereuponhetrainedandcontemplateduponhiskarmafromtheobscurepastwithextraordinary diligenceandvigor.

Page97 Withinayearofengagingintheretreat,hefinallybroughtaboutacommunicationwiththeSuperiorSaints.(lb)

HereGeXuanisportrayedengaginginareligiousregimenthatinvolvessuffering(ku).Thissufferingisdirectlyresponsibleforbringinghimintocontactwiththe PerfectedBeings,whorevealthescriptures.Alsonoteworthyisthatthisselfimposedsufferingtakestheformofalengthyretreat(zhai)ofworship,confession,and contemplation. TheZhenyiquanjiefalunmiaojingcontinueswithadescriptionofhowthethreePerfectedMenofObscureUnitydescendeduponGeXuan'smeditationchamber infulldivinesplendor,mountedonradiantjadecarriagesandattendedbytensofthousandsofJadeBoysandJadeGirls.ThethreePerfectedMentookturns commendingGeXuanforhisvirtuesthathadqualifiedhimfortheblessedtransmission.Theyextolledhimrepeatedlyforthecompassionategooddeedsandrigorous trainingthathehadcarriedoutovermanykalpas.Hehadharmedhisbodyinordertorescuelivingbeings.Hehadopenedupthewaytosalvationformany.Hehad shownmercytoalllivingspeciesdowntoeventhegrassesandtrees.HehadrejectedthewealthandgloryofgovernmentofficetopursueTaoisttraininginthe desolatehills.Hehadservedhisteachershumblyandreverently.HehadcontemplatedtheTaoconstantlyamidbittersuffering.Hedidnotdesireacoatwhencold. Hedidnotgivepleasuretohismouthwhenhungry.Hehadcontrolledhisemotionsandwithstoodhislust.Furthermore,hehadinheritedthemeritsofhisancestors, whohadsharedtheirfoodwiththepoorandexhibitedbenevolencetowardsthebirdsandbeasts.Hismerits,bothpersonalandhereditary,hadtransformedhisbody towherehis"purpleviscera"contained"thePerfect"andhisheademittedastrangeradiance(2b3b). TheBenxingyinyuanjing(TheScriptureonCausationfromPastDeeds)assertsthatGeXuan'saltruismwaswhatmadehimclearlysuperiortoordinaryTaoist ascetics.5 ThereitisindicatedthathehadattainedtheloftyrankofLeftImmortalDukeoftheGreatUltimate.Whilehewasstillahumanbeingdwellinginthe ordinaryworld,hehadbeenabletovisittheJadeCapitalinthehighestheavenlyrealm6 andgainanaudiencewith"thePeerlessEmperoroftheVoid."Thetext recordsanincidentthatallegedlytookplaceonthefirstdayofthefirstmonthinthethirdyearoftheChiwureignera(240C.E.).GeXuanhadclimbedMt.Laocheng tocontemplatetheTaoina"silentretreat"(jingzhai).TherehewasvisitedbythirtythreeearthboundimmortalsandTaoistadepts.Oneoftheearthboundimmortals, apparentlyjealousofGeXuan,askedhimwhyhealonehadmanagedtogainhisloftygradeofImmortalhood.Whileaskingthis,theearthboundimmortalpointedout thatheandhisfellow"lowerofficials"(lowrankingimmortals)hadbeenstudyingtheTaointhemountainforestsforasmanyas''600jiazi"(thiscouldbeinterpreted asmeaning600years,orasmeaning600sexegenarycycles[36,000years])(1a).

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Tothis,GeXuanpromptlyresponded.Hefirstexplainedthatduringtheprimitiveagethatdirectlyfollowedthecreationofheavenandearth,therehadexistedno discrepanciesamonghumanbeingsintermsoftheirworthinessortheirlifespans.PeoplespontaneouslyaccordedwiththeTaoanddidnotevenneedtoobserve religiouspracticestoproperlydoso.Buteventually,humanbeingslostthiscapacity.ThewaysofpeoplecametodeviatefromtheTaoinvariousdegrees,and discrepanciesconsequentlyaroseamongthem.GeXuanthenpointedouttohisvisitorswhattheyhaddonewrong.EventhoughtheyhadstudiedtheTaoand receivedscriptures,theyhadperformedfewgooddeeds.Theywereconcernedonlywithgainingsalvationforthemselves,andtheydidnoteventhinkaboutsaving others.Theydidnotputtheirfaithinthe"GreatScriptures"(thisprobablymeanstheLingbaoscriptures).Theydidnotcarryouttheretreats,nordidtheyobeythe precepts.Theydidnotrespecttheproperteachers("theDoctrinalMastersoftheThreeCaverns").Insum,they"tookpleasureintheSmallVehicle,"andforthis reasonattainednomorethanearthboundimmortality.Togainahigherstatusthatwouldenablethemtobesummonedtothehighestdivinerealms,theyneededto accumulatemeritbyrescuingpeoplefromcalamitiesanddiseases.GeXuanthenpointedoutthatforthisreason,"Pengzuwhois800yearsold,Anqisheng7 whois 1,000yearsold,andBaishishengwhois3,000yearsoldstillwanderamongpeople."Theseimmortalsalsohadpracticedmereminormethodsandperformedfew meritoriousdeeds.Furthermore,GeXuanpointedout,someimmortalshavebeenunabletogainascensionevenafter10,000years.Ontheotherhand,therehave actuallybeenmanyadeptswhohavequietlyaccumulatedmerit,afterwhichtheyhavesuccessfullyascendedtotheheavensorundergonethe"liberationfromthe corpse.''However,mostofthemhavedonesosecretly,andhenceremainunknown(1b2a). ProbablymostnoteworthyhereishowGeXuancriticizeshisvisitorsforpracticingthe"SmallVehicle."TheSmallVehicle(orHinayana)isaBuddhisttermcommonly usedbyadherentsoftheMahayana(GreatVehicle)schools.ItrefersderisivelytotheTheravadaschoolswhosedoctrinesandpracticesserveonlythegoodofthe individual(thatis,intheopinionofMahayanists).MahayanaBuddhismclaimstobringsalvationtoall,whichtheoreticallymakesitsdoctrinesgreaterintheircapacity asavehicleforsalvation.GeXuan,inthepreviouspassage,makesasimilarclaimonbehalfoftheLingbaomovement.Accordingtohim,theearthboundimmortals hadshunnedtheGreatVehicleofTaoisminfavorofitsSmallVehiclebyneglectingtofollowthedoctrinesandpracticesoftheLingbao. GeXuan'smainadvicetotheearthboundimmortalsisthattheyshouldestablishtheirmeritbystrivingtoalleviatetheplightoftheworld.Theearthboundimmortals andGeXuanpersonifythebasicdifferencesbetweentheclassicTaoistimmortalandanewtypeofTaoistsaint.GeXuandistinguisheshimselfprimarilythroughhis compassionandaltruism,andinthissenseresemblesaBodhisattva.ABodhisattvaistheidealsaintofMahayanaBuddhism,anenlightenedbeingwhopostponeshis orherentryintonirvanaforthesakeofhelpingandguidingthe

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unenlightened.TheLingbaomovement,whichclearlyimitatedMahayanaBuddhisminitsclaimtobeingthe"GreatVehicle,"alsoappearstohavebeeninfluencedby theconceptoftheBodhisattva. ThenecessityofhelpingthoseinneedalsoisarticulatedintheBenyuandajiejing(TheScriptureoftheGreatPreceptsoftheOriginalVow).8 Thisscripture, whichispresentedasalessontoGeXuanbyhisprincipleteacher,thePerfectedManoftheGreatUltimateXuLaile,includesthefollowingpassage:

Instudyingthewayofimmortalascension,whenyouestablish1,200goodmerits,youwillintheendneverreceiveyourretribution.9Ifyouestablish3,000meritsyouwillascend toheaveninbroaddaylight.[Thesemerits]all[pertainto]rescuingpeoplefromthehazardswhichputthemonthebrinkofdeath.Administeringgracetothosepeopleisthebest. InstudyingtheTaoyoumustmakeallyourdeedscomplywiththedoctrines,[thereby]broadlyestablishingyourfieldofmeritsandgivingrisetoyourheartofgreatcompassion. InmotionandinstillnessalwaysgiverisetotheintentionsoftheTao.Ifoneisabletobelikethisand[thereupon]expelandtakein,ingestmedicines,weartalismans,read scripturesandmeditatediligentlyforanentirelifewithouttiring,howcantherebeanyone[likethis]whowillnotattainimmortality?Peopletakemedicines,weartalismans,read scripturesandobserveretreatsandpreceptswithoutthis[compassionatevirtue],andthereforefortheirwholelivestheyachieveno[positive]results.Students[oftheTao] shouldreflectclearlyupontheseessentialwords.(8b)

Whilethevalueofpersonaltrainingwasaffirmed,theadeptwasfirstandforemostrequiredtocarryoutgooddeedsforthebenefitofotherlivingbeings.Without gooddeeds,personaltrainingwasfutile. Presumably,analtruisticasceticwouldwillinglysufferharmforthebenefitofothers.SuchanidealisconveyedinhowtheZhenyiquanjiefalunmiaojingstatesthat GeXuan"harmedhisbodyinordertorescue[livingbeings]."PerhapsthemostextremeexpressionofthealtruisticidealisfoundintheShangpinjiejing(Scripture oftheUpperSectionPrecepts).ThisscripturetakestheformofasermondeliveredbythePrimordialHeavenlyWorthytoanassemblyofdivinebeings.Initweare toldthatthe"HeavenlyGirlsofResoluteMind"andthe"ImmortalsWhoWithstandHumiliation"cametotheassemblyandutteredtheirtenSuperiorVows. 1. 2. 3. Iwishtogivethefleshofmybodyasfoodforthestarvingbirdsandbeats. Iwishfortheeightfatsofmybodytobecomefuelforthelamps,sothattheycancontinuetoshine. Iwishtolendmystrengthtorelievethosewhotoil,andtorescuepeoplebycarryingtheirburdens.

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4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

IfIseepoorpeoplenaked,Iwishtogivethemfoodandclothing. IfIhappenuponanillperson,Iwishtogivehimmedicine. WhenIrecognizeaneedamongpeople,Iwishtohelpbyprovidingwhatisneeded. [Asfor]thosepeoplewhodespairandsuffer,[Iwishto]bringthemjoyinaccordwiththeir situations. Asforthoseprisonerswhoareexecutedandhavetheir[slain]bodiesputondisplay,Iwishtobear theirpunishmentforthem. Iwishthatallpregnantwomenwillquicklygivebirth. Iwishthatallfrontierregionswillbesubduedandreturned[totheruleofthelegitimateChinese empire].(2a)

Thealtruismexpressedhereisparticularlypoignantinthatthebeneficiariesofthelifesacrificeincludebirds,beasts,andcriminals.Certainlythisextremealtruismwas notexpectedofallbelievers.However,itrepresentedanidealtobeadmiredbyallandaspiredtobytheverybestTaoists. ItalsoisrelevanttomentionthatmartyrdomisprescribedintheTaishangdongxuanlingbaojieyebenxingshangpinmiaojing(HY345/TT177),10asomewhat latertextoftheLingbaomovement.Therethereaderistoldtoupholdhisreligiousprinciplesunderallcircumstances.Whenhislifeisthreatenedbytheviolenceof wickedpeople,heistoldnottodefendhimself.ThereassurancegivenisthathewillthusbecometransformedintoaPerfectedBeing,whilehisassailantssufferdivine punishment.11 Faithfulsacrificeofone'slifealsoispromotedintheTaishangzhutianlingshudumingjing(TheMostHighMiraculousBookoftheVariousHeavens,theScripture ontheDeliveranceofLives[HY23/TT26]).Thisscripturenarratesfundamentalcosmologicalandsoteriologicallegends.Itstartsoutbydescribingatgreatlengthhow thePrimordialHeavenlyWorthyestablishedfive"landsoftheblessed"intheFiveDirections,12startingfromthecentralland,the"LandoftheHallofGreat Blessings"(dafutangguo).Afterthis,hereturnedtothe"LodgeofPerpetualEnjoyment"(changleshe)inthecentralland,whereentirenationsofpeoplefrom outlyingregionsvisitedhiminthehopeofobtainingsalvation.The[Primordial]HeavenlyWorthythereupontestedtheirresolve.Heshutofftheradianceofthesun, moon,andstars,envelopingthecosmosindarknessforthreedaysandthreenights.Hegatheredfirewoodandbuiltahugebonfire,uponwhichhethensat.His burningformcouldbeseenthroughoutthecosmos,butthereappearedtobenowaybywhichthefaithfulcouldapproachhimtoreceiveinstruction.Hethen proclaimed,''Ifyouwanttoobtainlonglife,youmustenterthefiresothatyoucanreceivethedoctrinesfromme."Uponhearingthis,72,450peoplegatheredupthe couragetoentertheflames.ThePrimordodialHeavenlyWorthyimmediatelyconferredthescripturesanddoctrinesuponthem,whereuponthey"obtained deliverance"andvanishedfromsight.Lookingonuponthisscenewere400,000people,whoreturned

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totheirhomelandsinfear,assumingthatthecourageousfaithfulhadburnedtodeath.Upontheirreturn,theyweremetbytheirfellowcountryfolkwhohadenteredthe flames.Theyimmediatelyregrettedtheirownlackoffaith.Allwhohadenteredtheflameslivedfor30,000years,neverundergoingpain,sufferingnoraging(11ab). Whiletheaforementionedstorymayhavebeenbelievedliterallybybelievers,italsoservesasaparableillustratinghowoneshouldbewillingtoriskhisorherlifeto seeksalvation.Itillustratesaswellhowthevastmajorityofhumanitywantstogainsalvationbutshrinksfromtheopportunityduetothesacrificesinvolved.Intriguing hereishowthestorydepictsthegreatestgodofthereligioninflictingapparentharmuponhimselfforthesalvationofhumanbeings.ItprobablyistheclosestTaoist paralleltotheChristiancrucifixionnarrative,althoughthePrimordialHeavenlyWorthydoesnotexperienceagony,death,andresurrection. Finally,whileonthesubjectoflifesacrifice,itisworthmentioningastoryfoundintheChishuyujue(JadeLessonsontheRedWriting2/1b4a).13Thestoryis aboutasixteenyearoldgirlnamedAquiuZeng.AshasbeenpointedoutbyStephenBokenkamp,14thisstoryconveysthemalechauvinisticviewthatonlymenare capableofdirectlyachievingimmortality.BokenkampfurtherpointsoutthatthestoryisadirectadaptationofaparablefoundintheBuddhistLongshinjing,15 translatedbytheeminentmonkZhiqian. Accordingtothestory,AquiuZengsawagoldenlightonedaywhilebathing.Whenshewentoutsidetogetabetterlook,shesawtheresplendentcountenanceofthe "PerfectGodoftheTao."Thatdayshevowedtoobservetheretreatsandpreceptsinordertoreceivescriptures.Shehopedtothuseraseherbadkarmaand achieverebirthasaman,whereuponshewouldtraintobecomeaFlyingImmortal.Unfortunately,thisvowdidnotgounnoticedbytheFiveMonarchDemonKings. Ashasbeenmentionedinchapter5,DemonKingswerethoughttoenvyandresentadeptswhosoughttoescapetheprofanerealmandascendtoanexaltedstatus superiortotheirown.Thus,thestorygoes,thesefiveDemonKingsdisguisedthemselvesastheholyFiveMonarchsinthehopeofdeceivingAqiuZeng.They appearedbeforeherandtoldhertoabandonherreligiouspursuits.Theytoldherthatherfatherhadalreadymadeplansforhermarriage,16andproclaimedthat principlesoffilialpietyordainedthatsheobeyhim.However,AqiuZengcouldnotbepersuaded.AftertheDemonKingshadgivenupandleft,shebuiltabonfirein whichtocremateherselfalive,hopingherasheswouldbeblownawaybythewindand"settledownintheTao'smidst."Shethenclimbedawalldirectlyabovethe blazingfireandjumpeddown.Atthisverymoment,thePrimordialHeavenlyWorthyrescuedherfromtheflamesandtransformedherintoaman.Hethenentrusted her/himtotheWorthyGodoftheSouthernExtremeasadisciple. Thestoryjustcitedillustratestheidealofpiouslifesacrifice.Butperhapsevenmoreinterestingly,itpresentsmarriageandTaoisttrainingasbeingconflicting

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prioritiesforawoman.ThissuggeststhattherewerefemaleTaoistadeptswhomadecelibacyaveryseriouspriority.ItseemspossiblethatTaoistnunhoodalready existedinthefifthcentury. TurningourattentionbacktoGeXuan,itmayberecalledhowhewascommendedforaccumulatinggreatmeritovernumerousincarnations.Also,wefindGeXuan criticizingtheearthboundimmortalsfornotaccumulatingsufficientmeritinpastlives.ThroughouttheLingbaoscriptures,wefindexhortationsgroundedonthe fundamentalBuddhisticnotionsofkarmaandreincarnation.ThemainbodyoftheBenxingyinyuanjingisadiscourseascribedtoGeXuanhimself,directedatthe earthboundimmortals.Itdescribessomeoftheincarnationsheunderwentbeforeachievinghissaintlystatus(thetotalnumberofhisincarnationsissaidtohavebeen countless).Thediscourseskillfullydemonstratestheprincipleofcauseandeffectinawaythatservesadidacticpurposeforbelieversatalllevels. Thediscoursetellsofhowhewasbornintoawealthyfamily,butmistreatedhisservants.Consequently,hebecamerebornasamessengerandsufferedfrequent beatingsatthehandsofthoseheserved.Tobetterhisfate,hegavehispersonalbelongingstothepoorandservedaTaoistpriestasalaydisciple.Thisearnedhima rebirthasanaristocrat.However,becauseheenjoyedfishingandhunting,hediedandwenttohell.Therehewasmadetowalkamidst"swordmountainsanddouble edgedswordtrees."Hewasalso"boiledinhotwaterandmadetoswallowfire."Hethenunderwentsuccessiverebirthsasapigandagoat.Hewasthenrebornasa lowlymanofevilcharacterwhofrequentlydefraudedpeopleoftheirmoney.Thiscausedhimtoberebornasanox.Afterbeingslainandeaten,hewasrewarded perhapsbecausehehadfedandnourishedotherswithrebirthasamanofmoderatesocialstanding.Intherebirthsthatensued,GeXuancametoparticipatemore andmoreintheTaoistreligion,thusbringingaboutamarkedimprovementinhisfate.InoneoftheseliveshefinallybecameaTaoistadept.However,becausehewas sobusywithhisdutiesasateacherandritualexpert,heproclaimedthewishtoberebornasawomansohecouldenjoyhimselfinsilentnonaction.Duringhis subsequentlifeasawoman,he/shecarriedoutretreats,readscriptures,andproclaimedthewishtobebornasakingwhocouldactasapowerfulpatronofthe Taoistreligion.Hewasthusrebornintoaroyalhousehold,andwhenstillcrownprince,proclaimedthewishtobeahermit.17Eventually,inwhatwastobecomethe nexttothelastofhisincarnations,GeXuanbecameaTaoistmasterwho''aspiredtothedeedsoftheGreatVehicle."Hewenttoamasterofthedoctrines(fashi)to receivetheGreatScripturesoftheThreeCaverns.Helivedinconstantworshipandobservanceofretreatsandpreceptswhilepracticingdieteticsandmethodsof "expellingandtakingin"(tuna).Butbecausehehadnotyeteliminatedhiscauses(yinyuan)forrebirth,hediedandwasrebornintoaTaoisthousehold.Onceagain hegrewuptobeaTaoistadeptandresumedthepracticesofhisprecedinglife.ThistimehesucceededincapturingtheattentionoftheSuperiorSaints(shangsheng) andbecametherecipientofrevealedtexts.

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Thebasicmessagehereisthatthehighestimmortalitycanbeattainedonlyafteravirtuallylimitlessamountof"toilandsuffering"overcountlesslifetimes.Thewell intentionedstrivingsofanadeptareneverfutile.Eveniftheyfailtoimmediatelyconferimmortality,theystillbringaboutanauspiciousrebirthintoasettingconductive toTaoisttraining.Inthediscourse,GeXuandescribesnotonlyhislivesasareligiousman,butalsohisimmorallivesthathadbroughtforthbadretributions.Thelaw ofcauseandeffectisthusdemonstratedinawaythatencouragesmoralgoodnessinallpeople.Itisshownhowfaithandmoralgoodnessofanykindalwayshasits rewards,whileunethicalconductinevitablyleadstopunishment.Also,bydescribingthesequenceofhisrebirthsatsuchlength,thediscourseconveystheelusiveness ofthefinalgoal,theattainmentofwhichcanbeseverelydelayedbylapsesinspiritualityandconduct.Theadeptisthusexhortedtostrivehardinhispresentlife,since incarnationasanadeptisahardearnedprivilegethatismuchtoovaluabletowaste. NeartheendoftheBenxingyinyuanjing,oneoftheearthboundimmortalstellsGeXuanabouthowhehadonceencounteredthefirstHeavenlyMasterZhang DaolingonMt.Kunlun,18whoappearedbeforehiminfulldivinesplendorwithdivinethrongsinattendance.TheearthboundimmortalasksGeXuanhowZhang Daolinghadachievedhisexaltedstatus.Tothis,GeXuanrepliesthattheHeavenlyMasterhad"toiledandsuffered"throughmanycosmicerasjustashehad.Hehad studiedscriptures,observedretreatsandprecepts,andsavedthemassesthroughhisevangelism.Infact,theHeavenlyMaster'smeritsintheserespectssurpassed evenhisown(7a). ThishomagepaidtoZhangDaolingreinforcesthetext'sbasicmessageandindicatesthattheLingbaomovementbynomeansintendedtounderminetheauthorityof theHeavenlyMastersSchool.WhilethenatureoftherelationshipbetweentheLingbaomovementandtheHeavenlyMastersSchoolcannotbefullyascertained,it doesnotseemtohavebeenantagonistic. TheXuanyiquanjiefalunmiaojing(The[PerfectedManofthe]MysteriousOne'sMarvelousScriptureoftheWheeloftheDoctrinesofEncouragementand Admonishment)describestheproperlifestylesandtrainingregimestobeobservedbythreecategoriesof"gentlemen."Anexaminationofthesedescriptionsprovides furtherevidencefortheemphasisplaceduponasceticismandaltruism.Atthesametime,thedescriptionsseemtoattesttoacertainformofelitismthatcouldhave beenjustifiedbytheprinciplesofkarma. "Uppergentlemen,"wearetold,worktovastlypropagatethereligionandassistthekingofthenationincarryingoutgoodgovernment.Theygenerouslyaidthosein need.Theygiveawaytheirfoodtothepoor,and"gonakedinordertoclothethosewhoarecold."Theyextendtheirbenevolencetoalllivingbeings,includingthe birdsandbeasts.Theirgenerosityreachesouttoalllivingbeings.Theydiligentlyobeytheirreligiousteachersandupholdtheirdoctrines.Theyengagein"perpetual retreats,"duringwhichthey''bitterlycontemplate"and

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"polish[theirinsightinto]theDongxuan(Lingbaoscriptures)."They"expelandtakeinqiandfluids,withtheirmindslikeashesandtheirwillsdiligent."They"cutoff andabandontheburdensoflust."19Theyeliminatethe"myriadthoughts''fromtheirminds.Asaresult,after"onedeathandonelife,"theybecomeSuperior Immortals.TheirbodiesascendtotheGreatUltimate,andtheyattaintherankofImmortalChamberlain(xianquing)(1a). "Intermediategentlemen"similarlydevotethemselvestothewellbeingandsalvationofall,andtherebygaingreatmerit.Theyareloyaltotheirrulersandfilialtotheir parents.Theytrainandworshipdiligently."Fromsunrisetillevening"(orperhaps,"atsunriseandintheevening")they"cultivateandpolish[themselves]."They"savor theholyvolumes"withtheirmouthsastheyburnincenseandscatterflowers.Ineating,they"donotwishtobefilled."Inclothingthemselves,they"donotmindbeing cold."Theyarenotdemoralizedbysuffering,nordotheyrejoiceinpleasures.Intoiling,theydonotslacken,andwhenweary,theyworkevenharder.Asaresult, after"threedeathsandthreelives,"theybecomeableto"flyandwanderaboutinthe[Realmof]Taiqing."20TheyreceivetherankofPerfectedManoftheNine Palaces(1ab). "Lowergentlemen"cultivatetheirmoralcharacterbycuttingofftheiremotionsandwithstandingtheirsexualdesires.Theynurturetheirspiritsby"ingesting(fuyu)." Theydistancethemselvesfromgloryandelegancybydwellingindesolateforests.They"cutoffgrainsandrefrainfromeating."Theyobservea"perpetualretreat"and contemplatetheTao.Theydonoteatafterthenoonhour.Theyrespectfullyobeytheirteachersandmakethebirdsandbeaststheircompanions.Theylivealonein mountaincaves,feelingnodespairandharboringnodesiretoreturntosociety.Theyfeedoffarborvitaetrees.Theirvisagesshowsignsofstarvation,buttheirsincere devotionremainsunchanged.Theyalwaysbearrelaxedexpressionsinspiteoftheirdifficulties.Theycourageouslyfacetheirtrials.Theythusevokethesympathyof theEmperoroftheVoid(xuhuang).They"transform"after"ninedeathsandninelives."Mountinguponemptyspace,they"flyandwanderaboutamidsttheFive Peaks"and"freelywanderintheGreatNonbeing."Ultimately,theygaintherankofHighImmortal(1b2a). Whencomparingthetraitsattributedtothethreelevelsof"gentlemen,"itisdifficulttodiscernthedistinctionsthatdeterminethedisparitiesintheirultimaterankandthe speedoftheirprogress.Theyallpracticeasimilardegreeofasceticism.Ifanything,theasceticismofthelowergentlemenisthemostsevere.Theprimedistinction, rather,seemstolieintheperformanceofaltruisticdeedsofevangelismandcharity.Superiorandintermediategentlemenarebothdescribedasproficientinthis respect,whilelowergentlemenarenot.Inthissense,thelowergentlemenappearsimilartothoseearthboundimmortalsintheBenxingyinyuanjing,whomGeXuan criticizesforpracticingthe"SmallVehicle."Yetthesimilarityisonlypartialinthatthelowergentlemen,unliketheearthboundimmortals,reveretheirteachers ("MasterTreasure,"whichprobablydesignatesteachersofthe

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Lingbaomovement)andengagein"perpetualretreats."InthissensetheyadheretotheGreatVehicle.Thetermlowergentlemenseemstodesignatethereclusive wildernessdwellingasceticssomehowaffiliatedwiththeLingbaomovement. Itseemsvalidtospeculatethatthelowergentlemenwerepeopleoflowlystatusinboththereligiousandsocialhierarchy.This,alongwiththeirreclusion,wouldhave madethemlesscapableofmeritorioussocialaction.Thetermuppergentlemenseemstodescribethehighestrankingclergywhocouldexerciseinfluenceoverthe politicaleliteandleaveabenevolentimpactupontheentirenation."Intermediategentlemen,"then,wouldalsodescribepeopleofsignificantclericalandsocial standing,capableofpropagatingthereligionandadministeringcharityeffectively.Thiscapacitytobenefitthereligionandthenationmayalsohavehadtodowith personalaffluence.However,thereisconsiderabledoubtastowhetherafulltimeadeptwasallowedtoretainpersonalwealth.Aswewillseelater,precepts promotedbytheLingbaomovementrequirethatanadvancedadeptleavebehindthewealthyaristocraticlife. Nonetheless,one'splacementwithinthethreecategorieswasprobablylargelydeterminedbyupbringingandsocialstatus,sincethesequitelikelydeterminedtheir placewithintheclericalhierarchy.Ifsuchelitismexisted,itcouldhavebeenrationalizedondoctrinalgrounds,sincetheprincipleofcauseandeffectclearlyattributes highsocialstandingtomeritsfrompastlives.Alogicalinferencewouldbethatanaristocrathasmorepastmeritthanapeasant,meaningthatheisfewerrebirthsaway fromheavenlyimmortality.Thisis,ofcourse,ifheiswillingto"toilandsuffer"inthereligiouslife.Anotherhintindicatingthatthethreecategoriesarebasedonsocial backgroundisthatthedescriptionoflowergentlemenmakesnomentionofscripturalstudyandrecitation.Incontrast,wearetoldthatintermediategentlemen"savor theholyvolumes"anduppergentlemen"polish[theirinsightinto]theDongxuan(Lingbaoscriptures)."Inotherwords,thetermlowergentlemenmayrefertothose whowereilliterate,duetoalowlyupbringing.Sincetheholyscriptureswereofparamountimportance,itisunderstandablethattheinabilitytostudythemwouldhave beenseenasaseriousdisadvantagethatcouldsetbackone'sprogressbysixtoeightincarnations.21 PreceptsandRetreats AnessentialelementoftheLingbaodoctrinalsystemisitsmythology.AbriefversionofitsbasiccosmicmythisfoundintheZuigendajiejing(TheScriptureonthe RootsofSinsandtheGreatPrecepts,1/2a3b).22Thenarrativedescribesacyclicalcosmicprocessthatoccursoveraninconceivablylongperiodoftime.Long periodsofprimaldarknessandchaosareinterspersedbetweenintermittenteraswhereworldspopulatedbylivingbeingsarecreatedanddestroyed.Eachtimea worldiscreated,thePrimordialHeavenlyWorthymanifestshimselfbearingadifferenttitleeachtimetoexpoundtheproperpathtohappinessandlonglife.He

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bringsforththecosmicprototypesoftheLingbaoFiveWrits,whichletforththecreative,lifesustainingforceoftheuniverse.Thosewhoreceiveandobeyhis teachingslivelong,whilethefaithlessanddisobedientdieyoungandaccumulatetransgressions.Afterheleaves,peopleincreasinglyfallvictimtotheirowngreed, avarice,andhypocrisy,andtheworlddeclinestowarditseventualdestruction.Peoplesufferdamnationandbadrebirthsasretributionfortheirtransgressions.The finalpartofthenarrativeindicatesthattheworldispresentlyinjustsuchadecrepitstateandissuesthefollowingadvicetohumanbeings:

Herebyyoushallknowandacceptmy(thePrimordialHeavenlyWorthy's)teachings.Becarefulinyouractions,withoutforgetting.Evangelizeextensivelyandopenup[theway to]salvation.Revealittoallgodsandhumans.MakeallmenandwomenentrustthemselvestotheGatesoftheDoctrines.[Theymust]obeythepreceptsandcarryoutthe retreats(emphasisadded),distancingthemselvesfromthevarioussourcesofevil.Makethemjoyfulandpeacefulintheirlivesanddeaths,[sothattheycan]obtaintheTao spontaneously.

Preceptsandretreatswereconsideredthefoundationofproperreligiouslife,andtheirobservanceisenjoinedhereaspartofthefundamentalsolutiontohumanplight. PreceptsandretreatsofnumerousvarietiesandlevelsofintensityaredescribedthroughouttheLingbaoscriptures.Asceticismwastotypicallymanifestitselfinthe formofhighlyintensifiedpreceptsandretreats. Precepts ThemostadvancedpreceptsendorsedbytheLingbaomovementwerethe300GreatPreceptsforMonitoringtheBody(guanshendajie).Thesepreceptsare preservedtodayintheShangqingdongzhenzhihuiguanshendajiewen(HY1353/TT1039)andtheWushangbiyao45/1a17b.Theyarenotenumeratedinany oftheextantLingbaoscriptures.23However,Lingbaoadherentswereapparentlyfamiliarwiththemandregardedthemasguidelinesfortheverybestadepts.The Zuigendajiejingcontainsaclearallusiontotheseprecepts.Itstates,"ThePrimordial[HeavenlyKing's]24wisdomregulationsinthreecategorieshavebeen formulatedintotheGreatPreceptsforMonitoringtheBody,consistingof300entriesintotal."Itthenpointsoutthatthesepreceptscanbeproperlyobservedbyonly theverybestadepts.Theirdemandseludethecapabilitiesofmostpeople,particularlyduetothegeneralmorallaxityofthedecrepitage.TheZuigendajiejingthus setsforthanalternative,lessdemandingsetoftenprecepts,inthehopethatthoselesscapablecan"entertheGatesoftheDoctrines"(1/5b). 1. Donotenvythosewhoexcelyou.[Donot]persecutethosewhoareworthyandenlightened.

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2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Donotdrinkliquorinrecklessabandon,defilinganddisturbingyourThreePalaces(ElixirFields). Donotcommitadulterywithanotherman'swife,outofyourgreedforthedelicateandsmooth[touch ofawoman]. Donotabandonandneglecttheaged,ill,poorandlowly. Donotinsultrighteouspeoplenorverballyattackyourfellowstudents[oftheTao]. Donotgreedilyaccumulatevaluabletreasureswithoutbeingwillingtogivealms. Donotkilllivingbeings[asofferingsinorderto]worshipthedemonsandspiritsoftheSixHeavens (profanerealm). Donotcriticizeanddiscussthescriptures,makingthemouttobefallacious. Donotturnyourbackuponyourobligationtoyourteacherbydeceivingandtrickingnewstudents. Beimpartialwithyourentireheart,exercisingbenevolenceandfilialitytowardsall.(1/6ab)

AsimilarsetoftenrudimentarypreceptsisfoundintheDingzhitongweijing.AsStephenBokenkamphaspointedout,thefirstfiveofthesewerealmostcertainly inspiredbythefivelayBuddhistpreceptsthatproscribekilling,stealing,adultery,deception,andalchoholconsumption.25(TheDingzhitongweijingdiffersslightly byproscribingdrunkenness,thuscondoningmoderatealcoholconsumption.)Precepts6through8arepositiveenjoindersdirectingbelieverstobefriendlyand supportiveintheirrelationshipswithothers.Precept9admonishesbelieverstobearnothoughtsofrevengetowardthosewho"defeat"them(dothemwrong?). Precept10,whichreads,"IfeveryonehasnotobtainedtheTao,donotwishtoobtainityourself,"isanadaptationoftheMahayanistBodhisattvavowtowork relentlesslyforthesalvationofall,ratherthanmerelyoneself.TheDingzhitongweijingisparticularlylenienttowardthelesssteadfast,asitprovidesanescapeclause thatreads,"Ifyouareencumberedbyworldlyburdensandcannotcompletelydevoteyourmind,selectfromtheten[ordinances]nine,eight,seven,sixoreven[as fewas]fiveofthemwhichyouarecapableof[obeying].Theblessings[tobegottenfromobeyingjust]fiveprecepts[aresogreatthat]theyarehardto describe"(8a). AlongwiththeselenientpreceptsandtheharshPreceptsforMonitoringtheBody,theLingbaotextsendorseseveralsetsofpreceptsthatprescribemodesof disciplinethatstandsomewhereinbetweenthetwoextremes.Forthesakeofbrevity,thesewillnotbeexaminedhere.26However,itshouldbementionedthatamong thesepreceptswefindvariousitemsthatcallforactualhardshipandsacrificeandseemtobedirectedatfulltimepractitioners.Someofthepreceptsforcefullyenjoin Taoiststofosterapurestateofmindthroughperfectcontrolofthe

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body's"sixsenses"(thecapacitiesofsight,hearing,smell,taste,touch,andcognition,originallyaBuddhistterm). Weshallnowexaminethe300GreatPreceptsforMonitoringtheBody(ofwhichthereareactually302).ThepreceptsaredividedintothreesectionstheJadePurity WisdomPrecepts(Yuqingzhihuijie)oftheLowerOrigin(theWayofSuperiorImmortals,182entries),theMiddleOrigin(theWayofthePeerlessOrthodox PerfectedBeings,36entries),andtheUpperOrigin(theLimitlessWayoftheMostHigh,84entries).Becausethepreceptsarefartoonumeroustoquoteinfull,we shallnowsummarizethosethatareofgreatestinterestandexaminetheirmainpoints. TheLowerOriginPreceptsasawholeprescribeanausterelifestyleforfulltimeadepts.Adepts,wearetold,areforbiddenfromtakingthelivesoflivingcreatures (whichprobablyalsomeansthattheymustnoteatmeat).Theymustnotconsumealcohol.Theymustnoteatthefivepungentvegetables(garlic,onions,leeks,shallots, andginger).Theymustnotraiselivestock.Theymustnotpluckflowers"fornoreason."Theymustnot"teachpeopletoabortchildrenandharmembryos."Theymust nothoardwealth,norshouldtheysurroundthemselveswithextravagantcommodities.Theymustnotownanabundanceofclothingandpersonalarticles.Theymust notreceivelavishburialswhentheydie.Theymustnotwishtobefamousandwealthy.Theymustdisengagethemselvesfrommilitarymattersandmustnot"meetwith emperors,kingsandlordsfornoreason."Theymustnotassociatewithwicked,worldlypeople.Theymustnotengageinflattery.Theymustnot"partakeinthe worldlymatterofmarriage."Theymustnotwalkwithwomennotspeakinprivatewiththem.Theymustnotsitnexttothemnortouchgarmentswiththem.Theymust not"directlyinstructwomen.''Theymusttreatpeopleimpartially,withoutshowingspecialfavortofamilyandrelativesandwithoutbeingunfriendlyto"thoseof differentsurnames."Theymustnotlovetheirdisciplesoverindulgently.Theymustnotgetangryattheirdisciplesnoratthepeopleoftheworld.Theymustnotvalue themselves.Theymustnotbeboastful.Theymustnotneglectandderidethebeggars,theaged,ortheill. TheLowerOriginPreceptsalsoincludeaninjunctionagainstfortunetellingandanapparentinjunctionagainstgeomancy("OnewhostudiestheTaomustnotmapout hillsandplanhomesforpeople.").Also,adeptsareenjoinedtocarryouttherequiredretreatsandprecepts"whiletheretreatsandpreceptsarebeingobservedinthe variousheavens."Theymustobservethemandatory"SixRetreatsoftheYear."(Asweshallsee,certaindaysweredesignatedasmandatorycommunalretreatdays, anditwasbelievedthattheheavenlythrongsobservedcommunalretreatsonthesedaysaswell.) ThreepointsofemphasisthatareparticularlystrikingintheLowerOriginPreceptsarethesanctityoflife,thecorruptiveinfluencesofpower,andtheperilsofsexual attraction.Adeptsaretoldtohelppreservethelifenotonlyoffellowhumans,butalsoofanimals,plants,andunbornfetuses.WhileBuddhistictheories

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ofkarmacertainlyprovidedmuchofthejustificationforsuchprecepts,itshouldalsobeaddedthatafarreachingreverenceforlifeisthoroughlyconsistentwiththe spiritoftheTaoistreligion.TheTaoistreligionsetsforththeperpetuationofphysicallifeasafundamentalgoalandworshipsthecreativeandlifesustainingforceofthe cosmos(theTao,orthegod[s]thatpersonifyit)asitshighestDeity. TheinjunctionsagainstinvolvementinpoliticalandmilitaryaffairsareparticularlyunderstandableinlightofthefactthattheearliestadherentsoftheLingbaomovement probablybelongedtothearistocracy.Manywereprobablyinapositionquitevulnerabletothevicesofambition,arrogance,andcorruption.Thepreceptsalsoreflect anacuteawarenessofthefactthatpowerwithinthereligioushierarchy,whenabused,couldleadtocharlatanry.Apparentlyforthisreason,adeptsareforbiddenfrom engaginginprognosticationandgeomancy,practicesthroughwhichthefaithandtrustoflaypeoplecanbeexploited. Aswehaveseen,theextremeapprehensiontowardcontactwiththeoppositesexhasitsprecedentintheteachingsoftheShangqingmovement.TheLowerOrigin preceptsincludewhatappearstobeaveryearlyexampleofaproscriptionagainstmarriage("OnewhostudiestheTaomustnotpartakeinworldlymattersof marriage.")Yet,curiously,wealsofindanitemthatreads,"OnewhostudiestheTaomustnothaveseparatedoorwaysfromhisfatherandmother."Thiswouldseem tomeanthatinspiteoftheproscriptionofmarriage,monasticismwasnotapprovedatleastforthosestillatthestageofobservingtheLowerOriginPrecepts. Perhapstheideawasthateremiticorcenobiticlifestylesshouldbepursuedonlyafterone'sparentshadpassedon,sincefilialdutyrequiredcelibateadeptstocarefor theirparentswhiletheywerestillalive. ThedegreeofasceticismintensifiesintheMiddleOriginPrecepts.Theimportanceofhumilityisgivenaddedstress.Adeptsaretoldnottoexpectpolitenessand respectfromothers.Theyarenottoharboranyangerordesireforrevengewhenmistreated.Whentheysuffermisfortuneorillness,theyaretosimplyblame themselvesandcontemplatehowtheymightreformtheirimmoralconduct.Theyaretoobserveausteritiesthatsurpassthecapabilitiesofnormalpeople.Theymust "withstandwhatothersareunabletowithstand."Theymustdetachthemselvesfrom"whatothersareunabletodetachthemselvesfrom."Theymust"wearwhatothers areunwillingtowear."Theymust"eatwhatothersareunwillingtoeat.''Theymust"studywhatothersareunabletostudy."Theymust"toleratewhatothersareunable totolerate." TheMiddleOriginPreceptsalsowarnadeptsnottolookwomendirectlyintheeyes.Thisinjunctionwasperhapsdictatedbythebeliefthatthedemons(Corpses)in thebodiesofmenandwomencouldemergefromtheeyesandinteractwitheachother,regardlessoftheintentionsofthepeoplethemselves(seep.76).Anotheritem intheMiddleOriginPreceptsthatseemstopertaintocelibacyistheonethatstates,"OnewhostudiestheTaomustpacifyhisMysteriousSpring.He

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mustnotallowhisSourceofLifetomovedeludedly."Thisprobablymeanstosaythathemustretainhisjing(generativeforce,semen). TheMiddleOriginPreceptsalsostressthepurityofbodyandmind.Theyproclaimthatthehunandposoulswillleavethebodyifitisunclean.Iftheadept"has thoughts,""theHeavenlyPerfectedBeingsuponhighwilldistancethemselves[fromhim]andthedemonofficialswillnotsubmitthemselves[tohiscommands]."Ifhe hasanemptymind,''hewillfindhimselffacetofacewithPerfectedBeings."Ifhe"hasabody"(isconcernedaboutthesustenanceofthebody),"thevariousdesires willnotleavehim,andhisearnestmeditationwillelicitno[divine]responses." TheMiddleOriginPreceptsalsocontainanentrythatreads,"[Asfor]onewhostudiestheTao,ifhehasafamily,theThreePoisons(ThreeWorms?)27willnot perishandtheThreePerfectedBeingswillnotreside[inhim]."This,atfirstsight,appearstobecommandingadeptsto"leavethefamily"topursueeremitismor cenobitism.ItseemstocontradicttheentryintheLowerOriginPreceptsthattellsadeptsnotto"haveseparatedoorways"fromtheirparents.Apossibleinterpretation isthattheadeptstowhomtheMiddleOriginPreceptswereaddressedwereconsideredbetterpreparedtopursueeremitismormonasticism(ifmonasticismhadbeen incorporatedintoTaoismbythistime).However,italsoispossiblethatthephrase"havingafamily"isusedabstractlytodescribeaninnerfeelingofattachmentto one'sfamily. ThepreceptsoftheUpperOriginoutlinearegimenofselfdisciplineandmindfulnessthatleadstogreatrewards.Therewardsincludethetransmissionofthemost advancedmethodsandscripturesandthegainingofwondrousmysticalexperiences. Adeptsaretoldtopracticevegetarianism,liveinthemountainsandforests,andmeditateinsolitudeandsilence.Theymusteatonlyonceadayatnoonanddoaway withallrichdelicacies.Theymustresignthemselvestopoverty.Theymustreverethescripturesandpreceptsandrecitethemconstantly.Theymustaccumulatemerits bysavingpeople.Theymustputothersfirstandnevertalkaboutthemselves.Theirmindsmustbeemptyandserene,freeofextraneousthoughts. TheUpperOriginPreceptsalsowarnagainstassociatingwithpopularcultsthatworship"demonsandspirits."Adeptsaretoldtodistancethemselvesfromdemons andspirits,"neitherveneratingnorscorningthem."Theymustnotassociatewiththe"wickedandconfusedpeople"whoworshipthesedemonsandspirits. Adeptsaretoldtothinkhumble,compassionate,andpiousthoughts.Theymustwishforthewellbeingofall.Theymustwishforallpeopletobefreedfromtheir tribulationsandtheirbondagetoimmorality.Theymustwishfortheirparentsandtheir"sevengenerationsofancestors"toattaindeliveranceintothe"hallsofheaven." Theymustwishfortheirteacherstoquicklyachieveheavenlyascension.Theymustempathizewiththesufferingsandhumiliationsofothers,feelingtheirwoundsand painsasiftheyweretheirown.Theymustwishtofreethemselves

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fromthecausesthatkeepthemtrappedinsamsara.Theymustwishfortheir"treeoflifetowither"(?),sotheirspiritswillmergewiththeGreatNonbeing. TheUpperOriginPreceptsalsoendorsespecificmeditationtechniquesandscriptures.Adeptsaretoldto"constantlyvisualizethePerfectedManZidan28inthe ThreePalaces."Theyareto"contemplatetheFemaleOne"(performthevisualizationsoftheCiyijing)29andrecitetheDadongscripture(theDadongzhenjing). (HeretheimpactofShangqingdoctrinesisclear.)Bycarryingoutsuchadvancedpractices,adeptsaretoaspiretogainwondrousresults.Theyareto"eatthe spontaneousdelicaciesofthekitchensoftheheavenswithoutanythoughtsofhungerandthirst.''TheyaretocommandImmortalBoysandJadeGirls.Theyareto traveltomarveloustranscendentrealmssuchas"theEasternFlowersoftheGreenForest,""theSouthernFlowersoftheGreatElixir,""theWesternFlowersof Anyang,"30and"theNorthernFlowersofBiluo."Theyaretotraveltothenortheast,northwest,southeast,andsouthwesttoproclaimthe"encouragementsof goodnessandtheadmonishmentsofevil"anddeliverpeoplefromdamnationthroughthe"EightGates."Theyaretowandertothe"JadePurityPalaceoftheSeven Treasures"andpaytheirrespectstotheHeavenlyWorthiesoftheThreeOrigins.Theyaretowandertothepalacesofthesunandmoon,wheretheywillvisitthe kingsandsupthegoldennectaroftheflowers.Theyaretolistentothemusicofcelestialsinginggirls,withoutentertaininganyworldlythoughts.However,theadept mustmakesuretomaintainsecrecyinhisknowledgeofthemostsublimematters.HemustnotcarelesslyrevealthesecretnamesofHeavenlyPerfectedBeings. Theaforementionedthemeofthe"EightGates"isfeaturedprominentlyintheTaishangxuanyizhenrenshuosantuwukuquanjiejing(HY455/TT202).There"the Tao"(portrayedasaconsciousandwillingdeity)describeshowitsetouttoalleviatetheplightoflivingbeings,afterhavingwitnessedtheirsufferingforeonsandeons. "TheTao"setuptheEightGatesandinstructedtheignorantmassesonmattersofcauseandretribution."TheTao"thentraveledtothehellsoftheeightdirections(N, S,E,W,NE,NW,SE,SW)andwitnessedhideoussightsofmenandwomenbeingtorturedfortheirtransgressions(thetorturesaredescribedinvividandbrutal detail).Ateachhell,"theTao"toldtheFlyingCelestialBeings(feitianren)toadmonishthetransgressorstowardrighteousnesssothattheycouldberebornashumans intheordinaryworld.TheretheycouldpursuearighteousreligiouslifethatcouldenablethemtosomedayascendtotheimmortalrealmthroughtheEightGates. AccordingtothePreceptsforMonitoringtheBody,theadvancedadepthasthepowertoemulatethisfeatof"theTao."Moreconcretely,thisprobablymeansthathe possessestheritualpowertodeliverdamnedsouls.ThedeliveranceofdamnedsoulswasoneofthecentralobjectivesoftheLingbaozhai(retreat)rituals,asweshall see. ByfullyobservingthePreceptsforMonitoringtheBody,theadeptwastoembodyallofthevirtuesoftheidealsaint.Hewouldpracticeadegreeofasceticism

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aboveandbeyondordinaryhumancapacities.Thisasceticismwastobethoroughlyaltruistic,inthatthewelfareandsalvationofothersweretobeputfirst.Hisefforts wouldstrictlyfollowasetcurriculumofmethodsandscriptures.Hewastostaunchlyopposedemoniccults.Mysticalexperiencesanddivinepowersweretobea greatpartofhisreward,andthesetheoreticallyendowedhimwithgreatpowerintheritualarena. Retreats(zhai) Initsmostbasicdefinition,zhaireferstopurificatoryprohibitionsobservedforritualsandfestivalsofallkinds.Thisusageofthewordzhaipredatestheoriginsofthe Taoistreligion,assuchpurificatoryprohibitionshadlongbeencustomaryinChineseofficialandpopularreligion.InTaoism,thewordzhairetainedthisbasicmeaning, butalsocametodenotetheritualsandfestivalsthemselves.Becauseritualprohibitionstypicallyincludeddietaryrestrictions,italsocameaboutthatwhenBuddhism begantospreadthroughChina,thewordzhaiwasusedtotranslatetheSanskritwordupasatha,whichdenotesthemonasticBuddhistpracticeoffastingafterthe noonhour.Theusageofthewordwasfurtherexpandedtodescribethevegetarianfoodeatenbymonks,whichlaypeoplealsopartookofonspecialoccasions. TheseBuddhisticusagesofzhaialsoareemployedintheLingbaoscriptures. BecausetheLingbaoscripturesemployalloftheaforementionedusagesofthewordzhai,itisoftendifficulttodeterminewhichusageisoperative.Also,accordingto thecontext,zhai,or"retreat,"canrefertoanelaborateliturgicalgroupritualcarriedoutperiodicallyoveradesignatednumberofdays.Insomecases,itreferstoa solotrainingregimenthatissustainedforaverylengthyperiod,orevenforanentirelifetime.Yetinthemindsofthetexts'authors,theredoesnotseemtohavebeena clearcutdistinctionbetweentemporarycommunalretreatsandlengthypersonalretreats.Thelatterwereextensionsandintensificationsoftheformer.Inotherwords, anadvancedadeptwhocarriedouthisown"perpetualretreat"(changzhai)wouldobservethesamerulesthatappliedtocommunalretreats.However,hewould observetherulesoveramuchlongerperiod.Hewouldchantthescripturesandliturgiesusedinthecommunalretreats,albeitinsolitude.Hissoloritualsboremuchof thesamemeaningandpurposeasthecommunalrituals.Inbothtypesofrituals,adeptssoughttoemulatethegodsandattaincommunionwiththem.Theaimindoing sowastobringsalvationandblessingstoallsentientbeings. PassagesexplainingwhentocarryoutretreatsarefoundintheZhaijieweiyijue(LessonsonRetreats,PreceptsandMightyRituals)andTaijiyinzhubaojue (PreciousLessonswithSecretAnnotationsoftheGreatUltimate).Thetwotextsgivedifferentexplanations,simplybecausetheymeandifferentthingsbytheterm retreat(zhai). TheZhaijieweiyijue,inapassageallegedlyutteredbythePerfectedManoftheGreatUltimate,states,"Thefirst,third,fifth,seventh,ninth,andeleventhmonths

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aretheSixRetreatsoftheYear.The1st,8th,14th,15th,18th,23rd,24th,28th,29thand30thdaysaretheTenRetreatsoftheMonth."Theretreatsmentionedhere seemtobecommunalrituals,andthepassageisfollowedbyashortliturgy.IntheChishuchenwen(3/1a8a)wearetoldthattheaforementioned"TenRetreatsof theMonth"aredayswhensupremedeitiesintheheavensofthetendirectionsgathertocarryoutretreats,paytheirrespecttotheLingbaoFiveWrits,andexamine themeritsanddemeritsofthe"humansanddemonsontheearth."Itiscrucialthathumanscarryoutretreatsonthesedayssothattheirtransgressionswillbeforgiven andtheirmeritsacknowledged.Apparently,the"SixRetreatsoftheYear"referstothemonthsduringwhichthedesignatedretreatdays(i.e.,"TenRetreatsofthe Month")hadtobeobserved.Theidea,then,wastocarryoutretreatsontendaysoutofeachoftheoddnumberedmonths,meaningthatatotalofsixtydaysper yearweremandatoryretreatdays.However,thesamepassagealsoappearstoacknowledgethatitisworthyanddesirabletoengageinretreatsmoreoften,andthus endorses''perpetualretreatsandlengthycontemplation"asameansfor"transcendingintovacuity."Itfurtherproclaimsthatthe"AugustElders,HeavenlyWorthiesand GreatSaints"engageinthistirelessly,andtherefore"Taoistadeptsandimmortals"mustdoso.(Zhaijieweiyijue1a). ThepassageintheTaijiyinzhubaojue(alsoascribedtothePerfectedManoftheGreatUltimate)usesthetermretreattorefermoregenerallytotheobservanceof purificatoryprohibitions.Itassertsthataretreatisafundamentalreligiouspracticethatneedstobecarriedoutinconjunctionwithpracticallyanyreligiousactivity.It thusstates,"Therecitationofscripturesrequiresaretreat.Theeditingofscripturesrequiresaretreat.Thewriting(copying)ofscripturesrequiresaretreat.Thewriting oftalismansrequiresaretreat.Thepreparationofmedicinesrequiresaretreat.Theconcoctionofthegoldenelixirrequiresaretreat.Concentratedmeditationrequires aretreat.Visitingandinquiringofateacherrequiresaretreat.Bowingandworshippingrequiresaretreat.Receivingscripturesrequiresaretreat.Healingdiseasesand alleviatingcalamitiesrequiresaretreat"(Taijiyinzhubaojue15b). Asmayberecalled(pp.9697),theZhenyiquanjiefalunmiaojingtellsofhowGeXuanengagedinayearlongsilentretreatonMt.Tiantai,devotinghimselfto confessionandcontemplation.TherewardforhisausteritieswasanencounterwiththeThreePerfectedMenoftheObscureOriginandthetransmissionofholy scriptures.Theoretically,anyadeptcouldencounterdivinebeingsbydiligentlycarryingoutaretreat.TheTaijiyinzhubaojuestates
ThePerfectedManoftheGreatUltimatesaid,"Whenapersoncarriesoutapureretreatamidstlengthystillness,engagesinconcentratedmeditationwhilebaskinginthedark mystery,recitesscripturesandconfessestransgressions,andburnsincenseinworship,hewilleventuallyseeFlyingCelestialBeings.ImmortalBoysandJadeGirlswilldescend tohisroom.Perhapshewillhear[voices]intheroomexalting[his]goodnessforhim.

Page114 Perhapsraysoflightwillilluminatehisbody.Perhapshewillhearthesoundsofgoldandjade[chimes]intheeighttones.TheseareallsignsthatheisabouttoattaintheTao.Be diligent!Bediligent!TheMostHighwillnotforsakeyou."(17b)

Heretheadeptistoldtobediligentinhisretreatofmeditation,scripturerecitation,confession,andworship.Bydoingso,heisguaranteedtosomedayreceive confirmationofhisprogressintheformofamysticalencounteraccompaniedbyextraordinarysightsandsounds.TheZhaijieweiyijuedescribesthemethods employedtobringaboutmysticalencountersinfurtherdetail.

ThePerfectedManoftheGreatUltimatesaid,"Whenengaginginaretreat,everybodyshouldconcentratetheirmindsontheMysteriousPerfectionandalwayshavenoexternal thoughts.Yourthoughtsmustbeuponthescripturesandyourteacher.FirstvisualizetheThreeOnesintheirpalaces,residingtherepeacefully,clearlyvisible,accompaniedby thethreehunsoulsandsevenposouls.TheGreatOneprotectstheNiwanasintheMethodoftheWhirlwindandtheImperialOne.31Afterwards,[theGreatOne]willparticipate intheretreattogetherwithyouandlistentothescriptures[thatyourecite].[If]youreceive[secretlessons]fromthemouth[oftheGreatOne]andcontemplate[thelessons]in yourheart,therebytheThreeCorpseswillrunawayandtheevilqiwillbepurged.Insideandoutside,youwillreceivethetruth.Ifyoudolikethis,youwillbeclosetoimmortality. Complementthis(yourvisualizations)with[methodsof]expellingandtakingin,leadingandguiding,andharmonizingfluids.Ifyoupracticetheabovemarvelousways,the HeavenlyPerfectedBeingswillmostcertainlydescendintoyourmidst.UppergentlemenobtaintheTaoinsidethe[meditation]chamber.Evenifyouliveinacave,ifanexternal thoughtevenasslightasasinglehairhasnotbeeneliminated,youwillhavebutwastedyourstrengthinfutilelabor.ThestudyoftheTaoisnothingmorethantheeliminationof mention.Ifmentationiseliminated,Immortalswillcomedowntomonitorandtestyou.Makesurethatyouarefullyawareofthis."(21a)

SpecificallyrecommendedherearetechniquesofvisualizingtheThreeOnes,thehunandposouls,andtheGreatOne.Alsonoteworthyisthereferencetothe ShangqingmethodoftheWhirlwind.WecanseethatLingbaoproponentswerefamiliarwithShangqingtextsandmethodsandheldtheminhighesteem.Visualization techniquesweresupposedtoenabletheadepttoconcentratehismindinawaythatcouldmakecommunionwithdivinebeingspossible.Atthesametime,theThree Corpsesandwickedqiweretobepurgedfromhisbody,andthevisualizationsweretobesupplementedwithmethodsofair/salivaswallowing,

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breathcontrol,andtheguidingofqi.Ashasbeendiscussedinpreviouschapters,allsuchmethodstypicallypurportedtosuppresshungerandsustainfasts.Fastswere supposedtopurgethebodyofdemonicandimpureforces.Whilethepreviouspassagecitesmentalconcentrationasbeingtheprimarymeansofevokingthe appearanceofdivinebeings,hungerandfatigueprobablyalsoplayedaroleininducingmysticalexperiences. Regardingthedietaryrestrictionsinvolvedinretreats,theZhaijieweiyijuecontainsthefollowinginformation:

ATaoistadeptdistancesandcutshimselfofffromhumantracesandlivesquietlyinrenownedmountains.Hepracticesthisperpetualretreatandlivesaloneinadesolatevalley. TherebyhenolongerselectsaMasteroftheDoctrines[ashispreceptor],butsimplymakeshismindconversewithhismouth.Whenpracticingthisretreatamidstpeople,a Taoistadeptpracticesdietetics.Thefivegrainsarecutoffbyhim,andhedoesnoteatanything,andthatisall.Butifheingestsmedicines,heshoulddosoatnoon.Afterthe noonhourhemaydrinkwater,butmustnoteatanything.Atdawnhemaydrinkporridgeandatnoonhemayeatvegetables.Whentheretreatcomestoanend,andtheretreatis tobeadjournedwithagreatfeast,[thefeast]mustbecleanandpure(bland,vegetarian)initsform.Servethefruitsthataretheseasonaldelicacies.Youmustfirstburnincense andsayprayers[beforeeating].Wishforthehostoftheretreat32toascendtoimmortalityandtranscendtheworld.(21b)

Theaforementionedpassagestartsbydescribingthepersonalperpetualretreatofanadvancedadept,thenseemstomoveontosetforthguidelinesfordietary conductatcommunalretreats.Oddly,thetextseemstocontradictitself.Firstitsaysto"cutoffgrains"andingestonlymedicinesifcompletefastingisimpossible. However,itthenallowsfortheconsumptionofporridgeandvegetables.Apparently,completefastingisendorsedonlyasanideal.Medicines,porridge,and vegetablesareallowedtobeconsumedduetothelimitedcapabilitiesofmostadepts. Laterinthesametextapassageisfoundthatstates,"Whenobservingaretreat,ifyoureachyourlimit,youmayeatdriedjujubesanddriedvenison.Anythingrawor freshisnotallowedtobeserved"(23b)."Limit"hereprobablyreferstoone'scapacitytowithstandhunger.Theunderlyingassumptionseemstobethatadeptswould dotheirbesttoeatnothinguntilthehungerbecameunbearable. InatextissuingfromlaterLingbaoproponents,wefindadescriptionofninedifferentdietaryregimensforretreats.Thetextinquestionisasectionfromthenowlost Xuanmendalun,preservedinYunjiqiqian37/8a9a.Japanesescholarshavespeculatedthatthisscripture,alsoknownastheXuanmendayi,waswrittenduring theDayeera(605617)oftheSuidynasty.33SunayamaMinorumaintainsthatthescripturewaswrittenbymembersofwhathecallstheChongxuanfaction,a powerfulgroupofTaoiststhatcarriedonthescripturalheritageoftheLingbaoand

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TaixuanfactionsintotheSuiandTangperiods.34ItispossiblethattheninedietaryregimensdescribedintheXuanmendalunwerepracticedbyearlyLingbao proponentsduringretreats.Theninedietaryregimensareasfollows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Coarseeating:Adietofhempandmilletgrains.Purpose/Effect"Toterminatecravingsanddesires." Rougheating:Adietofvegetables.Purpose/Effect"Toabandonfats(pork)." Limitedeating:Observingthepostnoonfast.Purpose/Effect"Toeliminateconfusionand defilement." ImbibingEssences:Thetakingoftalismanwaterand"Cinnabar(red?)Flowers."Purpose/Effect "Yourbodyandspiritwillembodyandcompletethe'flowerstems'." ImbibingSprouts:EatingtheCloudSproutsoftheFiveDirections.Purpose/Effect"Youwill transformintothesprouts." ImbibingLight:Eatingthe"Three[typesof]RaysoftheSun,MoonandSevenOrigins(starsofthe UrsaMajor)."Purpose/Effect"Youwilltransformintolight." ImbibingQi:Eating"theQioftheSixAwakenings"andthe"GreatHarmonywhichistheWondrous QioftheFourDirections."Purpose/Effect"YouwilltransformintotheSixQiandwanderaboutin thetendirections." ImbibingthePrimalQi:Eating"theqioftheThreeOrigins[whichareallendowedwith]thejingof GreatHarmonywhichisintheGreatVacuity."Purpose/Effect"Youwilltransformintoprimalqi andmergewithheavenandearthtoformasinglebody." Wombeating:Eating"theharmonyoftheprimaljingwhichI,onmyown,haveobtained.Itisthe originoftheembryoandthewomb.Itis,inotherwords,thepureandvacuousqiwhichdescends intothefourlimbs.NolongerdoIhavearelationshipwiththeoutside."Purpose/Effect"Perpetually youwillbeinyourinfancy,andwillmergeandbecomeonewiththeTao."

8.

9.

Entries1through3describeaustere,blanddietsobservedforthepurposeofselfdiscipline.Entries4through9describefastingtechniquesascribedwith transformativequalitiesofasymbolicnature.Essentially,theadept"becomeswhatheeats."Entry4isthemostdifficulttounderstand,butatentativeinterpretation wouldbethattheadepteatsflowerswithtalismanwaterandacquiresthepotentialto"bloom"withthe"flower"ofimmortality.Inentries5through8,theadepteats rarefiedsubstancessuchas"CloudSprouts,"lightrays,andqi.Indoingso,hisownbodybecomesrarefied.Inentry9,theadeptlivesentirelyoffhisown''wombqi," muchasafetusisnourishedinhis/hermother'swombwithouteatingthefoodnorbreathingtheairoftheexternalworld.

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DuringLingbaoretreats,participantswereexpectedtoengageinworshipsixtimesduringthecourseofatwentyfourhourday.ApassageintheZhaijieweiyijue states,"Duringtheretreat,burnincenseandrepentofyourtransgressionsthreetimesrespectivelyinthedayandevening.Simply,withyourentireheart,hearand receivethewondrousandprofoundteachingsofthescripturesanddoctrines"(9a).Thepracticeofworshippingsixtimesadaywasmostlikelyadoptedfrom Buddhism.35TheexacttimesforthesixworshipsessionsarenotspecifiedintheLingbaotexts.However,theyquitelikelyoccurredatearlymorning(8A.M.),noon, afternoon(4P.M.),night(8P.M.),midnight,andlatenight(4A.M.).(SuchwasgenerallythepracticewithinBuddhistcircles.)36TheZhaijieweiyijuecontainsashort liturgyforaretreatcalledtheWushangZhai(thePeerlessRetreat).Theliturgyincludesversusforsummoninggodsandimmortalsandforsendingoutprayerful petitions.Thepetitionsproclaimthewishthattheritualparticipants,theirancestors,andallsentientbeingsthroughouttheuniversewill"obtaintheTaoandascendas Immortals."Theliturgyalsocallsfortherecitationofconfessionalverses,followedbyscripturerecitation.Onp.10a,thetextextollsthebenefitsofobservingthe retreatoveralengthyperiod,andprovidesanannotationdescribingtheroutinetobeobserved.

IfyoupracticetheTaofor1,000days,withyourmindcompletelydevotedtothemysteries,youwillcertainlybeabletobeckondownPerfectedMen,seeSaintsandobtainthe Tao. (Comment)Engageinworshipsixtimesduringthedayandnight.Duringthreeofthese[worship]timesbeatthelecture.During[theother]three[worship]timesvisualizeyour bodilydeities.

Worshippingsixtimesadayfor1,000dayscertainlywouldhavebeenapiousfeatbeyondtheabilitiesofordinarybelievers.Alengthyretreatofthiskindwasmost likelyapracticeexclusivetoadvanced,fulltimeadepts,sincecommunalretreatsusuallylastedsomewherebetweenthreetotwelvedays.Thus,theZhaijieweiyijue lateronmakesallowancesforbelieverswhopossessedsomethinglessthanthegreatestpietyandendurance.Boththedurationoftheretreatandthenumberofdaily worshipsessionscouldbemodified.

Baopuzisaid,"[I,Ge]Hongthinkthatduringgreatretreatsthatlastagreatnumberofdays,thosenoblesorthoseTaoistadeptswhoareofnaturallyfrailandweakphysiqueare unabletobearthestressofsixtimesofdayandnightworship.Iwouldlikethemtoburnincenseandworshipduringthethreetimes[ofworship]inthedaytime.Theymaybe absentfromthenighttime[worship].Theycansimplyhavethedoctrineslecturedtotheminstead.Thosewhoareabletoburnincense[andworship]sixtimesadaycanmasterthe doctrinesontheirown.Ifearthat[some]peoplehavenotyetobtainedtheqioftheTao,and[hence]theirstrength

Page118 isextremelyweak.Ionlywantthemtoengageintheretreatforonedayandonenight,duringwhichtheyshouldpracticetheTaosixtimes.Thosewhostudy[theTao]should employproperjudgment."(23ab)

TheattributionofthepreviousstatementstothealchemistGeHongisprobablyspurious.Whateverthecase,thepassageacknowledgesthatworshippingsixtimes dailyoveranyextendedperiodwasexcessiveanddangerousforthosewholackedenduranceduetophysicalfrailtyorlackofpriortraining.Onecansurmisethat participationinthethreenighttimesessionsimposedsubstantialrestrictionsuponthenormalsleepschedulesofordinarypeople.Itishenceunderstandablethatthe nighttimesessionsweremadeoptional.FurtheronintheZhaijieweiyijue,"GeHong"proclaims

Asforthosewhoarenotmountaindwellingadepts(shanxue),[butarepractitionerswho]resideathometopracticethescriptures,theyarecertainlynotcapableofengagingin theperpetualretreatofsustainedcontemplation.Essentially,theymustparticipateinretreatsandpracticetheTao(worship)evenifitisonlyforshortperiodsoftendays,nine days,sevendays,threedays,orevenoneday.(23b)

Acleardistinctionisthusmadebetweenthe"mountaindwelling"fulltimeadeptwhocanwithstandtherigorsofaperpetualretreatandthe"athome"practitionerwho shouldonlyparticipateinretreatstotheextentthatheorsheiscapable. TheMingzhenkecontainstworitualliturgies.Theseritualsprobablyrequiredtheobservanceoftheaforementioneddietarypracticesandworshipschedule.Theyalso requiredparticipantstoinflictpainandhumiliationuponthemselvesfortheexpiationofthetransgressionsofallsentientbeings.Thefirstliturgyisentitled"theUpper ItemoftheJadeBoxesoftheNineDarknessesforPullingOutandRescuingtheDeadSoulsfromPunishment"(17a24b).Itistobecarriedoutduringthe aforementioned"SixRetreatsoftheYearandTenretreatsoftheMonth,"andalsoontheeightseasonaltransitions(bajie,i.e.theequinoxesandsolsticesandthefirst dayofeachseason)andthejiaziandgengshendaysofthesexegenarycycle.Inthecourtyardofthehousethatservesastheritualarena,alanternpostninechi (about2.17m.)highiserected,uponwhichninelanternsareplaced.Thesesymbolizetheradianceofthesun,moon,andsevenstarsoftheUrsaMajor,which illuminatetheNineDarknesses(hells),whilethePrimordialHeavenlyWorthyexpoundsthePerfectDoctrinesandguidesthedamnedsoulstowardredemption.Inthe ensuingritual,apetitionisrecitedtowardthesupremedeitiesofthetendirections(N,S,E,W,NE,NW,SE,SW,above,andbelow),requestingthatalllivingbeings besparedfromtheTenSufferingsandEightDifficulties(shikubanan)37andthatallthesoulsofthedeadbeliberatedfrominfernalpunishmentsandreincarnatedinto agoodexistence.Aftereachreadingofthepetition(thepetitionisreadtentimes,onceforeachdirection),participantskowtowand"hitthemselves"(slaptheir cheeks)38repeatedly.

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Theprescribednumbersofkowtowsandslapsforeachdirectionare:east81,south27,west63,north45,northeast9,southeast9,southwest9, northwest9,above288,below120.Inotherwords,theparticipantkowtowsandslapshimselfatotalof660times!Thiswasobviouslyveryexhaustingand painful.However,suchsufferingwassupposedtoenhancetheeffectivenessofthepetitions.

Itissothatbyprostratingyourselfinworship,kowtowingandhittingyourself,youadministerwordsofhumbleconfession.Therebywithyourearnestheartanddevotedmind, yoursincerityisthoroughandyoursufferingissufficientnaturally[yourpetitions]willmove[divinebeings]pervasively. Ifyourbodybecomestiredandworn,andcannolongerwithstandbeingdraggedabout,youmayworshiptheHeavenlyPerfectedBeingsinyourheart,andneednotgotothe troubleofprostratingyourself.Ifyoupretend[tobereverent]externallybutarelazyinyourheart,youwillonlybelaboryourbodyinworship.[Asfor]gentlemenoffaith,their heartsandmouthsareconsistent.Holdingincense,theirpoignantwishesalready[beforeyouknowit],permeatethevariousheavens.Thetransgressionsoftherealmoflifeand death(samsara)arealldissipated.Thismeritisextremelygreat.ItistobepraisedthroughouttheThreeRealms.39Itsblessingsandvirtuesareloftybeyonddescription.(24b)

Thebasicaimisto"move"thegodstoheedthepetitionsthroughone'sinnersincerity,whichisreflectedinexternalactsof"suffering."However,allowancesaremade forthoseunabletofollowthedemandsoftheliturgyliterally.Thetextalsowarnsofthefutilityofsufferingthatisdisplayedmerelyforshow,withoutagenuinefeeling ofrepentance. ThesecondliturgyintheMingzhenkeis"theMethodoftheCurriculumofBrightPerfectionfortheBureausofPerpetualNight,theJadeBoxesintheNine Darknesses"(25b37a).Thisistobeperformedduringnationalcrisessuchasdroughts,epidemics,andwars.Numerouslanternsasmanyas900,dependingonthe occasionandtheseverityofthecrisisaresetup,symbolizingthedivinelightthatilluminatesallexistence,includingthehellsofPerpetualDarkness.Alsoemployedin theritualarethesacredFivePerfectWritsoftheLingbao,writteninredinkandplacedonfivedifferenttablesinthecourtyard.PlacedbesidetheWritsaresmall imagesofdragons,eachmadefromoneliang(13.92grams)ofgold.Intheritual'sgrandfinale,theFiveWritsareburned.Themostinterestingfeatureoftheritualis describedasfollows:

Thegreatritualmaster[stands]inthecenter[oftheritualarena]withhishairletdownandtopknotuntied.Inaccordancewiththelessonshesmears[himself]withsoot.Sixtimes [perday]hepetitionsandrepents,carryingouttheseactivitiesinthecourtyard.Ifmenandwomenofpurity

Page120 andfaith[wishto]prayandrequestonbehalfofthenation,theyshouldexpresstheirsentimentsoutsidethegatesbydishevelingtheirhairandsmearingsootonthemselves.In thespring,[theritualshouldgoonfor]ninedaysandninenights.Inthesummer,[itshouldgoonfor]threedaysandthreenights.Inthefall,[itshouldgoonfor]sevendaysand sevennights.Inthewinter[itshouldgoonfor]fivedaysandfivenights.Duringthefourjimonths(third,sixth,ninth,twelfth)[itshouldgoonfor]twelvedaysandtwelvenights. (26ab)

Thetextcontinueswithpetitionstothedeitiesofthetendirections.Again,thepetitionswhichvaryonlyslightlyintheirwordingaretobefollowedbykowtows andslaps(east81,south27,west63,north45,northeast9,southeast9,southwest9,northwest9,above88,below108total448).The petitionsincludethewords,"...Wenowthereforeholdaretreat.Weopenourheartsandexposeourbodies.Wecontinuouslyimplore[you]whiledisciplining ourselves,inordertoridournationofitsmisfortunes...." Aswasthecasewiththefirstliturgy,exhaustionandpainpurporttoenhancetheeffectivenessofthepetitions.Thephrase"exposeourbodies"likelymeansthatthe participantswouldstripofftheirclothingandsmeartheirbodieswithsoot.Fortunately,wehavesourcesatourdisposalthatdescribethe"smearingofsoot"(tutan) muchmorevividly.40BythelatterpartoftheSixDynastiesperiod,the"smearingofsoot"haditselfbecomeafullfledgedretreatcalledtheTutanZhai(Retreatof SmearingSoot).TheWushangbiyao50containsalongsection(201/2pages)entitled"SectionontheRetreatofSmearingSoot,"aTutanZhailiturgythat incorporatespetitionsandversesfromvariousscriptures.Theliturgybeginswithapetitioncontainingthefollowingwords:

[We]yoursubjects...[whoarelike]wormsandantsarestinky,filthy,insignificantandlowlyasonecouldbe.Duetosomekindofamistakewehavehadthefortunatedestinyof beingbornintotheageofthegreatevangelism....(50/1a) Holdingusreverentlybythehand,forSoandSowefollowtheinstructionsoftheCelestialMaster:[face]smearedwithsoot,accordingtotheregulationsofpardon,presenting ourselvesinthesacredplace,weareattached,wearelinkedtogether,ourhairisdisheveled,wehavesmearedourforeheadswithmud,wekeepourheadsavertedandourhairin ourmouthatthefootofthebalustrade,conformingtothe[ritualof]purefastingoftheGreatPardonoftheLowerOriginaloftheSacredJewel,weburnincenseandwestrikethe earthwithourforeheadweaskformercy. Inthisday,suchandsuchadayofsuchandsuchamonth,onthesacredaltarofsuchandsuchasubprefectureofsuchandsuchacommandery,suchandsuchafamily, carryingoutthefastforpurepardon,haslitthelampsandproducedthebrightnessilluminatingtheheavens.

Page121 Forthreedaysandthreenights,forsixhours(sic,times) each(ofthesedaysandnights),ithascarriedoutrepentancetoobtainpardon,sothatthehundredthousand ancestors,relativesandbrothers,alreadydeadorwhowilllaterdie,includingthepersonofSoandSo(whoisperformingtheceremony),shallbewithoutevilthroughoutthe kalpas....(50/1b)42

41

Whatisdescribedhereisanexerciseinselfdegradation.Participantscomparethemselvestowormsandants.Theyexpresstheirremorsebystrippingandbinding themselves.Theyfurtherdegradethemselvesbysmearingmudontheirfacesandstrikingridiculouspostures.Thisgoesonforthreedays,probablywithsevere restrictionsonnourishmentandrest. AnotherinterestingpassageisfoundintheErjiaolun,aBuddhistpolemical(antiTaoist)workwrittenbyacertainDaoanin570C.E.Itstates

TheRetreatofSmearingSootwasoriginatedbyZhangLu(thethirdHeavenlyMaster).[Participants]rollinthemudlikedonkeys.Theirfacesaresmearedwithyellowmud,and theyaregrabbedbytheirheadsandhungfromtheirhairpins.[Theyarethen]kneadeduntiltheyareripe(beatenandbruised?).WhenitcametothebeginningoftheYixireignera (405418),therewasacertainWangGongchaowhodeletedthehittingandslapping[fromtheprocedure].LuXiujingoftheWuregionstillcarriedoutonlythe[smearingof]mud ontheforeheadsandbindingofhandsbehindtheback.Toresorttothesethingstodeliveroneselffromdisasters,howextremelyfoolish.(TaishoCanon52:140,bottom)

Portrayedhereisafrenziedscenewhereallsenseofsolemnityanddignityhasbrokendown.Mostinterestingisthestatementmaintainingthattheritualwasmuch moreabusiveandviolentpriortotheearlyfifthcentury,afterwhichthemostrevoltingactivities(thebeatings)werediscontinued.Still,thepolemicisttellsus,theritual otherwiseretaineditselementsofselfdegradationandwroughtmuchchaoticfrenzy.WemustkeepinmindthatthecredibilityoftheErjiaolunissuspect,duetoits polemicalbias.Nonetheless,HenriMasperohasdrawnuponitsevidencetosurmisethattheritualsoftheearlyreligiousTaoists(GreatPeaceSchool,FivePecksof RiceSchool)43specificallyaimedtocreateastateoffrenzy.Furthermore,inhisopinion,thedeliriumcausedbydeprivationoffoodandsleepservedtoheightenthe frenzy.MasperoalsospeculatedthattheexcitementcreatedatritualswasoneoftheprimefactorsthatenabledtheearlyreligiousTaoiststowinconvertsata phenomenalrate.44 ASoteriologicalPuzzle TheLingbaomovementwasheavilyinfluencedbyBuddhism.ButdidtheLingbaomovementembraceBuddhistdoctrinestothepointwhereextinctionfromsamsara

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replacedbodilylongevityandimmortalityasthemaingoal?Thisquestionisofgreatimportancetoourstudy,sincethemainmotiveforTaoistasceticismwasorhad beentostrengthenandtransformthebody.Analteredviewofthebody'sroleintheprocessofsalvationcouldhavehadadrasticimpactontheformandpurpose ofasceticism.TheGongdeqingzhongjing(TheScriptureontheLightnessandHeavinessofMerit)containsaratherlengthypassagethatseemstoholdthekey toansweringourquestion.Thepassage,translatedinfull,readsasfollows:

[ThePrimordialHeavenlyWorthysaid],"Youdie,andyouarebornagain.Itbecomesdark,andthenlightisrestored.Heavenandearthrotatelikethewheelsofacart.Thebirths anddeathsofpeople[followoneafteranother]liketheshadowfollowsthebody,andthustheyaredifficulttoputanendto.Eachqifollowstheotherandeachseedproduces causes.Good,bad,misfortuneandblessingallhaverootsofdestiny[bywhichtheyarecaused].Theyarecausednotbyheaven,earthnor[other]peopletheyintruthcomefrom yourownmind.Themindis,inotherwords,thespirit.Yourbodilyformisnotpropertoyou.Thereasonforwhyyoucametobebornwasbecauseyoucamefromtheselfs o nessofvacuousnonbeing,andthroughcertaincausesenteredawomb,underwenttransformationsandwereborn.Thefatherandmotherwhoproducedyouinthewombarenot thefatherandmotherofyouroriginalbirth.Yourtruefatherandmotherarenothere[intheordinaryworld].Theloveofyour[true]fatherandmother(i.e.,theTao)isgreat,and theirloftyworthisunsurpassed.[Asfor]thefatherandmotherwhogavebirthtoyouinyourpresentexistence,youwereentrustedtothemdueto[past]causesandreceivedthe favoroftheirrearingandnurturing.Thereforeyou[should]repaythemwithproprietybycallingthem"father"and"mother." Therefore,thebodythatyoureceiveisnotyourbody.Youonlyresidethereandmakeityourhouse.Bymeansofityoumakeyourhomeinwhichyouhouseyourself.You entrustyourselftoitandmakeityour[bodily]form.Ishallnowteachyouaboutbeingandnonbeing. Therefore,thosewhoacquiretheTaonolongerhavea[bodily]form.Whenyoudonothaveabody,whatafflictionscouldyouhave?Thereasonforwhyyouhaveafflictionsis onlybecauseyouhaveabody.Whenyouhaveabody,100afflictionsareproduced.Ifyouhavenobody,youwilltherebyenterintoselfs oness,andinyourcarryingoutof actionsyouwillmergewiththeTao,andtherebyyourbodyandspiritwillbeone.Ifyourbodyandmindmergeintoone,thiswillbeyourbodyofPerfection.Youwillreturnto your[true]fatherandmotherwhofirstgavebirthtoyou,andthusattaintheTao.Youwillnolongersuffer,andyouwillneverdie.Evenifyouundergoextinctionanddeliverance

Page123 (miedu),yourspiritwillgoandyourbodywillnotbedestroyed.Foryourentirelifeyouwillreturntoyourorigintoneverleaveitagain. Ifthebodyviolatesandcommitsthe100eviltransgressions,itwillcometoanendanddie.Thisiswhatiscalleddeath.Youdieandbecomedestroyed,andthenreturntoparents whoinstallyouinawomb.Ifyourcausesforpunishmentarenotexhausted,youcannotreturntoyourtruefatherandmother.Yourspiritwillservethesentenceofmuddylabor (inhell)andyourbodywillturntoashesanddust.Thedustandashesflyupandturnintolight(shuang).45Thehunsoulisreleased[fromhell]andmergeswiththelight.Thus thehunsoulandthelighttransformandmergeintoone,andthenachieverebirthandreturntoexistenceasahumanbeing.Thebodyandspiritfolloweachotherandneverleave eachother.Inthisway,goodandevil[actions]inthebodyeachhavetheirappropriateconsequence.(33b34b)

Theaforementionedpassagefirstaddressestheissueofhowtoendthecycleofrebirthandsuffering.Itthenstatesthatallcausesforone'sexistencelienowhereelse butinthemind(xin),orthespirit(shen).ItgoesontodiscusshowbyobtainingtheTao,onecanavoidhellandrebirthtoreturntoone'strue"fatherandmother." Thebodyisdescribedasbeingameretemporarydwellingforthespirit.Unlikethespirit,itissaidtonotbelongtooneself.Thetextstatesthathavingthisbodyisthe causeforallsuffering.OnewhohasobtainedtheTaonolonger"hasabody."Thisapparentlydoesnotliterallymeantohavenobodyofflesh,sincelateroninthe passageitstatesthattheadeptwho"hasnobody"mergeshisbodywithhisspirit. Theconceptof"nothavingabody"isalmostundoubtedlytakenfromthethirteenthchapteroftheLaozi.Thereitreads,"ThereasonIhavegreattroubleisthatIhave abody.WhenInolongerhaveabody,whattroublehaveI?"46Inexplainingthispassage,theHeshanggongcommentary47theLaozicommentarypreferredbythe Lingbaomovement48states

Whenyouhaveabodyyouworryaboutlabor,andareconcernedaboutstarvingandfreezing.Youremotionsareaffectedbyhumiliations,therebycausingmisfortunes. Ifyoumakeyourselfnothaveabody,youwillembodytheTaospontaneously,lightlyascendingupontheclouds,exitingandenteringthemidstofnonbeing.Spiritually correspondingwiththeTao,whatworriescouldyouhave?(Daodezhenjingzhu[HY682/TT363],1/10b)

Inthepassagejustcited,"nothavingabody"doesnotliterallymeantohavenophysicalbody.Thiscanbededucedfromhowthepassagedescribesthestateof"not havingabody"asaprerequisiteforembodyingtheTao."Nothavingabody"

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referstoastateofmindthatisoblivioustoconcernsandworriespertainingtothesustenanceandsurvivalofthebody.Insuchastateofmind,apersonnolonger needstopleasethesensesandgratifytheego.49Thisabstractusageofthephrase"havingabody"alsoisfoundwithinthe300PreceptsforMonitoringtheBody(see p.110). TheimportanceofrisingabovetheconcernsanddesiresofthefleshisalsoeloquentlystatedintheDingzhitongweijing(TheScriptureonStabilizingtheWilland PenetratingtheSubtleties).

Theessentiallesson[yououghttolearn]isthatyoumustunderstandthat[all]withintheThreeRealmsandThreeEras(past,present,future)isempty.[Youmust]understand thattheThreeErasareempty[andthat]eventhoughyouhaveyourbody,allisgoingtoreturntoemptiness.Ifyouareclearontheprincipleofreturningtoemptiness,youwill therebybeabletoforgetaboutyourbody.[Asfor]thosewhoareabletoforgetabouttheirbodies,nolongerwilltheylovetheirbodies.Whentheynolongerlovetheirbodies, theywillbeabletohavenothingthattheylove.OnlytheTaowillbe[theobjectof]theirlove.[Asfor]thosewhoareabletolovetheTaotheTaowilllovethemtoo.Thosewho obtaintheloveoftheTaowillforthefirsttimereturntoPerfection.(4b)

TaughthereisthefundamentalBuddhistprincipleofemptiness(sunyata),whichismeanttoserveasaninsightthatallowstheadeptto"forgethisbody"andattain Perfection.Byunderstandingthatneitherhisbodynoranyotherthisworldlyentitypossessanypermanentandselfsufficientreality,theadeptcanconcentratesolely onseekingtheTao. Althoughthisidealofdisregardingthebodyandallotherthisworldlyobjectsiscertainlyconducivetoasceticism,italsoseemstodefinePerfectionsolelyintermsof insightandspirituality.Ifthebodyis"empty"andisnomorethana"temporarydwelling,"itwouldseemthatthereisnopossibilityforthefleshtobemadeimmortal. WasthequintessentiallyTaoistmotiveforasceticismnamely,thestrengtheningandtransformationofthebodyundermined?Thekeytoansweringthisquestion seemstolieinhowoneistounderstandthephrase"thebodyandthespiritwillbeone"andthetermbodyofPerfection,foundinthepassagefromtheGongde qingzhongjing(pp.122123).ApassagefromtheBenyuandajiejingshedsconsiderablelightonthismatter.

ThePerfectedManoftheGreatUltimatesaid,"TheTaoisnonbeing.Itexpandsandwrapsaroundinfinitely.Ifyouwishtoseekitnearby,withinyourveryownbodyitalso exists.Bymeansofbeing,enterintononbeing.Continuouslycontemplate[theTao]inordertoobtainwhatismarvelous.Themyriadthingsintheirabundanceareallbutlike mirages.Theywillallreturntoemptiness.Thesameissowiththehumanbody.

Page125 Whenthebodydies,thespiritleaves.Itiscomparabletoahouse.Whenthehouseisdestroyed,apersoncannotstandthere.Ifthebodyisdamaged,thespiritwillnotreside there.You[therefore]mustcontrolyourthoughtstostabilizeyourwill.[Youmust]makeyourbodystillinordertomakeyourspiritpeaceful.Treasureyourqitopreserveyour jing.Forgettingbothyourthoughtsandconcerns,darklycontemplateandlookwithin,andyourbodyandspiritwillmergeintoone.Ifthebodyandspiritmergeintoone,theywill soonbecomethebodyofPerfection."(2a)

Thebodyisagaindescribedhereasbeingatemporarydwelling.However,thepassagethendescribeshow,throughmeditation,onecankeepthebodyandspirit togetherandstayalive.Italsoclearlystatestheimportanceofavoidingbodilydamage.Keepingthebodyandspirittogetherinvolvesnotonlyintensemeditationand mentaldisciplinebutalsothestabilizationofthebodyandtheretentionofqiandjing.Thiseventuallycreatesthe"bodyofPerfection."Althoughtheaforementioned passagealsoisveryvagueaboutwhatthe"bodyofPerfection"is,itsattainmentisapparentlytantamounttodiscoveringtheTaothatdwellsinthebody.Thetextalso assuresthatbyemployingone'stemporalbody(being),oneobtainsandenterstheeternalTao(nonbeing)latentwithinit.Itthusappearsthatthebodyandits maintenancestillheldanintegralplaceinthenewsoteriology. Yetfurtherquestionsnaturallyariseregardingthenatureofthis"bodyofPerfection."Wasitsupposedtobeararefied,transformedbody?Isitbestunderstoodasa metaphorfortheinnate,ineffableTao(orNonbeing)thattheadeptsomehowcomestotermswith?Wasitconsideredanentitythathadtobeliberatedfromtheflesh atsomepoint,orwastheentirefleshsupposedtobetransformedintoaneternalentity?InterpretationsmayhavevariedamongLingbaoadherentsthemselves.While theywereeagertoadoptthedoctrinesofBuddhism,theyalsofelttheneedtoleaveopenthepossibilityforbodilyimmortality.ItisthusnoteworthythattheGongde qingzhongjing,whilecallingthebodya"temporarydwelling,"alsocontainsthefollowingpassagethataffirmsthepossibilityofbodilyascension:
Insidethehumanbodytherearethe36,000godsoftheThreePalacesandSixBowels.Whenthehumanbodydoesevil,thebodilydeitiesreportittotheThreeOfficials.Whenthe humanbodydoesgood,theyrecommendthepersonforselectionasanimmortal.[Asfor]life,death,punishmentandblessing,noneofthesearenotfirstandforemostcausedby thebodilydeities.Shadowsandechoesrespondappropriatelyintheirnaturalmanner.Peoplearebornendowedwithqi.Theqigathersandformsthegods.Ifapersonisableto nurturehisqi,thegodswillthusexist[inhim]foralongtime.IfyoucontemplateinternallyandguardwhatisPerfect,whatisPerfectwillnotdepartfromthebody.Ifthereis[an adept]whoobtainstheLifeExtendingTalismanoftheGreatMystery,

Page126 the36,000godswillgathertheirqiandmanifesttheirforms,raisinguphisbodyasheascendstotheheavensinbroaddaylight.Hasteningaboutinachariotofclouds,hewill ascendandenterintothevacuousemptiness(thesky).Ifyouloseyourjingandloseyourqi,yourmyriad[bodily]godswillescapeandfallout[ofyourbody].Yourgodswill wanderandyourqiwillscatter,andyour[bodily]formwillperishasanemptycorpse.(21a)

Ofnotehereistheusageofthecharactershen(whichIhaverenderedas''gods"ratherthan"spirit"),whichrefersnottoasingleentityequatedtothe"mind"(xin)but rathertothousandsofentitiesbestunderstoodaspersonificationsoftheforcesthatanimateeachandeverypartofthebody.Forthepreservationandmobilizationof theseentities,theadeptistoldtotreasureandnurturethebasicvitalcomponents(jing,qi)ofthebody.(OneLingbaotext,theErshisishengtujing,outlinesinsome detailhowthebodilydeitiesaretobemobilizedthroughincantations,visualizations,talismanswallowing,andtheimbibingoftheFiveSprouts,solaressences,and lunaressences).50IfweassumethatLingbaoadherentstooktheaforementionedpassageliterally,wecanconcludethatinspiteofBuddhistinfluence,theystill believedintheperpetuationoftheflesh.However,wecannotassumethis,anditseemsmorereasonabletothinkthatLingbaoadherentsvariedintheirunderstanding ofimmortality.Also,manyofthosewhobelievedin"ascensioninbroaddaylight"literallymayhaveseenitasagoaltooloftyandelusiveforthem. Ofparamountinterest,whenconsideringtheimpactofBuddhistdoctrinesonTaoisttheoriesofimmortality,istheusageofthewordmiedu,whichIhavetranslatedas "extinctionanddeliverance"(seepp.122123).MieduisoriginallyaBuddhisttermthatdenotestheultimatesalvationforBuddhists,theliberationfromsamsara broughtonbyenlightenment.IntheLingbaoscriptures,thetermalsodescribesaworthymodeofsalvation.However,itisonlythesecondbestalternativetothe highestideal,"ascensioninbroaddaylight"(thebestalternativeisthe"liberationfromthecorpse,"wherebodilydeathis"feigned").Whenoneunderwentmiedu,one wasthoughttoinitiallydie.However,thespiritwouldnotgotohellforpunishment,andthebodywouldnotdecompose.Eventually,onedaythespiritandbody wouldbereunited,bringingaboutresurrection.ThisbeliefismostclearlyattestedtointheMingzhenke(TheCurriculumofBrightPerfection)(4a).Thisscripture describeshowdifferentpracticesandlifestylesbringabouttheirappropriateretributions.ThemostblessedaresaidtoascendtotherealmofYuqing(JadePurity)"in broaddaylight,"whiletheimmoralaretosufferthetormentsofhell(thesetormentsareportrayedvividlyinthetext).Betweenthesetwogroupsliethosewhoattain "liberationfromthecorpse"andthosewhoattain"extinctionanddeliverance"(miedu).Thelatteraredescribedasfollows:
[Asforthosewhouponbeing]bornintotheworld,refinetheirPerfectionbyingestingthedivineelixirandprotectandvitalizetheirDivine

Page127 ChambersandFivePalaces(viscera)withtheFiveRocks,theirmeritisslightandtheirvirtueisnarrow.Theirdestinyisnotyettoascendtoheaven.Theirbodieswillachieve extinctionanddeliverance,andtheirskeletons(or"bodies"?)willbefragrantandfullforeverthroughouthundredsofthousandsofkalpas.Afterawhile,theywillreturntoform andonceagainobtainlifeandreturntothemidstofhumans.Theirwisdomwillbethoroughlyperceptiveandtheywillforeseegoodandbadfortune.Theywillcommandand controldemonsandspirits.TransmigratingunceasinglytheywilldefinitelybeabletoreceivedocumentsandbecomePerfectedMenoftheNinePalaces[oftherealmofTaiqing]. (4a)

Mostinterestinghereisthereferencetothemethodof"protecting"the"FivePalaces"with''FiveRocks."Thisverylikelyreferstothemethodofboiling"whiterocks," whichwaspromotedbytheShangqingmovementasameansforachievingresurrectionand"avoidinggrains"(seepp.6567). AlsousefulforenhancingourunderstandingoftheTaoistusageofthewordmieduisastoryfromtheLingbaobenxingjing,preservedintheYunjiqiqian101/11a 12b.51ThestoryisahagiographicalaccountconcerningthePerfectedVenerableLordofCinnabarNuminosity.Priortohisapotheosis,thisPerfectedBeingwasa mannamedZhengRenan,wholivedinthemythicalWorldofChanli.Tosummarizethestorybriefly,ZhengRenan,whohadbeentrainingaloneinthemountains sincetheageoftwelve,encounteredacertainMasterXuanhe.Fromhimhereceivedthe"PerfectWritsoftheBlackEmperor"(Lingbaochishuwuqixuantianheidi zhenwen)andthe"TenSuperiorPreceptsofWisdom"(Zhihuishangpinshijie).Sometimelater,ahugefloodsweptthenation.ZhengRenanemployedthePerfect Writstorescuethepopulace.HethenpresentedtheWritstotheking.TheWritsimmediatelyflewuptotheheavensfromwhichtheyhadoriginallyissued.By relinquishingpossessionoftheWrits,ZhengRenanhaddisqualifiedhimselfforheavenlyascension.Thus,wearetold

Hisfatewastoundergoextinctionanddeliverance.Hefeigned[theendofhis]destinyandproclaimedhisdeathattheHillofBeirong.[There]hisholycorpsewasexposedfor30 oddyears,duringwhichthebodyneverdecayed.Itslustrouscomplexionwasfreshandclear,nodifferentfromwhenhewasalive.(Yunjiqiqian101/11b)

Wealsoaretoldthatwhenaforestfireragedthroughthehill,thebodyandtheareasurroundingitremainedunharmed,whilearadianceofthreecolorsemanated fromthebody.Whentheking,outofcuriosity,builtafiretoburnthebody,thebodywasresurrected. Finally,regardingmiedu,onemustmentiontheTaishangdongxuanlingbaomieduwulianshengshimiaojing(TheMarvelousScriptureonExtinctionand Deliverance,theFivefoldRefinementforRevivingtheCorpse).52Thistextcontains

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afuneraryliturgydesignedtobringaboutmieduforthoseunabletodosothroughtheirowntrainingandmerit.Theliturgicalritualissupposedtohavetheeffectof preservingtheinterredcorpse,whilethehunsoulisdeliveredfromtheunderworldandsenttotheSouthernPalaceofFire(seepp.8182)forpurificationand refinement.Ultimately,afteraverylongtime,thebodyandposoularetoberesurrectedandreunitedwiththehunsoul.Eventually,somedayheavenlyascensionisto beachieved. ReturningourattentiontothepassagequotedfromtheGongdeqingzhongjingonpp.122123,wecanseethatintheLingbaoversionofthetransmigrationtheory, thespirit(shen,hun)andbody(shen,qi,po)areinallcasesgoodorbadinalienablyassociated.Evenintheworstscenario,wherethetransgressor'ssoulis torturedinhellwhilethebodydecomposesintodust,thesoulandbody(transformedtodustandthenlight)eventuallyreunitetoformtheentitythatentersawombfor rebirth.Insum,theLingbaosoteriologicalschemeupholdsthesignificanceofthebody.Theblessedpersonischaracterizedbythedegreetowhichthebodyiskept intactandhowthesoulevadesthetormentsofhell. Still,someofthepassageswehaveexaminedcontainstatementsthatstressthebody'simpermanenceandglorifyamergingwiththeNonbeingthatsounds suspiciouslynoncorporeal.Aninnertensionseemstohaveexistedbetweenviewsemphasizingtheperpetuationofthefleshandviewsdeemphasizingit.

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ChapterSeven CriticismsofHereticalAsceticismintheYuqingjing
DuringthenextfewcenturiesaftertheappearanceoftheLingbaoscriptures,newerscripturesappearedthatemulatedtheirformatandexpandedontheircentral themesanddoctrines.1 Thesenewerscriptures,someofwhichsurvivetoday,areheftycompositionsrangingbetween30,000and100,000charactersinlength. Anonymousintheirauthorship,theycontainstoriesanddiscoursesallegedlyutteredintheinconceivablyremotepastbygodsandimmortalsintranscendentrealms. TheyclaimtoexpoundtheGreatVehicle,thehighestandtruestdoctrinethatbringsforthuniversalsalvation. OnesuchscriptureistheYuqingjing(TheScriptureof[theRealmof]JadePurity,HY1301/TT10221024).2 TheYuqingjingisananonymousworkthatcontains nodirectreferencestoactualpeopleandevents.Whilethismakesitverydifficulttodate,itappearstohavebeenwrittensometimeinthesixthcentury.This observationis,however,tentative.ThemostthatcanbesaidwithcertaintyisthatitwaswrittenaftertheLingbaoscripturesandbefore753C.E.Internalevidence seemstoprovideahintthatitwaswritteninnorthernChina.3 TheYuqingjing,asonewouldexpectfromitsgreatlength,4 coversawidevarietyofthemes.Muchofthetextdealswithtopicsofinteresttogeneralbelievers,such astheobservanceofmoralprecepts,almsgiving,devotiontoTaoistdeities,andparticipationincommunalretreats.Italsocoversmattersofinteresttomoreadvanced practitioners,suchasfasting,meditation,andrulesofconductformountaindwelling.5 However,themostsalientfeatureoftheYuqingjingisitsdenunciationsof hereticalformsofasceticism.6 ThebasicheresyattackedintheYuqingjingistheviewthatmaintainsthatonemustdestroythebodysothespiritcanbeliberatedandsaved.Intermsofpractice, thetextclaimsthatthisheresyleadstoasceticabusesthatinjureorkillthebody.Theattacksagainstheresyoccurwithinmythicalnarrativesaboutdemons, "barbarians,"and"infidels"7 whocorrupttheworldwiththeirperverseways.

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Anintriguingquestioniswhetherornotthesevillainsareallegoricalrepresentationsoftheadherentsofrivalreligions.Asweshallsee,theYuqingjingexhibitsa vehementlyantagonisticattitudetowardforeignersingeneralandBuddhistsinparticular.Thisishighlyundestandableinlightoftheacerbic,vindictivequalitythatthe TaoistBuddhistrivalryhadtakenonsincethefifthcentury.8 However,closerexaminationoftheYuqingqingseemstoshowthatthetext'smainobjectivewasnot somuchtodiscreditrivalreligionsasitwastodenouncetheheresy.Intheopinionoftheauthor(orauthors),theheresyexistedamongbothTaoistsandnonTaoists. "TheChapterontheOriginalArising"(benqipin),thefirstoftheYuqingjing'stwentychapters,containsthetext'sfirstdescriptionandcriticismofimproperascetic acts.Asawhole,thechapterdescribeshowthepowerandteachingsofthePrimordialHeavenlyWorthyactasthesolevehicleforuniversalsalvationthroughout successivecosmiccycles.Thisitdoesthroughamythicalnarrativeofeventsinthe"worldofQixian"(qixiantranslatesinto''abandoningthemorallyupright"). Accordingtothisnarrative,theworldofQixianwasnearingtheendofthecosmiccycle.Itwasafflictedwithwidespreadsufferingcausedbygeneralhumanmalice andwarfare,combinedwithnaturaldisastersandepidemics.Eerieandsinisterphenomenatookplace.Theearthgrewhairandfur.Animalsbegantalkinglikehuman beings.Underthesehorrificcircumstances,peoplewereresortingtosuicideandcannibalism.ThePrimordialHeavenlyWorthysawthisandtookpityontheworldof Qixian.Hedecidedtorestoreitshappinessandvitalityandtookspecialmeasurestopostponeitsimpendingdevastationindefinitely.Hethusdescendeduponthe worldtoexpoundhisdoctrines.Forsevendaysandsevennights,hisbodyemittedaradiancethatpervadedtheentireworld.HeinscribedthePerfectWritsofthe FiveMonarchsandwiththem"protected"thefivedirections,rechargingtheworldwiththecreative,lifesustainingforceoftheTao.Throughtheworkingsofthegood godscommandedbytheFiveMonarchs,cropsbecameplentiful,theclimatebecameagreeable,demonsweresubdued,andmoralitywasrestoredamongthemasses. ThenarrativegoesontodescribethegooddeedsofawiseandvirtuouskingnamedDezheng.OutofgratitudetothePrimordialHeavenlyWorthy,Dezhengbuilt templesandmonasteriesanddirectedallofhissubjectstoworshiptheTaoandconfesstheirtransgressionsdayandnight.Afteranationwideretreatofsevendays andsevennights,thePrimordialHeavenlyworthymanifestedhisdivinecountenancetothepopulaceandbestowedthemwithtenprecepts.9 Dezhenghimselfwas transmittedsecretmethods,afterwhichheabdicatedthethronetooneofhissonsandconcentratedonTaoistselftraining. ThetextthendescribeshowthethronewaspasseddownfromgenerationtogenerationwhileDezhengandhissonShanxiu(whohadalsoabdicated)trained

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themselvesandattainedthestatusof"GreatPerfectedBeing."Oneday,adeitycalledthePerfectLordWithoutSuperiorproclaimedtothemwhattheirfuturetask wastobeandpredictedthehorrificeventsthatweretoeventuallyoccurintheworld.
(I)TheEmperorofHeavenhasmadehiscalculationsaccordingtothecyclesandwillorderyoutogodowntoindoctrinateanddeliverthelivingmasses.AttendingtheHeavenly Worthy,youwillgobelowthefourheavenstoteachandindoctrinatethevariousnationsandspreadforththeqioftheTao.Whyisthis?Itistopostponethedisastersofthis kalpa'sfireqi.ByadheringtoandpracticingthereligionoftheTao,wecansubduethecalamitiesoftheYangNine(theGreatKalpa),10andmakethefireessencedisappear. Whenitgetstoalaterkalpa,heavenandearthwillbedestroyedandthemeritsofthepopulacewillbeexhaustedsothat[our]doctrinescannotsavethem.Whenthecyclecomes toitslimit,itwillnaturallybelikethis. AtthebeginningoftheWaterKalpa,11ourTaowillgreatlyflourish.For370,000years,peoplewillbepureandnaive.Butlater,theGreatTaowillgraduallyceasetobecarriedout, andtheyinqi(evilenergy)willbecomevigorous.Thepeople,inseekingblessings,willsetupemptyburialmoundsandbuildnumerousshrinesthroughouttheworld.Menand womenwithwickedheartswillpracticethemethodsofextinctionandwillnotaccordwith[our]ritualregulations.Yellingloudly,theywillseekdeath.Somewillenterpitsoffire andsomewillthrowthemselvesintodeeppools.Mutilatinganddismemberingthemselves,theirhordeswillworshipandsinghymnswhilesobbingandweeping.Someofthem willenterintotheemptyburialmoundsandsitsilently.Somewillembracecorpsesorveneratedriedbones.Somewillmakealtarsoutofmanure.Somewillsmeartheearthwith fragrantmud.Some,becausetheydonotrespecttheirfathersandmothers,willengageinallkindsofbittertraining.Someofthemwilleatimpureandhideousthings.Therewillbe nothingthattheywillnotresortto,buttotheveryendtheywillnotacquiretheTaoofProperPerfection.Themindsofpeoplewillbeprejudiced,andtherewillbeno righteousnessbetweenfathersandsons.Amidstthewickedreligion(s),factionswillarise. BeforetheGreatWaterKalpatherewillbeaSmallWaterKalpa(flood)12thatwillsubsideonlyaftertenyears.Duringthefourthousandyearsafterthis,fromamidstthewicked religiontherewillariseamilitaryrevolt.Plottingharmamongstthemselves,someofthemwillproclaimthemselvestobekings,onlytoselfdestructwithin10to100days.There willbenoproprietyamongfathersandsons.Usingtheirforcetheywillexploitthosewhoareweak.Bloodrelativeswillcommitlewdactswith

Page132 eachother.Eventhoughtheywillhavehumanbodies,theywillnothavehumanhearts.Viciouslyandvindictivelytheywillcompetewitheachotherandhavenomutualtrust.In thiswaythetimewillcomewhentheWickedWaywillgraduallyariseandtheyinqiwillflourishtotheutmost.Beforelong,driftinganddrowning[intheGreatFlood],peoplewill transformintofish,andthescalydragonswilleatthepeople.Atthismoment,theLaw[oftheTao]willelectitschosenpeopleandplacetheminthehomesteadofblessings.You musttoilandsufferfrommorningtilleveningtirelessly[ifyouwanttobeoneoftheelect].ThisiscalledtheGreatTao.Spreaditamongthepeople.One'sdestinyisinone'sown hands.[Destiny]iscontrolledandmaintainedbypeople[themselves].Ifthemindisproper,theTaowillrespondtoit.Ifyoufollowthewicked,misfortuneswillcomeyourway.If youarefondofkilling,youwillonlyslayyourself.Youmustcarryoutgreatcompassion.(1/11b12b)

Undoubtedly,theauthorintendedtheaforementionedstorytoserveasawarningtohiscontemporaries.The"worldofQixian"probablyreferstothisveryworld.If so,themythportrayseventsoftheinconceivablyremotepast,andtheominouspredictionsdescribeeventsthattheauthorhadwitnessedoranticipatedwitnessing duringhislifetime.Whilethisinterpretationmaynotbeentirelycorrect,theauthorcertainlyintendedhisreaderstoseeparallelsbetweenthe"worldofQixian"andtheir ownworld. Theauthorappearstohaveanticipatedacosmicdeluge.HebelievedthatTaoismoriginatedintheinconceivablyremotepastwhenthePrimordialHeavenlyWorthy gracedtheworldwithhispresenceandimbueditwithhislifegivingforce.Theauthorbemoanedtheplightofhisownageandsawitasacorrupttimepervadedby yinqi(evilenergy).Tohischagrin,hesawadeclineintheTaoistreligionandasimultaneousemergenceofwickedreligion("theWickedWay"). Theauthoremploysthemosttypicalpolemicalployfordiscreditinghisadversaries,accusingthemofseditionandextrememoralcorruption.Moreimportant,the adherentsofthewickedreligion(s)areportrayedashavingamorbidfondnessfordeaththatisreflectedintheirobjectsofworshipandextremebodilymortifications. Thelatterincludetheeatingofimpurities,selfmutilation,andsuicide.Thetextdescribessuch"bittertraining"as"methodsofextinction,"sincetheyareintendedto bringaboutbodilydeath.Theauthordenouncesthesepracticesasbeingfutile.HeurgeshisreaderstoremainfaithfultoTaoismandcontinuetopropagateitamidall theevilsurroundingthem.HefurtherassertsthatwhilebeingaTaoistalsoinvolvesmuchstrenuoushardship,itofferstherewardsofsurvivalandeternalbliss. ThenineteenthchapteroftheYuqingjing,the"ChapteronPerfectedManMingwei'sAssertionofMightovertheWicked"("Mingweizhenrenweiyepin"),describes howthePerfectedManMingwei13manifestshisdoctrinesandapotropaicmethodsintheworldtocombatevilforces.Denunciationsofwickedreligionare

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foundabundantlyinthischapteraswell.Inonepassage,theemergenceofwickedreligionisattributedtoworldlydemons.
(II)TheGreatPerfectedBeingMingweiwasawarebeforehand14oftheprejudicedandwickedwaysofthelaterkalpa.Wickednesswouldgiverisetoyinqi,andafilthyandevil worldwouldimmediatelyandeasilycometoexist.Whenthepurityandsimplicitywaslost,flippancyanddeceitfulnesswouldariseatonce.TheFourDevasofthelowerrealm wouldproclaimthemselvestobeDivineKings.Devilssuchasthesewouldtakeonthename"GodofHeaven,"and[inthe]filthyandevilworldtheywouldpervadethelands downbelow.UndertheFourDevas,thespirits(jing)15oftherocksofthemountainsandforestswouldpossesslivingpeople.Allofthemwouldmimiceachotherinclaimingtobe ImmortalKings.JoiningtogetherwiththemonstersofthewickedqioftheSixHeavens,theywouldformmobsandalliances.Theirtributarieswoulddisperseandpervade, establishingtheirprominenceoverthegenerations.TraitorsoftheTaowouldmakeofferings[tothem]andprayforblessings.[Thedemons]wouldgnawonthejingandqiof peopleandeatthebloodand[blood]vesselsofpeople,shorteningtheirlifespansastheyremainedunaware.Enteringintopeople'sbodiestheywouldbeabletomakethemhate lifeandlovedeath.Inthiswaythevariousdemonswouldenterintoyourbodies(thebodiesoffuturepeople)andtheirdescendantswouldgrowupandflourish.[Because]ofthe rampantandarbitrarynatureoftheirbodilyimpulsesandforces(jingqi),theywouldhave[sexual]intercoursewithlivingpeople.Wormmonstersanddemonicwomenwouldalso havetheabilitytomakepeoplediscernthevariousdoctrinesonemptinessandbejealousoftheWayofLife.Wheneverthereweremenandwomenwhocultivatedandstudied theWayofLife,thesevariousevildemonswouldcometoharmthemallatonce,wantingpeopletodiesotheycouldclaimtheirhunsoulsascompanions.Forthisreasonthey wouldresenttheWayofLife.Asforstudents[oftheTao]oflatertimes,ifyourbodyisabletoaccomplishtheTao,wickedmonstersandevilmobswillsubmittoyourcommands andwillnotbeattheirfreeabandon.Forthisreason,peoplewhostudytheTaoshouldclearlybeawareofthisevildiseasethatisinfidelreligion.[Theymust]haveprior knowledgeofthemethodsofMingwei,sothattheycanslay[thewickedbeingsthat]hauntthemandtherebyprotecttheirbodiesandspirits.(9/3b4a)

Thefoundingofthewickedreligion(s)isattributedheretoworldlydemonswhoentertainpretensionsofbeingmightyanddivine.Theydeludehumansintoaccepting theirpretenses,andbydoingsogainbenefitsattheirexpense.Thesebenefitsincludemorethanjustofferingsoffoodsandmaterialgoodsthedemons

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eatthevitalforcesoftheirworshippers(thismaybeanindirectallusiontohumansacrifice)andreceivetheirsexualfavors.Theybrainwashthemintohatinglifeand lovingdeath.Mostnoteworthyhereisthatthosepossessedbydemonsbecomewellversedindoctrinesof"emptiness,"andthesedoctrinesseemtobeatleast partiallyresponsibleformakingthemfondofdeathanddisdainfultowardlife.Taoism,instarkcontrast,is"theWayofLife."Thearrogantdemonsareenviousof''the WayofLife,"presumablybecauseitissuesfromsuperiorforcesanddeities.Theydotheirutmosttohinderthosewhopursuethe"WayofLife,"andtrytokeepthem entrappedinsamsaraastheirown"companions." Thisthemeofpretentiousdemonstryingtoensnarepeoplethroughfalsedoctrinesisalsofoundinthesixteenthchapter,"ChapterontheAssertionofMightoverthe Devils."Therewearetoldofhowwickedimmortalsfromthetworealmsofformanddesire16triedtochallengethePrimordialHeavenlyWorthytoacontestof divinepowers.Theselfconfidenceofthewickedimmortalswasseeminglyjustified,sincetheypossessedverymarvelouspowersandhadattainedlifespansof 80,000GreatKalpas.TheirchallengewasmetnotpersonallybythePrimordialHeavenlyWorthy,butbyhisdiscipleZhaoling,whoeasilydefeatedandrendered themunconscious.Uponregainingconsciousness,theybecameawareoftheirshortcomings.Theyrealizedthattheirbodieswereultimatelydoomedto"decayingand rotting"andthattheywouldeventuallyundergodeathandrebirth.PerfectedManZhaolingthentoldthemthetrueidentityofthedeitytheyhadbeenservinginthe lowerrealms.Thisdeitywhoassumednamessuchas"theImmortalKingoftheFourHeavens"and"theDivineKing"wasactuallynodeityatallhewasmerelya lowlyspiritfromMt.Kunlun.Zhaolingthentoldthewickedimmortalstoimmediatelyreturntothelowerrealms,sincetheywerepollutingthesacredrealmwiththeir malodorant,corpselikebodies.Aftertheyreturnedtothelowerrealm,theirleaderLuobireportedwhattheyhadexperiencedandheardtothespiritofMt.Kunlun. Thespiritimmediatelyfaintedinhorror.Uponregainingconsciousness,hewarnedLuobinottotellanythingaboutittoanybody.Thiswasbecauseifwordgotout,he wouldloseallofhispoweroverthepeopleoftheworld.Thetextgoesontostatethattothisveryday,thespiritofMt.Kunlunandhiswickedimmortalscontinueto deceive,possess,andreceiveworshipfromhumankind.However,whentheheavenlyWorthyoftheGoldenPalaceGate(amessianicPerfectedBeing)appearsinthe world,theywillallbeexterminated. Insuchaway,theYuqingjingdepictsanongoingconflictbetweentranscendentPerfectedBeingsandearthlydemons.Whilethedemonsseemtoconstantlygettheir wayinthemundaneworld,theultimatevictoryistobewonbytheforcesofgood. TheYuqingjingmaintainsthatpeoplewhoaredemonicallydeludedintohatinglifeandlovingdeathtypicallypracticeexcessiveandselfdestructiveausterities.Atruly gruesomeexampleisgiveninthefollowingpassagefromthenineteenthchapter:

Page135 (III)InbygonedaysatthebeginningoftheFireKalpa, aspiritofamountainintheRongregion(westernlandsofthe"barbarians")disguisedhimselfinhumanform.Hisbody possessedallthevariousmarks(xiang)18[ofasaint].Hewentaboutintheworldteachingandindoctrinating.Heacquiredafollowingof80,000[people].Hetaughtthemhowto worshipfire,alongwiththemethodofobservingwater.Fortwelveyearshesuckedonthejingandqiofpeople.Peoplealllostsightofwhatwascorrect,andtheirwickedviews thustookshape.Atthattime,thevariouspeopleoflikemindresignedthemselvestodeath,eachofthementeringinto[apileof]drygrasswheretheyfoldedtheirhandstogether andkneltnakedwiththeircapstringsundone.Ahiredhandthensetfiretothehay,andtheflamesimmediatelyburnedandinjuredthe80,000oddpeople.Theirhairwascharred, theirskinwaswrentandfluidfromtheirblisterssplatteredout.Theirarmsandlegsbecametwistedandshrunkenastheyfellcurledupontheground.Inbitterpaintheyregretted [whattheyhaddone],butwereunabletoutterasound.Atthattime,themountainspiritsnappedhisfingersandcommendedthem,saying,"Alllivingspecieswillintheend returntoannihilation.Thebodyofconfusionisthedwellingplaceofahundredpoisons.Youshouldquicklydistanceyourselffromitandseekearlyliberationfromit.Youmust annihilatethisbodyandtherebyseektheDharmaBody.19Ifyoucannotstandtheseverityofthefirepoison,youshouldgointothedeeppool."Asthemountainspiritfinished sayingthis,the80,000oddpeoplecrawledintothewater.Theyweresentadriftbythewindandwaves,andweredevouredbythewatercreatures.TheRiverSpiritseizedtheir hunandposoulsandtheWaterBureauputtheiressenceandlight(jingshuang)20tolabor.Theyhavebeensufferingunderthisbanishmentforover7,000years,endlesslyupto thisveryday.Onceyoufallvictimtothewicked,youcannotescapefrom[thebadconsequencesin]lifeanddeath.Atthattime,thespiritofthemountainofRong,whohad enticedandmurderedcommonfolk,knewthathewasguilty.FearingthemightofHeaven,hehidhimselfdeepwithinsomerocks.[But]inthespringtheGodofThunderexposed himbyusinghisthunder,andputhimtothetaskoftendinghisdragons.[Themountainspiritnow]laborspainstakinglydayandnightwithoutanyfreedom.Inthisway,the methodforcontrollingpowerfulspiritscanbecarriedoutbyemployingtheDukeofThundertobeheadthemandtearthemapart.(9/8b9b)
17

Noteworthyfirstofallhereisthatthewickedreligionisascribedaforeignorigin.Theplaceofitsoriginisdescribedvaguelyas"Rong,"awordthatwasusedtorefer toany"barbarian"territorywestofChina.HerewehaveaprimeexampleofthefiercexenophobiathatpervadestheYuqingjing.Alsointeresting,forreasons

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tobediscussedlater,isthereferencetofireworship.However,ofgreatestinterestisthereasoningbywhichthemountainspiritjustifiesandexaltstheburningofhis followers.Theessentialideaisthatthehumanbodyisthe"bodyofconfusion,"21filledwith"poisons"thathindertheenlightenmentandliberationofthesoul.The mountainspiritalsoreasonsthatsincelifeisboundtoendanyway,itisfoolishtoclingtoit.Heencourageshisfollowerstohastenthebody'sdestructionandthesoul's liberationthroughsuicide.Thepassagegoesontodescribethehideousconsequencessufferedbythosewhotookhisadvice.Thereaderisthussternlywarnednotto heeddoctrinesresemblingthosetaughtbythemountainspirit. Alsointerestingishowtheexorcisticmethod,"employingtheDukeofThunder,"isprescribedforcombating"powerfulspirits."Themountainspiritdepictedinthetale maybeanallegoricalallusiontocertaintypesofpreachersactiveduringthetimetheauthorlived.However,themountainspiritalsoseemstopersonifytheinvisible demonsthatwerethoughttopossesspeopleandcausethemtoembracefalsedoctrines."EmployingtheDukeofThunder"appearstohavebeenanexorcismfor deprogrammingheretics. Themostdetaileddescriptionofdemonicheresiesisfoundinyetanotherpassagefromthenineteenthchapter.Thispassageprovidessubstantialclues,whichwhen combinedwithinformationfrompreviouslycitedpassages(I,II,andIII),canhelpusdeterminewhatreligion(s)theauthormayhavehadinmindwhendescribing "wickedreligion(s)".
(IV)Atthattime,also,therewasamountainspiritof[Mt.]Tieweilocatedinthedirectionof[theelementof]metal[whichis]thesouthwest.Hetransformedhimselfintoahuman andwentoutintotheworldtoteachandindoctrinate.Hisdoctrinepervadedthewild,barbaricregionsofthewest.Throughoutahundrednationsitchangeditsforminto500odd varieties.These(theadherentsoftheheresies)arecalledinfidels.Theyworshippedvariousphenomenasuchasthesky,theearth,thesun,themoon,thestars,wind,water,metal, wood,hearthfire,citywallsandroads.[Theycarriedout]allkindsofbittertraining.Theychangedtheirattireandphysicalappearances.Theysetupstatuesandmadeofferings, andwrotetheirscripturesontreeleaves.Theywoundedandharmedtheirbodiesandvisages.TheyworeRongstyleclothing.Theyemployedthaumaturgicmantras.They enteredthecitiestobeg.Eachoneofthemwouldsay,"Thisis[whatbringsabout]thebestofeffects."Intheirretreatsandfestivalstheyusedbloodsacrificesastheypraised andcriedouttothe"KingofHeaven."Someofthemcalledthemselves"BrahmanMasters"anddevotedthemselvestoboilingandslaying[sacrificialvictims]forthepurposeof servingtheGod(s)oftheHeavens,inhopeofgaininggreatblessings.Seekingworldlywealthandbenefits,theywouldeachsay,"Anybodywhogivesalmstomewillobtain limitlessblessings.''Infidels

Page137 suchasthesetookpossessionofthebodiesofpeople.[Thosepossessed]wouldsob,wailandpullouttheirhair.Theywoulddanceaboutstrikingthemselves,astheyresigned themselvestodeathandsoughtannihilation.Somewouldsitsilentlyindarkrooms,andwhentheyclearlysawformsoflighttheywouldclaimtheyhadseenagreatsaint.Some could[fore]seeallappearancesofpunishmentandblessing(possessedclairvoyantpowers).Commonfolkwouldhearaboutthisandcompetewitheachotherincomingforthand givingthemalms.Theyabandonedtheirvaluabletreasures,wives,children,slaves,horses,citiesandfarms[andgavethemtotheinfidels].Somewould[even]giveuptheir bodiesandlives,theirmindsnothesitatingtorelinquishtheireyes,bonemarrowandbrains.Thiswasbecausethoseinfidelstaughtthemtolovedeath.Whenevertheysawa deadpersontheywouldsingoutpraises.Theywouldabandoncorpsesinwildfieldsandrefertothisas"beingborninheaven."Gatheringincrowdstheywouldworshipand rejoice,exclaiming,"Greatstalwartsandsuperiormenhatetheworldandseekdeliverance[fromit].Theirbodiesfillup[thebelliesof]thebirdsandthebeastsastheirlumpsof consciousness22liveoninheaven.Confusionnolongercontinues.Isthisnotjoyous?"Suchisthewayofthebittertrainingofthevariousinfidels.Theywouldbuildlarge bonfiresandsay,"Ifgoodmenandgoodwomenareabletoenterthebonfireandroasttheirbodies,theyaretobecalledGreatStalwartsoftheFirstOrder.Theywillbeableto departfromtheirconfusionandrealizetheutmostinresults.Theywillobtaintheundefiledgroundofperpetualenjoyment.Theywillgettoascendtotheunwaveringgroundof perpetualenjoyment."Thesevariousinfidelswouldpraisinglysay,"GreatStalwartsarebraveandstrong.Thepoweroftheirmeritiswithoutcomparison.Theyareabletobring aboutgreatbenefitstotheworld."Foolishpeoplewouldseethisandeagerlyburntheirbodies.Atthesametime,theinfidelroamingspiritswouldflyaboutintheair,singing hymnsandperformingallkindsofmusictokeepthemresignedandcontent[withbeingburnttodeath].ThusinthehundredRongterritories,overaspanofseveraldecades, morethanhalfthepopulationwasinjuredandkilledbythemethodsandcoaxingsoftheseinfidels.(9/10a11a)

Mt.Tiewei,describedhereasthesourceofthewickedreligion,istheoutermostoftheeightringshapedmountainssaidtoencircleMt.Sumeru,thecosmicmountain ofHinduandBuddhistlegend.AccordingtotheHinduandBuddhisttraditions,Mt.Sumeruisthecenteroftheuniverseandtheabodeofloftydeities.23Hereitis describedasamountaininthesouthwest.Again,thewickedreligionisascribedaforeignorigin,anditsfalsedoctrinesareblamedforwipingouthalfoftheWestern "barbarian"population.Thepassageismostlikelymeantto

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warnthatthesameconsequenceswillbesufferedinChinaifheresyisallowedtoprevail. Sowhatreligion(orreligions)didtheauthorholdresponsibleforpropagatingheresyinChina?Fromwheredoeshegethisharrowingimages?Inlightofthefactthat TaoismandBuddhismwereengagedinabitterrivalryduringthelateSixDynastiesandTangperiods,the"wickedreligion"wouldseemmostlikelytobeanallegorical allusiontoBuddhism.ThisspeculationcanbesubstantiallybackedupbyinformationfrompassagesIthroughIV. The"emptyburialmounds"mentionedinpassageImostlikelyalludetoBuddhiststupas.The"driedbones"probablyrepresenttherelics,orsarira,ofsaintsthatare worshippedbyBuddhists.ThewellknownBuddhistvenerationofsuchthingswasapparentlymisconstruedbytheauthor(perhapsknowingly)asafondnessfor death.Thewaysofthe"wickedreligion(s)"aredescribedas"methodsofextinction."Bydescribingtheminsuchterms,theYuqingjingseemstobeaccusing Buddhistsofincitingpeopletowardreligioussuicidebysettingforthextinctionandliberationastheultimategoal. TheFourDevasdescribedaspretentiousdemonsinpassageIImostlikelyrefertotheFourDevaKings.24ThesefourdeitiesbearaprominentplaceinBuddhist legendandiconographyasthefaithfulandrighteousprotectorsofBuddhism.DescribingthemaswickeddemonsseemstobeyetanotherwayofderidingBuddhism. InpassageII,peoplepossessedbywormmonstersanddemonicwomenaredescribedasbeinggoodatdiscussingdoctrinesof"emptiness."Thisappearstobea referencetoMahayanaBuddhistdoctrinesthatemphasizethe"empty"(sunyata)25qualityofallobjectsandconcepts.Thepassagealsomaybesuggestingthatthe preoccupationwithemptinesshascausedBuddhiststodisdainhumanlife.ThestatementsutteredbythemountainspiritinpassageIII,whichjustifythedestructionof thebodyasameansforcuttingoffconfusionandattainingliberation,seemtomostclearlyreflecthowtheauthor(s)blamedBuddhistdoctrinesforencouragingself mutilationandsuicide. Similarstatementsareattributedtothe"infidels"inpassageIV.These"infidels"aredescribedasmendicantsandpractitionersofseatedmeditation.Beggingand meditationwerestandardactivitiesforBuddhistmonks,astheauthorwaspresumablywellaware.Italsohasbeenwelldocumentedbymodernscholarshiphow certainprominentBuddhistmonksduringtheSixDynastiesperiod,especiallyinthenorth,achievedgreatpopularityandpoliticalpatronageduetotheiralleged clairvoyantpowers,efficaciousmantras,andotherthaumaturgicabilities.Thesecharacteristicsareascribedtothe"infidels"inpassageIV.AlthoughtheTantric ZhenyanschoolofBuddhism(notedforitsmantras)didnotflourishinChinauntiltheeighthcentury,Buddhistscripturescontainingmantrasweretranslatedinto Chinesealreadyintheearlythirdcentury,andnumerousothersweretranslatedduringthefourthandfifthcenturies.TheauthoroftheYuqingjingwasprobably awareofBuddhistmantrasandthaumaturgy.26

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However,manyofthepracticesattributedtothe"infidels"bearvirtuallynosimilaritytoBuddhistpractices.Theworshipofprofanedemonsandspiritsdescribedin passagesII,III,andIV,thebloodsacrificementionedinpassageIV,andthehumansacrificehintedatinpassageII,aremorereminiscentofthepracticesofsome indigenousChinesefolkcults.27 AnotherforeignreligionwhosepracticesmayhavebeenknownbytheauthorisZoroastrianism.AshasbeenpointedoutbyChenYuaninhisarticle,"Huoxianjiaoru Zhongguokao"("AStudyontheEntryofZoroastrianismintoChina"),28dynastichistories(theWeishu,Beishi,andSuishu)containevidenceindicatingthat ZoroastrianismwasknowntotheChinesebytheearlysixthcentury.CertainmemberswithinthecourtsoftheNorthernWei,NorthernJi,andNorthernZhou dynastiesappeartohavepracticedZoroastrianrituals.Admittedly,Zoroastrianismwasprobablypracticedprimarilybyforeignresidentsandhadveryfewconverts amongtheChinese.Still,itisnotaltogetherimprobablethattheauthoroftheYuqingjingknewofZoroastrianismandsawitasarivalinthecompetitionforimperial favor.HisfamiliaritywithZoroastrianismismostglaringlyhintedatbythementionoffireworshipinpassagesIIIandIV.InZoroastrianism,thesupremegodAhura Mazdaandhisassistingdivinities(ameshaspentasoryazatas)areworshippeddaily.Theirpresenceintheworldisbelievedtobemanifestedinvarioustangible objects,towardwhichworshipisdirected.Foremostamongtheseobjectsisfire.Zoroastriantemplesfeaturealargefirethatiskeptburningatalltimes.Thesky, earth,sun,moon,andstarsalsoareamongtheirobjectsofworship.AllofthesearementionedinpassageIVasbeingworshippedbythe"infidels."Zoroastrian worshipalsoinvolvesbloodsacrifice,whichismentionedinpassageIV.ThetermsusedinthedynastichistoriestorefertothegodsworshippedinPersiaare huoshen(GodofFire)andtianshen(GodoftheHeavens).29ChenYuanspeculatesthatthelattertermwasusedbecausetheChineserecognizedtheworshipofthe sun,moon,andstarsastheforemosttraitofPersianreligion.Itishighlynoteworthythatthe"infidels"inpassageIVworship''theGod(s)oftheHeavens,"andpassage IItellsofhowthedemonsoftheworldtookonthetitleof"GodofHeaven"(tianshen).ButperhapsmostrevealingispassageIV'smentionofburialbyexposure. Thispractice,alsomentionedinthedynastichistories,iscustomaryamongZoroastrians.Becausetheyconsidercorpsesrituallyimpureandincludefireandearth amongtheirsacredobjects,Zoroastriansrefusetodesecratefireandearthbycrematingorburyingcorpses.Theybelievethatthesoulsoftherighteousleavethebody atdeathtoresideinHeaven,wheretheyawaittheendoftheage.Intheend,theyarereunitedwiththeirbones(leftbareoftheoldfleshdevouredbybirdsand animals)andresurrectedinabodyofnew,pureflesh.FromthenontheyliveeternallyinAhuraMazda'snewkingdomonearth.InpassageIV,the"infidels"expressa similarbelief,statingthatthesoullivesoninHeavenwhilethecorpsesatiatesthebirdsandbeasts.30Insum,someofthepracticesattributedto"infidels"

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intheYuqingjingmaybeallusionstoZoroastrianpractices,andZoroastriansmayhavebeenamongthefoestheauthorsoughttodiscredit. Onethingiscertainthe"infidels"depictedintheYuqingjingarenotmodeledexclusivelyontheadherentsofanysinglereligion.Theyarebestunderstoodas compositecreationsoftheauthor'simagination.Tocreatehisvillains,theauthorseemstohaveblendedtheimagesofvariousreligiousopponentsandembellished themwithgruesomedetailsderivedfromhisownmorbidfantasy. Admittedly,somethingresemblingselfmutilationandselfcremationseemstohavebeencarriedoutbysomeChineseBuddhists.KennethK.S.Chenhasbroughtto attentionsomeshockingdescriptionsofhappeningsthatoccurredduringfestivalsinhonorofafamousrelic(afingerboneoftheBuddha)enshrinedattheFamen TempleneartheTangdynastycapitalChang'an.31Duringthesefestivals,therelicwasbroughttotheimperialpalaceandkeptthereforthreedaystobeworshipped bymembersofthecourt.Itwasthenputonpublicdisplay,whereuponferociousreligiousfrenzywouldensue.Adescriptionofonesuchfestivalthatoccurredin819 isfoundinamemorialpresentedinprotestbytheConfucianscholarHanYu.Init,HanYuallegesthatmultitudesofpeopleburnedtheirheadsandroastedtheir fingersinashowofpiety.Afirsthanddescriptionofanothersuchfestivalin873(whichhasbeentranslatedandquotedinfullbyChen)isfoundinSuE'sDuyang zapian.
Atthattime,asolidercutoffhisleftarminfrontoftheBuddha'srelic,andwhileholdingitwithhishand,hereverencedthereliceachtimehetookastep,hisbloodsprinklingthe groundallthewhile.Asforthosewhowalkedontheirelbowsandknees,bitingofftheirfingersorcuttingofftheirhair,theirnumberscouldnotbecounted.Therewasalsoa monkwhocoveredhisheadwithartemisia,apracticeknownasdiscipliningthehead.Whenthepileofartemisiawasignited,thepaincausedthemonktoshakehisheadandto cryout,butyoungmeninthemarketplaceheldhimtightsothathecouldnotmove.Whenthepainbecameunbearable,hecriedoutandfellprostrateontheground.Withhis headscorchedandhisdeportmentdisorderly,hewastheobjectoflaughterofallthespectators.32

TheauthoroftheYuqingjingmayhavewitnessedorheardofeventssimilartothis.However,manyofhismostpowerfulimagesofasceticabusesmayactuallybe drawnfrompassagesinBuddhisttextsthatdescribetheausteritiesofnonBuddhistIndianascetics.OnescripturethattheauthoroftheYuqingjingmayhavederived hisimagesfromistheGuoquxianzaiyinyuanjing,awellknownnarrativeoftheBuddha'slife,translatedintoChinesearound450C.E.Includedinthenarrativeisan episodewheretheyoungprinceSiddharthaGautama(theBuddha),shortlyafterleavinghishomeinpursuitofenlightenment,visitedaforestinhabitedbyanchorites (xianren).Therehewitnessedtheirausterities.

Page141 [Theprince]observedtheactivitiesofthosevariousanchorites.Someofthemmadetheirgarmentsoutofgrass.Someofthemmadetheirclothingoutofthebarkandleavesof trees.Someofthemateonlyweeds,trees,flowersandfruits,eatingjustonceperday,onceeverytwodays,oronceeverythreedays.Insuchwaystheypracticedthemethodsof selfstarvation.Someofthemworshippedwaterandfire.Someofthemveneratedthesunandmoon.Someofthemstoodononeleg.Someofthemlaydowninthedustanddirt. Someofthemlaydownonthorns.Someofthemlaydownnexttowaterandfire.Theprince,uponwitnessingbittertrainingsuchasthis,askedtheanchoriteBaquie,"Your presentpracticingofthesedeedsofhardshipistrulyextraordinary.Whatresultsdoyouseektoattainfromthis?"Theanchoriteanswered,"Wepracticethisbittertraining becausewewanttoliveinheaven."Theprinceagainasked,"Eventhoughthevariousheavensareenjoyable,[existencethere]comestoanendwhenyourmeritsexpire. Transmigratinginthesixpathsofexistence,intheenditwillbebutabundleofsuffering.Whydoyouputtopracticewhatisbutthecauseforsuffering,onlytoreceivethe retributionofsuffering?"33

Theresemblancebetweenthewaysoftheanchoriteshereandthe"infidels"intheYuqingjing(passageIVinparticular)isquitestriking.Describedhereareextreme austeritiesaccompaniedbytheworshipofwater,fire,sun,andmoon.Themotivecitedfortheausteritiesistheattainmentoflifeinheaven,asisthecaseinpassage IV.TheBuddharejectstheirmethodsbecausetheydonotbringaboutemancipationfromsuffering. AnotherpossiblesourcefortheYuqingjing'simageryistheNirvanasutra(Dabanniepanjing),aMahayanasutrafirsttranslatedintoChinesein421by Dharmakshema.ThissutraisbestknownforitsdoctrineoftheinnateBuddhanaturepossessedbyallsentientbeings.Thepassageofgreatestrelevancetoourstudy, however,isthefollowing:

Understand[thefollowing].[Therearethosewhopractice]themethodsofselfstarvation.[Some]throw[themselves]intopoolsorenterintofire.[Some]falloffhighcliffs.[Some] constantlystandononeleg.[Some]roasttheirbodieswithfivesourcesofheat.[Some]constantlyliedownamidstsoot,dirt,thorns,wovenrafters(?),treeleaves,badweedsor cowdung.[Some]wearcoarsehempgarments,orwearmanurestainedwovenwoolengarmentsabandonedamidburialmounds.[Somewear]qinboluo(?)robes,deerskinbelts andgarmentsofstraw.[Some]eatvegetablesoreatweeds.[Someeat]lotusrootsandfruitsdefiledwithgrease,grimeandcowdung.[Some],whentheygoaboutbegging,only gotoonehouse.Ifthemasterofthehousesayshehasnofood,theytakeleaveofhimanddonotpayattentionevenifhecallsforthemtocomeback.

Page142 [Some]donoteatsaltedmeatsorthefivevarietiesofbeefdishes.[Some]alwayseatboiledporridgemadefromchaff.[Some]upholdprecepts[againsteating]beefwhileothers observeordinancesagainsteatingdogs,chickensorpheasants.[Some]smeartheirbodieswithsootandgrowtheirhairlong.[Some,]whentheycarryouttheirworshipwith sacrificesofsheep,firstsayamantrabeforekilling.Inthefourthmonththeyworshipfireandimbibewindforsevendays.Theyofferhundreds,thousands,andhundredsof millionsofflowerstothevariousheavens.Theirvariouswishesaretotherebysupposedtoberealized.Asforthesevariousmethods,therearenonethatcanbecomecausesfor theultimateliberation.34

Theprecedingpassagedescribesausteritiesthatharmandkillthebody.Italsodescribesbegging,theeatingofimpurities,fireworship,andbloodsacrifice.An importantsidenotehereisthattheYuanyangjing(TheScriptureofthePrimalYang),anotherTaoistscriptureofthelateSixDynastiesorearlyTang,plagiarizes thissamepassagealmostwordforword.35ThisindicatesbeyondadoubtthatTaoistswerewellacquaintedwiththeNirvanasutraandwerewillingtoborrowits materialfortheirownuse. However,itshouldbenotedthattheYuqingjing,unliketheNirvanasutraortheGuoquxianzaiyinyuanjing,doesnotmentiondietaryrestrictionsandfastsamong themisguidedausteritiesofhereticalascetics.Thisisprobablybecausetheauthor,beingaTaoist,hadgreatfaithinfastingasatrainingmethod,provideditwas carriedoutcorrectly. Itseemslikelythattheimagesofthe"infidels"intheYuqingjingarepartlymodeleduponthenonBuddhistIndianasceticsdepictedinBuddhistsutras.Nonethess, thisdoesnotaccountforallofthetraitsattributedtothe"infidels."TheypossessvariousothertraitsthatwouldseemtoidentifythemasBuddhists.Eventhoughthe referencestothingssuchasfireworshipandbloodsacrificecouldhavebeenborrowedfromtheBuddhistsutras,thereferencestoburialbyexposureandthe"God(s) ofHeaven"stillseemtohintatanawarenessofZoroastrianism.Itisundeniablethattheauthormusthavebeenatleastpartiallydrivenbypolemicalaims. Butifhisprimarygoalwastodiscreditrivalreligions,whydidhedilutehisdepictionsof"infidels"withimagesofausteritiescarriedoutbynonBuddhistIndianascetics whomBuddhiststhemselvesdiscredited?Wouldhispolemicsnothavebeenmuchmoreeffectiveifhehadlimitedhimselftodescribinganddiscreditingbeliefsand practicesthatwerequintessentiallybuddhist?DidhereallymeantosaythatBuddhistsweredemonworshipperswhowerefondofselfmutilationandsuicide? Theauthor'sprimarypurposewasprobablynotpolemical.AsxenophobicandantiBuddhistashemayhavebeen,hedidnotnecessarilydesirehisreaderstoidentify the"infidels"withanybodyinparticular.Hisfundamentalpurposefordepictingthe"infidels"wastodenounceheresyingeneral.Thegruesomedepictions

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wereintendedtoprovideastarkcontrastwiththeblessedattributesofthosewhoadheretotheorthodoxway.Hisdescriptionsanddenunciationsofheresyserveto enhancehispositiveexhortations. TheessentialheresyattackedintheYuqingjingisthedisdainforthebodyandhumanlife,alongwiththeasceticabusesthatcanresultfromit.Moreprecisely,itisthe beliefthatsalvationisaliberationofthesoulfromthebody,whichcanbeexpeditedbybodilyannihilation.Thisheresymayormaynothavebeenexpoundedbyrival religions.WhatprobablytroubledtheauthormostwasthatsomeTaoistshadembracedtheheresy.This,inhismind,threatenedtheveryintegrityoftheTaoist religion.ThefollowingpassagefromtheYuqingjingclearlyexpressesthisapprehension:

Gentlemenoflatertimeswhostudy[theTao],ifyouwanttoeliminatethedivergentwaysyoushouldpracticethemethodsoftheOrthodoxOneandequipyourselfwithgreatand mightygodsandtherebysubduethem.WiththemarvelousqioftheGreatTaoandtheperfectmightoftheGodsofLife,[youshould]eliminatethem.Theinfidelsofordinary bodieswillnaturallybeconverted.Theinfidelspiritswillnaturallyceasetoexist.Studentswhostudy[theTao]inlatertimes,ifyouwanttoeliminatetheseevils,youshould adeptlyusetheWayoftheFireBells,36andtherebytheevilswillperish.Asforthesevariousinfidels,eventhoughtheyseekthebestresults,theywillneverbeabletoattain them.Thewayofannihilatinglifeisnotthe[wayof]attainingPerfection.Itistobecalled"thewickedandfalsewayofthewalkingcorpses(xingshi)."37EvenwithintheReligion oftheGreatWay,therearepeoplelikethis(emphasisadded).Theheartsofpeoplechangeandwaverandtheirbodiesdowhatisincorrect.Wickedgodsemploythem.These peoplearealsotobecalledinfidels.Peoplesuchasthesecannotdistinguishbetweentrueandfalse.Withpurityandturbiditynotdistinguished,theynaturallybringforthwicked specters.Oncetheirmindshavethusbecomeprejudicedandspiteful,theGreatTaowillnotbecarriedout[bythem].Iftemptingspiritshavegottenintotheirhearts,howcanthey heartheWayofLife?(9/11ab)

MostnoteworthyhereistheitalicizedsentencethatclearlystatesthattheheresyhasinfiltratedTaoism.Howcouldthishavecomeabout?Thetextblamesiton "infidel"spiritsthatpossesspeople.Whatwerethese"spirits"?WhatactuallycausedTaoiststoembraceheresy? SomeTaoistdoctrines(bothindigenousandforeigninfluenced),ifmisinterpreted,couldhaveledtodisdainandabuseofthebody.Aswehaveseeninprevious chapters,someTaoisttextsconveyastrongloathingtowardthehumanbodyinitsordinary,untrainedcondition.Itwasseentobefulloffilthyyinqithatmadeit heavy,weak,andcorruptible.Itwasthoughttobeinfestedwithinternal

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demons(theThreeWormsinparticular)thattemptedpeopletosuccumbtocorruptivedesiresandemotions.Aslongasitwasinsuchacondition,thebodywas consideredahindrancetotheadept'sprogress.Alongwiththisloathingfortheuntrainedbody,thereexistedalongingtoescapethemundaneworldandtoparticipate inatranscendentrealm.Thislongingandloathingmayhaveoccasionallyledtobodilyabuse,orevenreligioussuicide. BythetimetheYuqingjingwaswritten,theinnatepotentialforTaoistdoctrinestoengenderheresyandasceticabuseshadbecomeevengreater,duetothemassive incorporationofBuddhistelements.MostnoteworthyisthenewsoteriologyoftheLingbaomovement,inwhichthehighestlevelsofimmortalityareequatedtothe liberationfromsamsara.Aswehaveseen,somepassagesintheLingbaoscripturesdescribethebodyasbeingameretemporarydwellingforthespirit,oremphasize the"empty"qualityofthebody.Theadeptistoldto"forget"hisbodyandstop"loving"it.Mythicaldeitiesandpersonagesareextolledfortheirwillingnesstosacrifice theirlives,whetherforthewelfareofothersortheattainmentofpersonalreligiousgoals.Theinherenttensionbetweentheidealsoflongevityandtranscendencehad beenheightenedasneverbefore,andtheimportanceofthebodywithinthesoteriologicalschemeseemstohavebeenwaning. HeresyofthekindattributedtotheYuqingjing's"infidels"couldwellhavebeenembracedbysomeTaoists,solelyasaresultofhowtheyinterpretedtheirown doctrines.ItisthereforeinterestingthatintheYuqingjing'sfourthchapter(PrefatoryChaptertothePreceptsofCompassion),theoriginofheresyisattributedtothe misinterpretationofthe"lessprofoundtruthsoftheTaoism"(theformofTaoismtaughttothe"barbarians,"i.e.,Buddhism).Theexpositionofthistheorycomesfrom themouthofaHeavenlyWorthy.38HisexpositionisdirectedatathrongofyouthsfromtheSnowyMountains(thisprobablyreferstotheHimalayas),self proclaimedimmortalswhohadstudiedunderacertain"ancientmaster.''Itreads
Goodmen,asforyoursayingthatyouencounteredanancientmasterandobtainedconversionandsalvation,[this]ancientmasterwasmydisciple.Imadehimevangelizeinthe frontierregions,expoundingthe[doctrines]oftheThreeVehicles,[inorderto]makethemassesachieveextinctionanddeliverance(miedu)sothattheycouldcultivatetheirfruits forlatertimes.[Thiswas]becausethoselandswerehardtoconvert.Thepeoplehadnoharmoniousqi.[Becausetheywerethe]kinofanimals,theywereintellectuallyand mentallydeficient.Theydrankbloodandatefurandwereviolentandunrestrained.[Theancientmaster]thusperformedmiraclesandpreachedextensively,usingmetaphorsin ordertoopenupenlightenmentforpeopleofinferiorcapacities.Doctrinessuchasthese[thattheancientmasterexpounded]donotfathomtheultimateprinciples,butmerely revealformsandtracesexpediently.After

Page145 themasterleft[theworld],hepulledbackhistracesandreturnedtotheorigin.Theformsandtraces[thathehadrevealed]graduallydissipated.Eventhoughsomeofthemhave barelysurvived,theyarefullofmistakes.SomepeopleproclaimthemselvestobeimmortalsorclaimtobethegodBrahma.39Someofthemsitsilentlyinemptyrooms.Someof themburntheirbodiesandkillthemselves.Someofthemfallofftallcliffs.Someofthemmakeofferingstofireandwater.Someofthemmakestatuesofheavenlybeings.[They have]variouskindsofgodimageswiththreefacesandathousandarms.Theyslaughter[sacrificialvictims]andcarryouttheirritualworship.Thecrowdsofworshippers,in carryingouttheirworship,yelloutandseekextinction.Someofthemclearlyseeimagesoflight.Wayssuchasthesearecalledfallacies.Eventhoughtheyhavescripturesand texts,theydonothavethetruedoctrines.WickednessandorthodoxyareintermingledsothattheycannotacquiretheTao.(1/30ab)

Setforthhereisauniqueversionoftheinfamoushuahu(conversionofthe"barbarians")legend.40ThislegendclaimedthatBuddhismwasaderivativeversionof Taoismbestsuitedfortheintellectuallyandmorallyinferior"barbaians."SomeversionsofthelegendclaimthatLaozifoundedBuddhismwhenhetraveledtothewest. OthersclaimthattheBuddhawasLaozi'sdisciple.Thelegend'sforemostpurposewastounderminethedignityofBuddhism.Italsopurportedtobeaviabledefense againstthosewhocriticizedTaoismforimitatingBuddhism.Ifoneacceptedthelegend,onehadtoconcludethatTaoismdidnotborrowanythingfromBuddhism, sinceBuddhismitselfwasTaoisminalowerform.The''ThreeVehicles"isaclearreferencetoBuddhism,sinceitisaBuddhisttermthatdenotesthreetypesof enlightenmentforpeopleofthreedifferentlevelsofcapability.41The"ancientmaster"apparentlyreferstoLaozi(whomtheauthormayalsohavedeemedtobeone andthesamepersonastheBuddha).42Thedoctrines"theancientmaster"taughtinthefrontierregionswereofarudimentarynature,mere"formsandtraces"ofthe ultimatetruthsofTaoism,whichcouldenabletheignorant"barbarians"toachieve"extinctionanddeliverance,"ormiedu.Unclearhereisthemeaningofmiedu.As wasdiscussedinchapter6,miedu,whenusedinBuddhisttexts,referstothedecisiveenlightenmentandliberation.IntheLingbaoscriptures,itreferstoamodeof salvationthatranksbelowheavenlyascensionandliberationfromthecorpse.Itsmainbenefitswerethatthespiritevadeddamnationandthecorpsedidnotdecay, resultingultimatelyinresurrection.TheLingbaomovement'sdefinitionofmieduisprobablyintendedhere,sincetheauthorseemstoperceivemieduasagood,yet lessthanidealmodeofsalvation.Thedoctrinesofthe"ThreeVehicles"arenotdenouncedasheresytheyaremerelydescribedaslowerTaoisttruthsthatconferno morethanmiedu.Theheresiesglorifyingdeatharethusseenasmisinterpretationsofthese"lowertruthsofTaoism,"whicharoseinforeign

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landsafterthe"ancientmaster"(Laozi)hadleft.TheauthorwasseeminglyawarethatsomeTaoistdoctrines(albeitthe"formsandtraces")heldthepotentialfor engenderingbodilyabuseandotherabominationsifmisinterpreted.However,unsurprisingly,heblamesforeignersfortwistingTaoismintoheresy. TheyouthsfromtheSnowyMountainsrepresentBuddhistswhohavemanagedtoroughlyadheretothe"formsandtraces"taughtbythe"ancientmaster."Inthis sensetheyaremuchbetterthanthe"infidels"denouncedthroughouttheYuqingjing.Thenarrativegoesontodescribehowtheywereeasilyswayedtoconvertto Taoisminits"highestform."Buthowaboutthosewhohavesunkendeeplyintoblasphemyandheresy?DoestheYuqingjingacknowledgeanyhopeforthem? Theansweris"yes,"albeitonlyafteraverypainstakingprocess.Thisiswellillustratedintheeighthchapter,the"ChapteronPenetratingtheDarkandObscure." There(3/19a27a)wearetoldthattheHeavenlyWorthy,whileresidinginhisCloudPalaceintheHeavenofJadePurity,wasvisitedbyahordeofdemonswho claimedtobe"thegodsofthecloudsandmists,thedivinekingsoftheFourHeavensandthegodsoftheEightyHeavensoftheFourDirectionsof[Mt.]Kunlun."All ofthesedemonspossessedthe"32marks,80goodsignsand18divinepowers."Theearthshookwhentheywalked,theirbodiesproducedwaterandfire,andthey emittedlightraysfrombetweentheireyebrows.Nakedandbarefooted,theycameandpaidtheirrespectsfromafartowardthe''cloudygates",kneelingandpressing theirhandstogetherina"barbarian"manner.However,theHeavenlyWorthyinstantlyknewtheywere"infidels"(fromthispointon,thetextreferstothemmerelyas the"variouswickedones"orthe"variousdevils").Herefusedtoentertaintheirinquiriespersonally,andinsteadassigneda"minorImmortal"tothetask.Theminor Immortalappearedbeforethem,manifestinghis"marks"43anddivinepowers.Heemittedlightraysfromallofhishairsandpores,andtheskyandgroundshook violently.Astheywitnessedthis,thedemonstrembledandperspiredprofuselyinhorror,whiletheirownbodilyradiancescompletelydisappeared.TheImmortalthen rebukedthemforalloftheirpastwrongdoings.Theyhadvainlypretendedtobegodsandholymen.Theyatemeat,committedlasciviousacts,andtaughtpeople impropermethodsofmeditationthatbroughtforth"luminousapparitions"ofadelusionarynature.Afterpointingoutthesewrongdoings,theImmortalrebukedthemfor theirhereticaldoctrinesthatextolleddeathandextinctionasthe"methodofultimateenjoyment,"andcausedpeopleto"killthemselvesandmutilatetheirbodiesin ordertotransformtheirordinarybodiesintodiamondbodies"44(3/20b). TheImmortalthentoldthedemonsthattheirtransgressionsdisqualifiedthemfrom"seeingtheTao."Thismeantthattheydidnotdeserveadirectaudiencewiththe HeavenlyWorthy.Thedemonsimmediatelyfeltintenseremorse.Theywailedandsobbedandhoppedabouthittingthemselvesuntilbloodflowedallovertheir bodies.Theypulledouttheirhairontheirscalpsandsideburns.Theyprostratedthemselves,tremblingbeforethefeetoftheImmortal(3/22a).

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Theirpropensityforexcessivebodilymortificationthusshoweditselfeveninhowtheyexpressedremorse.TheImmortalreprimandedthem,statingthatrepentance onlyrequiresachangeofheart,andthatthebodymustnotbeharmedintheprocess.However,atthispoint,thedemons'sincereremorsemanagedtowinthe sympathyoftheHeavenlyWorthyintheCloudPalace.TheHeavenlyWorthyindicatedthistotheImmortalfromafarbyemittingapurplelightfromhiseyes. ThedemonsthentriedtocurrytheHeavenlyWorthy'sfavorwithlavishgifts.However,theImmortaltoldthemthattheirtreasureswouldonlydefiletheCloudPalace, andthattheHeavenlyWorthy"valuespeople'shearttreasures."Tothisthedemonsreplied,"BodiesoffleshfromtheRealmofDesirescontainnotreasuresinthe heart."TheImmortalthensuggested,"Ifyourbodiescontainnotreasures,whynotgiveyourhearts?"Thedemonstookhiswordsliterally.Oneofthem,whocalled himselfthe"BrahmanKing,''borrowedaswordfromtheImmortal,cutopenhisownbelly,andtookouthisfivevisceratoshowhishearttotheImmortal.Therestof thedemonsimmediatelystartedtodothesamething.TheImmortalrestrainedthem,explainingthatby"giveyourhearts,"hemerelymeantthattheyshouldabandon theirfalseviewsandconcentrateonseekingtheGreatTao.Hethenlaidhishandsontheirselfinflictedwoundsandhealedthem.Thereuponthedemonsallexpressed thewishtobetaughttheWayofPerpetualLifeandNoDeath.However,theImmortalrejectedtheirrequest,citingtwobasicreasons.Firstofall,theylackedthe properphysicalconstitution.Intheiradvancedage,their"marrowandbrains"were"emptyanddepleted,"andtheirbodilyfluidshadbecome"dirtyandstagnant." Second,theyhadaccumulatedagreatmanytransgressionsby"deceivingandconfusing"thepeopleoftheworld.Forthesereasons,hetoldthem,itwouldbe exceedinglydifficultforthemtogaintheultimatesalvation(3/24ab). TheImmortalthentoldthemthatiftheyweretohaveanyhopeatall,theyhadtofirstgaintheapprovaloftheHeavenlyWorthyofGreatCompassion.Takingtoheart whattheyhadbeentold,thedemonsdidasfollows:
Theentirethrong,outsidethecloudygates,worshippedtheHeavenlyWorthyfromafar,burningincenseandproclaimingtheirwishesforsevendaysandsevennights.They kowtowedandprostratedthemselvestoseekaresponse.Thesevariousinfidels,athighnoon,suddenlysmelledadivinefragrancethatpermeatedtheirnosesandenteredtheir hearts.Intheirheartstheyrejoiced,andtheirconfusionwaseliminated.Inside,theyfeltneitherhungernorthirst.Theirsightandhearingbecametwiceasclearasitwaswhen theyfirstcameforth.Thesevariousinfidelssnappedtheirfingersandlookedateachother,andremarkedathowtheirbodilycomplexionshadtakenonamoistluster.Atthattime, theImmortalinhisheartunderstoodthattheHeavenlyWorthyhadtakenpityonthevariousInfidels.Thesevariousinfidels,intheirheartsalso

Page148 sensed[thattheHeavenlyWorthyhadtakenpityonthem].Withjoyintheirbosomstheywereleftspeechless,andtheysimplybowedandgavethanks,visualizingthePerfect MonarchofGreatCompassion.Againforsevendaysandsevennightstheybowedandkneltbythecloudygates.(3/24b25a)

TheImmortalthendeclaredtothedemonsthattheyhad"obtainedthePoweroftheTao"(dedaoli).Theyhadfinallymanagedtotaketheproperapproachtoward correctingtheirfaults.InseekingtheHeavenlyWorthy'smercy,theyhadprostratedthemselvesandworshippednonstopformanydaysandnights,inthehopeof evokingapositivesign.Itshouldbenotedherethattheyhadengagedinaverymentallyandphysicallydemandingdeed.However,theydidnotharmtheirbodiesin anyway.Tothecontrary,theybecamehealthier.Theirsensesbecamesharperandtheybecameimpervioustohungerandthirst.Thedaysandnightsofreligious raptureandobliviontowardbodilyconcernsenhancedtheirphysicalwellbeing.Thiswasbecausetheydirectedtheirfaithandreverencetowardthesoledeity(the Tao,ortheHeavenlyWorthywhopersonifiesit)capableofgeneratingthelifebestowingPoweroftheTao. InthusobtainingthePoweroftheTao,theImmortalshadmadeagreatstepintherightdirection.However,itwasnonethelessonlythefirststep.Althoughtheirlives hadbeenextendedindefinitelyandtheirmosteviltransgressionshadbeenforgiven,theqioftheirbodiesandmindsstillrequiredmuchmorepurification.Thedemons werethustoldtoreturntotheRealmofDesires(themundaneworld)andtoengageinaretreatforthreekalpas.DuringthisretreattheyweretopracticeTaoist dietetics,"eatingtheharmonious[qi]andingestingpills."OnlyafterdoingsocouldtheymeettheHeavenlyWorthyinpersonandlearnthemethodsthatwouldconfer thehighestimmortality(3/26b27a). Theaforementionednarrativepresentsastrikingcontrastbetweenthereligionofthe"infidels"andthereligionoftheTao."Infidels"donotunderstandtheimportance ofpurifyingandstrengtheningthebody,andthereforereadilyresorttobodilyabuse.Taoismdemandsausterediscipline,buttheausteritiesactuallyenhancephysical health. Thiscontrastispresentedevenmoreclearlyintheseventeenthchapter("TheChapterontheTaoConvertingtheFourBarbarianPeoples").Thislongchapter describeseventsthatallegedlytookplaceinamythicalnationgovernedbyarighteousandpioussagekingnameChongguang.Chongguang,wearetold,wasactually anavatarofBaoguang,aSuperiorPerfectedBeingoftheHeavenofJadePurity.Baoguanghadtakenonhishumanformthroughamiraculousconceptioninthe wombofthenation'squeen.Oneday,afterhehadtakenthethrone,anarmyofbloodthirsty"barbarians"attemptedtoinvadehisnation.Becausetheyhadheardthat thenationpossessednotroopsorweapons,theyanticipatedaneasyconquest.However,beforetheyevenreacheditsborders,theywereafflictedwithcontagious

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diseasesthatwipedoutthreetenthsoftheirtroops.Theyinitiallyretreated,butthentriedtoreorganizetheirassault.Theepidemicimmediatelyafflictedtheirown homelands.Itkilledeighttenthsoftheirpopulationandstillshowednosignsofsubsiding.Manyofthe"barbarians"contemplatedhumansacrificeasameansof imploringthegodsofheaventoendtheepidemic.However,oneofthewiseramongthemsuggestedthatitwouldbebettertogoapologizetothesageking,whowas obviouslyingooddivinegraces.Thus,125"barbarian"generals,leadinganentourageof84,000strong,wenttothevirtuousnationbearinglavishgifts.There,after presentingtheirgifts,theydemonstratedtheirremorsebeforeKingChongguangbycuttingofftheirnoses,pullingouttheirhair,andbeatingthemselvesuntiltheywere coveredwithbruises.Chongguang,however,refusedtheirgiftsandtoldthemthathepersonallyharborednogrudgeorpitytowardthem.Thiswasbecausetheir agonieswerecausedonlybytheirownmisdeeds.Desperateandunabletounderstandwhattheywerebeingtold,the"barbarians"contemplatedsuicideasameansof appeasingthekingandendingtheepidemic.Chongguangthentoldthemthatthewaytoseekblessingswasnotthroughmaterialofferingsandselftorture.Rather,the onlyviablemeanswasto"servetheTaowithanemptyheart."Inregardtotheircontemplatingsuicide,Chongguangreprimandedthem,saying,

Why,inseekingblessingsdoyoucontrarily45annihilateyourbody?Theannihilationofthebodyisnottobecalleda"blessing."Whydoyoubarbarianswanttoannihilateyour bodies?Thebodyisthebasisofblessings.Whyshouldyouannihilateit?Toannihilatethebodyistobecalled"annihilatingblessings."Also,thebodyisthebasisoftheTao. Toannihilatethebodyistobecalled,"annihilatingtheTao."Itisnottheannihilationoftransgressions.Thosewhoannihilatetheirtransgressionsdonotannihilatetheir transgressionsbyrelyingontheirblessings(bysacrificingtheirblessedbodies).Thosewhoseekblessingsdonotbringabouttheirblessingsbycommittingtransgressions. (7/7ab)

Thushetoldthemthatitwasessentialforthemtokeeptheirbodiesintact.Thebarbarians,however,stilldidnotunderstand.Theyaskedtohearmoreaboutthe religionoftheTao.Chongguangobligedthemwithalengthydiscoursethatincludedthestatement
TheMostHighUltimateTaobeginswiththeperpetuationoflifeasitsbasictenet.ImmediatelywithinthisbodyonemakestheDharmaBody.(7/8b)

ThisstatementmakesitclearthattheperpetuationoflifeisafundamentalconcerninTaoism.Thisisbecausetheultimategoal,describedhereastheattainmentofthe "DharmaBody,"mustberealizedwithinthelivingflesh.However,thediscoursealsoincludedstatementsofamoreobscurenature.

Page150 [TheTaoistreligion]regardsthebody'sbeingabletofollowthespiritasnonbeing.Itregardsnondoingasselfs oness.Itregardsformlessnessasperpetuallife.(7/8b9a)

Here,formlessnessisequatedwitheternallife.Takenliterally,astatementsuchasthiswouldseemtoimplythattheblessedbeingnolongerpossessesabodyofflesh. Thisseeminglycontradictstheidealofbodilyimmortalityandthenotionof"obtainingtheDharmaBodywithinthisBody."Thestatement,"itregardsthebodybeing abletofollowthespiritasnonbeing,"mayholdthecluetoresolvingtheseemingcontradiction.Itperhapsmeansthatthebody,somehowtransformedtoaformless state,accompaniesthespiritintoastateofnonbeing,andthisnonbeingiseternallife.Theunderstandingoftheauthorseemstobethatsuchatransformationis tantamounttotheperpetuationofthebody. Afterthisexplanationbythesageking,thetexttellsus(unsurprisingly)thatthe"barbarians"stillcouldnotunderstand.ThenarrativecontinuesbydescribinghowKing ChongguangsummonedforthacertainGrandMasteroftheColdForest(anavataroftheMostHighLordoftheTao)andallofthefamilyleavingTaoistmonks (chujiadaoshi)ofthenation.TheGrandMasterandhismonkishentourageperformedaritualofpurificationandrepentanceforsevendaysandsevennightson behalfofthefrontiernations.Theepidemicimmediatelyended,andallofthenationssentenvoystoexpresstheirgratitude.Allofthecitizensoftheblessednationalso cameforthtopaytheirrespectstotheGrandMaster.Agrandfestivalwasthenstaged,sponsoredbythesageking.Whilethemonkssanghymnsand circumambulated,theGrandMastertookhisseatuponahighplatformandrevealedhistruecountenanceastheMostHighLordoftheTao.KingChongguang, obeyingtheinstructionsoftheMostHighLordoftheTao,burnedincense,"bowedfromafartotheHeavenlyWorthyofGreatCompassionintheCloudPalace,"and proclaimedtenwishes.46Thisimmediatelyevokedawidevarietyofmiraculousphenomenathatincludedtheresurrectionofdeadbodiesandtheblossomingofdead treesandplants.47TheHeavenlyWorthyofGreatCompassionhimself,togetherwithhissacredthrongs,appearedintheskyabovetheeasternwallsofthenation. Duetotheirremotedistance,theyappearedtotheeyesoftheirbeholdersasamurkypurpleradiancesurroundedbyabrightmist.TheGrandMasterthenproduced aduplicateofhisPerfectForm(zhenxing),whichascendedandenteredthecloudstojointheHeavenlyWorthy.Thetextthenstates
Withinthegreatassembly,[all]humansandnonhumansbecamesilentandmotionless.Withtheirheartsnevertiring,theyjoyfullygazedupandenjoyedthePerfect[Forms]by observingtheircountenances.Theydevotedtheirheartsandconcentratedtheirthoughtswithoutevensensingtheyhadbodies.Forninedaysandninenightstheyremained serenewithouthungeringnorthirsting.Theirbodiesandmindsweremotionless.(7/13b)

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DescribedhereonceagainisastateofraptureexperiencedbythosewhodevotetheirattentionsolelytotheTao'stheophany.Therapturerendersthemimperviousto bodilyneeds,presumablybecausetheyhavebecomeimbuedwiththePoweroftheTao.Unfortunately,ourtexttellsus,the"barbarians"stillhadnotovercometheir chronicignorance.Uponwitnessingthescenebeforethem,theybecameterrifiedandoverwhelmedwithfeelingsofguilt.Theyproceededtopullouttheirhair,sliceoff theirnoses,andstriketheirbodies.TheyalsoharboredthedesiretogivetheirbodiestotheTaoassacrificesbygougingouttheireyes,choppingofftheirheads,and burningtheirbodies.KingChongguangpromptlyreprimandedthemfordefilinghisnationwiththeirvulgarways,andremindedthemthattheTaocouldnotbesought throughbodilyannihilation.Hethenlecturedthemontheimportanceof"completing"thebody.

IfyouwanttoheartheTao,youmustcompleteyoursenseofhearing.DonotlistentotheTaobylisteningwithyourears.IfyouwanttoseetheTao,youmustcompleteyour senseofsight.DonotlookattheTaowitheyesthataredefectiveanddamaged.IfyouwanttopracticetheTao,youmustcompleteyourlife.DonotpracticetheTaoby annihilatinglife.IfyouwanttopracticetheTao,youmustfirstcompleteyourbody.DonotpracticetheTaowithadeficientbodythatviolates.IfyouwanttoembracetheTao, youmusteliminatethetenevils.48YoumustnotpracticetheTaoafterentertainingthoughtsofcommittingthefivedeadlytransgressions.49Younowmustunderstandthatthose whoselivesarenotcompletedarenotworthyofhearingtheTao.ThosewhosebodiesarenotcompletedarenotworthyofstudyingtheTao.(7/14ab)

Here,"completing"somethingmeanstorealizeitsfullpotential.Intermsofthehumanbody,itmeanstoliveoutone'slifespanandtrainthebodytoitsbestpossible condition.ThusChongguangistellingthe"barbarians"thatinordertoworshipandpracticetheTao,theymusttakecareoftheirbodiesandnotallowtheirlivestoend prematurely.Atthesametime,theymustworktoimprovethequalityofthebodyanditsfunctionssoanunderstandinganddirectexperienceoftheTaoarepossible. Theclearimplicationhereisthatthe"barbarians"possess"incomplete"bodiesthatneedtobe"completed.''ToseektheTaobyfurtherdamagingsuchbodiesisa misguidedapproach. Thekingthentoldthe"barbarians"thateventhoughtheywerenotyetworthyofseekingtheTao,themerittheyhadjustgainedbyseeingtheHeavenlyWorthyfroma distancewouldenablethemtobereborn10,000kalpaslaterascitizensoftheblessedkingdom.Headded,however,thatfromthatdayontheyhadto"complete theirbodies."Iftheyeverengagedinbodilymutilationagain,theywouldloseallhope. Theguiltandimpurityoftheforeignerswasthussoprofoundthattheyhadtotrainforaninconceivablylongperiodtoachieverebirthintheblessedkingdom.

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Onlyafterthisrebirthwastruesalvationpossible.TheimplicationofthestoryassumingthattheblessednationisanallegoryforChinaisthatforeigners,bysheer faultoftheirethnicity,areunabletoattainPerfectionwithoutfirstbeingrebornasChinese.However,whiletheauthoroftheYuqingjingisagainclearlyxenophobic, hisrealadversaryisthehereticaldoctrinethatseemstohaveinfiltratedthebeliefsofTaoiststhemselves.Theauthoradvocatesthelifeaffirmingsoteriologythathe considersTaoistorthodoxyandappealstothexenophobiaoffellowChineseandTaoistsbylabelingallsupportersofthehereticalviewpoint"barbarians"and "infidels." TheYuqingjingsetsforthalbeitvaguelyasoteriologicalschemeinwhichaneternal,transcendentexistenceisattainedwithoutcompromisingtheobjectivesof bodilyhealthandlongevity.Coherencetothissoteriologicalschemeismeanttobethestandardbywhichthevalidityofabelieforpracticecanbedetermined.Wedo notknowwhotheauthor(orauthors)oftheYuqingjingwas,anditisuncertainhowinfluentialandprevalenthisviewswereamonghisTaoistcontemporaries. Nonetheless,theYuqingjingisatextofprofoundimportance,inthatitaddressesadoctrinalissuethatwas,andalwayswillbe,ofcriticalimportance,namely,the roleofthefleshinthequestforthehighestimmortality.TheYuqingjingadamantlyarguesthatthehumanbodyisextremelyvaluable,andthisviewprevailstothisday asadefinitivetraitoftheTaoistreligion.

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ChapterEight Conclusion
Duringroughlythefirstsixcenturiesofthecommonera,manyTaoistspracticedasceticisminthehopeofgainingeverlastinglife.Asnewbeliefsandpracticeswere developed(oradoptedfromBuddhism),asceticswereprovidedwithfurthermotivationandjustificationfortheirausterities.WhiletheTaoistreligioncertainly accommodatedlessausteremodesofreligiosity,asceticismwasdemandedofadvancedadeptswhosoughtimmortalityinitshighestforms.Inevitably,someofthe newbeliefsparticularlythoseinspiredbyBuddhistinfluencecreatedcontradictionsandtensionswitholderbeliefsandpractices.However,aneffortwasmadeto retaintheoldbeliefsandpracticesinwaysthatwerecoherenttothenewbeliefs. Theprincipalasceticpracticesincludedfasting,celibacy,sleepavoidance,wildernessseclusion,andselfimposedpoverty.However,overthecourseoftheperiod examined,thesoteriologicalandcosmologicalbeliefsjustifyingthesepracticeschangedconsiderably.Someofthesechangesintensifiedtheinherenttensionbetween twoprimaryobjectives:longevityandtranscendence.Thiswasbecausetheyprovidedatheoreticalbasisforthinkingthattranscendencecouldbeachievedwithout seekinglongevity.Theemergenceofsuchthinkingcreatedagreaterpossibilityforasceticabuses(theharmingandkillingofthebody)tobecarriedoutandcondoned. Upuntilroughlythemidfourthcentury,Taoistasceticsmostlyfunctionedwithinsmallschoolsandmasterdisciplelineagesthatdidnotshareanyclearlydefined cosmology,soteriology,orethicalcode.Buddhistinfluencewasstillsparse,andphysiologicaltheories,ratherthanethicalconcerns,providedmostoftherationalefor selfdenial.Celibacy,forexample,waspracticedprimarilybecausethelossofsexualfluidswasthoughttodepleteone'svitalforces,notbecausesexwasdeemed inherentlyimmoral.MonasticismakintotheBuddhistmodelhadyettobedeveloped.However,manyadeptsconsciouslysecludedthemselvesfromsocietyand shunnedbasicworldlyneedsandcomforts. Moststrikingistheintensityandresourcefulnesswithwhichadeptsfasted.BecauseTaoisttextsfrequentlyemploytermssuchastheavoidanceofgrains

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(bigu)orcuttingoffgrains(duangu)todenotethepracticeoffasting,modernscholarshavecommonlybeenledtobelievethattheprimaryobjectiveofTaoist dieteticswasmerelytoabstainfromeatingthe"fivegrains"(rice,glutinousmillet,panicledmillet,wheat,andsoybeans).However,theactualobjectivewastoradically reduceone'sintakeofallfoods.Todothis,adeptsingestedanamazingvarietyofhungersuppressingsubstancesandpotionsanddevisednumeroustechniquessuch asvisualization,incantation,airswallowing,salivaswallowing,breathholding,andtalismanswallowing. Duringthelatterpartofthefourthcenturyandonward,theShangqingandLingbaomovementscametoassertpervasiveinfluence,providinglarger,commonlyshared doctrinalandinstitutionalframeworksintowhichasceticpracticeswereincorporated.Bythefifthorsixthcentury,atthelatest,maleandfemalemonasticismbasedon theBuddhistmodelcametobepracticedbyTaoists,asiswellattestedtobyevidenceintheDaoxuezhuan. TheShangqingmovement(thatbeganinthelatefourthcentury)incorporatedasceticismintoitscomprehensivetrainingregimenthatculminatedinthetransmission, study,andpracticeoftheDadongzhenjingandother"revealed"scriptures.Whileascetictrainingmethodsofthekindpursuedinearlieryearswerenolongerin themselvesdeemedcapableofconferringthehighestsalvation,theywerenonethelessdeemedessentialforqualifyingandconditioningadeptstoreceivetheholiest scripturesandpracticetheirmethods. WhileitsborrowingofBuddhistdoctrinesandpracticeswasnotasextensiveasthatoftheLingbaomovement,theShangqingmovementdiddrawupontheteachings oftheBuddhistSishierzhangjingtoenjoinitsfollowerstotrainrigorously,reducetheirdesires,andrenouncesexandmarriage.TheShangqingmovementalso promotedcelibacyvigorouslyonindigenousprinciples.AccordingtotheShangqingtexts,sexualactivitydepletedthebody'svitalforcesandcouldevencauseinstant deathincertaincases(whenengagedinbypractitionersofspecifictrainingmethods).Sexualdesiresrenderedadeptssusceptibletothemaliceofdemonsand incapableofcommunicationwithdivinebeings.Chastityinthoughtandactioncouldenableadeptstoentersublime,platoniccompanionshipswithimmortalbeingsof theoppositesex.Asceticdisciplineingeneralwaspromotedasbeingconducivetogainingthesympathyandassistanceofgodsandimmortals.Undertheirbenevolent gaze,adeptshopedtowithstandthenumeroustrialsimposedbydemonsduringtheirquestforperfection. BeliefsanticipatingtheimminentdestructionofthecorruptworldformedacentralcomponentoftheShangqingworldview,andthemoodthatpervadestheShangqing textsisdecidedlypessimisticandantiworldly.ThisantiworldlysentimentisperhapsbestexemplifiedbyhowtheShangqingmovementpromotedcertainmethods tantamounttoreligioussuicideandlaudedtheimmortalsofyorewhofeignedgruesomedeathsbeforeproceedingtoeternallife.

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TheLingbaomovementofthefifthcenturyalsomadeasceticismanintegralpartofitsreligioussystem.LingbaoTaoismwasstronglyinfluencedbyMahayana Buddhism.Probablylargelyforthisreason,itsasceticismboreastronglyaltruistictinge.TheidealsaintoftheLingbaotradition,muchliketheBodhisattvaof MahayanaBuddhism,wasonewhomadegreateffortsandsacrificesforthebenefitofalllivingbeings,notjustforhisorherownsalvation.Afundamentalclaimofthe movementwasthatpersonaltrainingmethodshoweverrigorouscouldnotconferthehighestimmortalityifonedidnotexhibitgreataltruisticvirtueovermany incarnations. TheLingbaomovement'steachingsonmoralityanddisciplinearesetforthinsetsofprecepts(jie)addressedtobelieversatvariouslevels,andhencevaryintheir degreeofausterityandselfsacrifice.Themoreadvancedsetsofpreceptsappeartobeaddressedtoadeptswhomakereligioustrainingtheirexclusivevocationand demandahighdegreeofasceticism.Theseadvancedpreceptsmayhaveservedascodesofdisciplinewithinearlymonasticsettings. TheLingbaomovementemphasizedtheconscientiousobservanceofcommunal"retreat"(zhai)rituals.Thesetypicallylastedthreeormoredaysandentailedstrict dietaryprohibitionsandstrenuousliturgicalprocedures.Toexpressremorsefortheirtransgressions,participantswouldkowtowandslaptheircheekshundredsof times.Insomecases,theywouldhumiliatethemselvesbystrippingtheirgarments,disshevelingtheirhair,andsmearingsootovertheirfacesandbodies.Theultimate objectwastoimploretheloftyTaoistdeitiestogranthappinessandsalvationtoallsentientbeings.Theausteredailyregimenofadvancedadeptswasconsidereda "perpetualretreat"(changzhai),anextensionofthecommunal"retreat"ritualwhereinthedevotionalandpurificatoryobservancesweremaintainedpermanentlyata personallevel. TheLingbaoscripturesprovidediscoursesonsoteriologythatpresentuswithacomplicatedpuzzle.SomepassagesintheLingbaoscripturesdescribethebodyas beingatemporarydwellingforthespirit,oremphasizethe"empty"qualityofthebody.Theadeptistoldto"forget"hisbodyandtostop"loving"it.Thespirit(shen), equatedtothemind,isdescribedassomethingmorepropertotheadept.Itsstateofperfectionorlackthereofisclaimedtobetheprimaryfactorthatdetermines whetheronewillgainadesirablerebirthorpreferablybecomeliberatedfromsamsara.Thiswouldseemtoimplyabeliefinasingularsoulthatcansurvivedeath andperpetuateone'spersonalityinablessedafterlifestate.However,insomepassages,heavenlyascensioninthefullphysicalbodystillissetforthasbeingthe highestformofsalvation.Insuchpassages(ofwhichprimeexamplesarefoundintheGongdeqingzhongjingandtheErshisishengtujing),theshen(thespiritual componentofone'sbeing)isdescribedasthousandsofgodsthatpersonifytheqithatpervadesthebodyandanimatesit.Immortalascensionisclaimedtocome aboutwhentheseinternalgodscombinetheirforcestopropeltheadept'sbodyupward.

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TheambiguitiesandseemingdiscrepanciesinLingbaosoteriologywereaproductofthelatenttensionthathadalwaysexistedbetweenthetwoprimaryobjectivesof Taoistadepts:longevityandtranscendence.Taoistadeptsyearnedtoliveeternallyinarealmbeyondthisimperfectworld.Tobelieveintheimmortalityandascension ofthehumanfleshisundoubtedlydifficult,sinceeverybodywitnessesthegrimrealityofdeath,whilenobodyeverseemstowitnessthemarvelofheavenlyascension. Empiricalevidenceseemstoconstantlyundermineanyfaithinphysicalimmortality.Abeliefintheimmortalityofaninvisible,nonphysicalentityislessreadilyrefutable onempiricalgrounds.IfoneacceptsBuddhistictheoriesonkarmaandreincarnationandinfersthatthereexistsanimmortalsoulthatcantranscendtheworld (contradictoryasthismaybetotheBuddha'sauthenticteachings),onehascreatedadoctrinethatrequiresalesserleapoffaith.Anasceticwhoadoptssucha soteriologycouldthenconceivablymaintainthatspiritualperfectionisthesolepriorityandthatthebodycanandshouldbeneglectedandmortifiedtothepointof destruction. SuchisthedoctrinedenouncedthroughouttheYuqingjinginitsgruesomedepictionsofhereticalasceticism.Whiletheauthorseemstoblamethepropagationofthe heresymostlyonforeignersand"infidels,"healsomaintainsthattheheresyhasinfiltratedtheTaoistreligionitself.ThesoteriologyoftheYuqingjingitselfissomewhat ambiguous,sinceitdescribesthehighestimmortalityasaliberationfromsamsaraandamergingwithaformlessnonbeing.Theideaseemstobethattheadept somehowtransformshisphysicalbodyintosuchastate.Nonetheless,theYuqingjingisunequivocalinitsassertionthatthebody("thebasisoftheTao")mustbe treasured.TheYuqingjingencouragesadeptstotrainrigorously,butforcefullyassertsthattheyabsolutelymustnotinflictirreversibleharmontheirbodies,muchless bringaboutprematuredeath. Thelatenttensionbetweenlongevityandtranscendence,alongwithanuneasysenseofdoubttowardthepossibilityofphysicalimmortality,certainlymusthaveexisted throughouttheperiodcoveredinthisstudy.Asceticabusesprobablyoccuredintermittently,especiallywhenadeptswereovercomebytheirdesiretoleavetheworld, orbytheirdisgusttowardtheirimperfectbodies.Suicidalmethodsmayhavelargelyoccurredasaresultofsuchsentiments,eventhoughsuchmethodstheoretically constitutedamere"feigning"ofdeath.However,whenreadingtheYuqingjing,onegetstheimpressionthatasceticabusesmayhavebecomemorecommonbythe sixthcentury,andthatthelatenttensionbetweenlongevityandtranscendencehadbeenaggravatedbytheadoptionofBuddhisticdoctrines. WeshallendthisstudywithabrieflookatthepresentstateoftheTaoistreligionandsomespeculativecommentsonthecoursethatTaoistasceticismtookafterca. 600C.E.

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TodayTaoismlivesonasanorganizedreligion,andasceticismcontinuestobeanimportantaspectofit.TwomajorformsofTaoismhavesurvived:thepriestlyand themonastic.TheformerhasbeencarriedonprimarilybytheHeavenlyMastersSchool,whilethelatterhasbeencarriedonprimarilybytheCompletePerfection (Quanzhen)School. ThepriestsoftheHeavenlyMastersSchool,whichisnowalsoknownastheOrthodoxUnity(Zhengyi)School,areallmen.Theyareallowedtomarry,andinmany cases,thepriestlyvocationispassedonfromfathertoson.Theprimaryactivityofpriestsistheperformanceofritualsofvariouskinds.Theseincludebothprivateand communalrituals,alongwithhealingsandexorcisms.InthePeople'sRepublic,theHeavenlyMastersSchoolsurvivesprimarilyinthesouthandhasitsheadquartersat Mt.LonghuinJiangxiProvince.However,manypriestsliveoutsidemainlandChina,especiallyinTaiwan. TheCompletePerfectionSchoolwasfoundedbyWangChongyang(11121170).Initsearlyyears,ithaditsstrongholdsinpresentdayShaanxiandShandong provinces.TodayithasitsheadquartersatBeijing'sWhiteCloudMonastery(BaiyunGuan),andhasnumerousmonasteriesscatteredthroughoutthePeople's Republic.Itsclergyincludebothmonksandnuns,wholeaddisciplined,celibatelives.Theirprimarypursuitisselfcultivation,whichinvolvestheadherenceto monasticrulesandthepracticeofinternalalchemicalmeditation.1 Generallyspeaking,priestlyTaoismemphasizesritual,whilemonasticTaoismemphasizesselfcultivation.However,thisdistinctionisnotabsolute.Manypriests practiceinternalalchemicalmeditation.Somemonksandnunsaretrainedtoadministerrituals.Nonetheless,itwouldbeaccuratetosaythattheasceticstraininthe Taoistreligionhasbeenperpetuatedprimarilyinthemonasteries. DuringtheCulturalRevolution,aconcertedeffortwasmadebythegovernmenttoeliminateTaoismfromthePeople'sRepublicforgood,whichwouldhavemeantthe virtualextinctionofmonasticTaoism.Fortunately,thegovernmenthasadoptedamoretolerantpolicytowardorganizedreligionsincetheearly1980s,andTaoismis graduallyrestoringitself.Atthesametime,thenation'sdoorshavebeenopenedtoforeignvisitors,makingitpossiblefornonChinesescholarstoencountermonastic Taoism.InmyownvisitstoChina,IhavebeenimpressedbyhowTaoistmonksandnunsareupholdingstrictstandardsofdiscipline.OnoneofmytripsImetan adeptnamedLingdanzi("theMasteroftheMiraculousElixir")atthefootofMt.WudanginwesternHubeiProvince,whoclaimedtogoonfastsofupto100days. FrommonksattheSouthernPeakMt.Heng(HunanProvince)IheardarumoraboutanunonMt.Wudangwhohadnoteatenforthreeyears.WhileIamskeptical aboutsuchclaims,Iwasabletoverifythatcelibacy,vegetarianism,andtherenunciationofluxuriesweregenerallymandatoryformonksandnuns.Unfortunately,it mustalsobeaddedthatmuchofthegrandeurofthemonasteries,alongwiththeirwealthofpersonalities,hasbeenlostasaresultoftheCulturalRevolution.2

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Undoubtedly,manythingshaveoccurredinthehistoryofTaoistasceticismsince600C.E.,theapproximatepointintimeatwhichourstudyends.Evidenceinthe YuqingjingseemstoindicatethatTaoismanditsasceticismhadcometoacriticalcrossroad.New,largelyBuddhistinfluencedtrendsindoctrinewerebringingto questionthevalueofthehumanbody.TheteachingsoftheYuqingjingrepresentaferventattempttoreassertthevalueofthehumanbodyandkeepasceticpractices withinboundariesthatwereconsistentwiththisoutlook.Unfortunately,wedonotknowtheextenttowhichthemessageoftheYuqingjingwasheardandembraced byTaoistsatthetime. WedoknowthatTaoistsweretocontinuetodrawuponBuddhistteachings.TextsofthelateSixDynastiesandtheTangbetraytheinfluenceofvariousformsof Mahayanathought.TaoistinternalalchemistsoftheSongandYuanwerestronglyinfluencedbyChan(Zen)Buddhisminparticular.Thehighestformsofimmortality continuedtobeequatedtothecompleteliberationfromsamsara.Atthesametime,physicallongevitywasstillacherishedgoal(itstillis),andmacrobiotictechniques continuedtobecarriedoutanddeveloped.Theunderlyingtensionbetweenthedualobjectivesoftranscendenceandlongevitywasprobablyneverfullyresolved,and controversiesofthekindaddressedintheYuqingjingprobablyreemergedfromtimetotime. However,thistensionmayhavebeenpartiallyresolvedinsomeofthespeculationsoftheinternalalchemistsoftheSong(9601279)andYuan(12791367) dynasties.3 Whilenotallinternalalchemicaltextsappeartobeinfullagreementaboutexactlywhatimmortalityis,manymaketheclaimthattheadeptcreatesadivine, immortalentitywithinhisbody.Thisentityproceedstoagodlyandaneternalexistenceoncethebodyoffleshhasperished.However,physicalhealthandlongevity arenonethelessdeemedessential,sincethebodyoffleshistoactastheapparatusforconcoctingthisimmortalentity.Thisviewprovidedadeptswiththehopeof transcendingtheevilsandagoniesofworldlyexistence,whileatthesametimeposingadeterrentagainstbodilyabuse.Ofcourse,onecanneverassumethata particularreligiousdoctrinewillbringtheconsequencesonemightimagine,andinactualpracticeadeptsmaywellhavefallenintoexcessesorlaxityfromtimeto time. ThedevelopmentofinternalalchemywhichreacheditsapexduringtheSongandYuanwasprobablythemostsignificanteventintheevolutionofTaoistself cultivation.Oneresultseemstohavebeenthatancienttexts(suchastheShangqingandLingbao)largelywentoutoffashionasguidesforselfcultivation.4 Thiswasat leastinpartbecauseinternalalchemistsemulatedChanBuddhistsintheirtendencytovaluepersonalexperienceanddirectoralteachingfrommastertodisciple,rather thanthestudyofoldtexts.Internalalchemistsdevelopedtheirownintricatetheoriesaboutcosmologyandphysiologyandattemptedtopursuetheirdailydiscipline andmeditationtechniquesinawaythatfullyintegratedthemindwiththebody,andinturnsynchronizedthesewiththecyclicalworkingsofnature.

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TotheextentthattheyaccomplishedthisorsothoughttheyclaimedsuperiorityfortheirapproachoverthewaysofpastTaoists.Whiletheyacknowledgedsome ofthestandardmacrobiotictechniquesofthepasttobeofvalue,andoftenincludedthemwithintheiroverallregimen,theyconsiderednonesufficientontheirownfor conferringeternallife. Whileasignificantportionofinternalalchemistsweremonasticsandascetics,itishardtosayexactlyhowlargethisportionwas.Certainlynotallinternalalchemists wereascetics,anditshouldbenotedthatsomepursuedsexualyogaasanintegralpartoftheirregimen.WedoknowthatCompletePerfectionSchoolfounderWang Chongyangandhisinnercircleofdiscipleswereextremeasceticswhobeggedfortheirliving,bravedtheharshelementsofnature,andavoidedfoodandsleepfor lengthyperiods.(Ofcourse,theirtremendousasceticfeatsmaybegrosslyexaggeratedinthehagiographicalaccountsthatrecordthem.)Italsoappearsthatthe CompletePerfectionSchoolrevitalizedTaoistmonasticismandplayedacentralroleindefiningtheshapethatitwouldcarrytothepresentday.5 Undoubtedly,beforeandafterthefoundingoftheCompletePerfectionSchool,thereweremanyothersignificantmovementsanddevelopmentsthatdeservemention. ItmustbeadmittedthatmuchneedstobelearnedbeforewecanproperlytracetheevolutionofTaoistasceticismbetweenca.600C.E.andthepresent.Thistask hopefullywillbecarriedoutinafuturefulllengthstudy.

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Appendix SummaryInformationontheLingbaoScripturesCitedinChapterSix
Benyuandajiejing(TheScriptureoftheGreatPreceptsoftheOriginalVowHY344/TT177)Fulltitle,TaishangDongxuanlingbaozhihuibenyuandajie shangpinjing(18pp).ThistextcontainsinstructionsthatwereallegedlyconferreduponGeXuanbythePerfectedManoftheGreatUltimateonMt.Tiantai.The textcoversvarioustopicspertainingtotraining.Itexhortsthereaderto"stabilizethemindandtreasuretheqi."Itforcefullyrecommendsthestudyandrecitationofthe Laozi.Itdescribesprogressivelyintenselevelsoftrainingthataretobepursuedintheirproperorder.Itgivesalistoffiftynine"originalvowsofwisdom,"piousand compassionatewishesthattheadeptmustharborwhenwitnessingvariousthings.Italsodescribeshorrendouspunishmentsthataretobesufferedbythosewho becomedishonestandimmoralafterenteringthereligiouslifefulltime.Thetextstatesunequivocallythatitisbettertoremainalaypersonthantobecomeacorrupt clergymember. Benxingyinyuanjing(TheScriptureontheCausationfromPastDeedsHY1106/TT758)Fulltitle,Taishangdongxuanlingbaobenxingyinyuanjing(71/2 pp).OnMt.Laocheng,GeXuanrespondstoquestionsfromagroupofthirtythreeearthlyImmortalsandTaoistadepts.Hedescribesthelongprocessspanning countlessrebirthsthroughwhichhegainedhisloftystatusofLeftImmortalDukeoftheGreatUltimate. Chishuyujue(JadeLessonsontheRedScriptHY352/TT178)Fulltitle,Taishangdongxuanlingbaochishuyujuemiaojing.Twojuan(621/2pp).The openingportionofthefirstjuandescribeshowtheMostHighLordoftheTaorevealedthescripturetoacertainWangLongandconferreduponhimtheLingbao TenPreceptsandtheTwelvePreceptstobeObeyedthesepreceptsareenumeratedinthetext.

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Thetextthenpresentstwoshortliturgiesofrepentance.ThesearefollowedbytheallimportantLingbaoPerfectWrits,whicharepresentedinordinary,legiblescript. TheWritsareaccompaniedbydetailedinstructionsonhowtoutilizethemtogainvariousbenefits.Thesebenefitsinclude:1)attainingimmortality,2)correcting inauspiciousalignmentsofthestars,3)survivingtheanticipatedcosmicflood,and4)protectionfromdemons.Thesecondjuanbeginsbydescribinghowthefiveqi or''sprouts"aredispatchedeverymorningfromthehighestheavenstorechargetheworldwithvitalityandnourishtheadeptswhoarecapableofeatingthem.Thetext thennarratesthestoryofapiousgirlnamedAqiuZeng(seep.101).Thisstoryisfollowedbydescriptionsofvariousmethods.Theseincludethemethodforeating the"sprouts,"atechniqueforvisualizingandsummoningtheFiveMonarchsoftheFivePeaks,andaritualmethodforinvokingdeitieswiththePerfectWrits.Thetext concludeswithaliturgyforthetransmissionofthePerfectWrits. Chishuzhenwen(ThePerfectWritsinRedScriptHY22/TT26)Fulltitle,Yuanshiwulaochishuyupianzhenwentianshujing.Threejuan(75pp).Thefirst juanbeginsbydescribingtheprimordialoriginsofthePerfectsWrits.ItfurtherdescribeshowthePrimordialHeavenlyWorthymadethemlegible,afterwhichtheir marvelouspowerbroughtaboutthemiraclesofcreation.TheWritsthemselvesareshown,writteninsealscriptandaccompaniedbytalismans.Nextinthetextare descriptionsoftheFiveMonarchs,alsoaccompaniedbytalismans.ThesearefollowedbygeneraldescriptionsofthevariouspurposesforwhichtheWritscanbe utilized.Thesecondjuandisplaysvarioustalismans,mostofwhichpurporttoenableonetosurvivethecataclysmattheendofthecosmicera.Thethirdjuanliststhe daysforcarryingoutretreatrituals.ItalsoprovideslistsofthewondrousattributesofthePerfectWritsandtheblessingstobeobtainedbythosewhoemploythem. Dingzhitongweijing(TheScriptureonStabilizingtheWillandPenetratingtheSubtletiesHY325/TT167)Fulltitle,Taishangdongxuanlingbaozhihuidingzhi tongweijing(241/2pp).TeachingsbestoweduponthePerfectedMenZuoxuanandYouxuanbytheHeavenlyWorthyoftheLingbao.Thetextcontainsa discussionabouthowthespirit,originallypure,becomescorruptedasittakesonabodilyformandreceivesstimulithroughthesixsenses.The"emptiness"ofall worldlyphenomenaissetforthasaninsightthatcanenableonetoseverallattachmentsandreturntotheoriginalstateofPerfection.Italsosetsfortharudimentaryset oftenpreceptstobepropagatedamongthelivingmasses.Twolengthyparablesareincludedaswell.Oneoftheseextolsthemeritsofgenerousstewardshiptoward theTaoistclergytheotherpromotestheobservanceoftherudimentarytenprecepts. Ershisishengtujing(TheScriptureoftheTwentyfourLifeBestowingDiagrams)Fulltitle,Dongxuanlingbaoershisishengtujing(HY1396/TT1051)(48 pp).Thistextcontainstwentyfourversesthatonceaccompaniedtwentyfourdiagrams.The

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contentsoftheversesendorsespecialfastingtechniques(methodsforimbibingtheFiveSprouts,solaressences,andlunaressences)andoutlineaprocessbywhich theinternalgodsthatanimatethebodyareconcentratedintoonegreatdivineentitythatcanpropeltheadept'sbodytotheheavens. Gongdeqingzhongjing(TheScriptureontheLightnessandHeavinessofMeritoriousVirtueHY456/TT202)Fulltitle,Taishangdongxuanlingbaosanyuan pinjiegongdeqingzhongjing(371/2pp).InstructionsbestowedupontheMostHighLordoftheTaobythePrimordialHeavenlyWorthy.Thetextincludes detaileddescriptionsofthedivinebureaucracyoftheThreeOriginsofHeaven,Earth,andWater,whichmonitorhumanconductandadministerpunishmentsand rewardsasnecessary.Italsodescribeshowthedeitiesinhabitingthehumanbodyreportthedeedsofhumanstothedivinebureaucracy.Ofgreatestinterestisthe discourseonhowkarmaandrebirtharedeterminedprimarilybyone'sstateofmind.Thetextclaimsthatthiscausalprincipleisofearlieroriginandgreaterinfluence thanhereditaryfactors.Nonetheless,italsoacknowledgesthathereditarymeritandguiltassertsomeimpactonthefateofpeople.Thetextalsolists180sinsthatincur punishmentfromthedivinebureaucracy. Mingzhenke(TheCurriculumofBrightPerfectionHY1400/TT1052)Fulltitle,Dongxuanlingbaochangyezhifujiuyouyuguimingzhenke(39pp).Thistext containsdiscoursesallegedlyexpoundedbythePrimordialWorthytotheYouthofSuperiorWisdom.Itdescribestwelvewaysoflivingandtrainingthatbringforth auspiciousconsequences.Italsodescribesfourteenkindsofbadbehaviorthatincurhideouspunishmentandprovidestwoliturgiesforritualsofrepentancethat purporttobenefitallbeings,livinganddead. Shangpinjiejing(TheScriptureoftheUpperSectionPreceptsHY454/TT202)Fulltitle,Taishangdongxuanlingbaoshangpinjiejing(HY454/TT202)(8 pp).InstructionsbestowedupontheMostHighLordoftheTaobythePrimordialHeavenlyWorthy.Thistextstressestheimportanceofperformingritualsand sendinguppetitionsonthefirstdayofeachmonththepurposeistogaindivinerecognitionforone'svirtue.Thetextalsocontainsexhortationsthatencouragegood behaviorandwarnoftheconsequenceswroughtbybadbehavior.Italsoprovidesavarietyoflists:1)thepoignant,compassionatewishesproclaimedbythe HeavenlyGirlsofResolvedMindandImmortalswhoWithstandHumiliations,2)thePreceptsfortheSixSenses,3)thetwelve"diseases"(typesofevilbehavior),and 4)twelve"medicines"(moralvirtuesservingtoeliminatethe"diseases").Forsomereason,OfuchiNinjidoesnotmatchthisscripturewithanyoftheentriesinLu Xiujing'scatalog.However,itstitleresemblescatalogentries8and9.Largeportionsofit(1ab,3a4a,5ab)matchpassagesintheZhihuishangpindajieand Taishangdongxuanlingbaozhihuishangpindajie(Pelliot2461),textsthatOfuchibelievestocorrespondtoentry9.(SeeOfuchi[1974],pp.4849)

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Shangqingdongzhenzhihuiguanshendajiewen(TextoftheGreatPreceptsforMonitoringtheBodyHY1353/TT1039)(24pp).Alistof302preceptsthat aretobeobservedbythemostadvancedandseriouspractitioners.ThisisnotoneofthecataloguedLingbaoscriptures,butitspreceptswereapparentlyknownand esteemedbyLingbaoproponents. Taijiyinzhubaojue(The[PerfectedManof]theGreatUltimate'sPreciousLessonswithSecretCommentaryHY425/TT194)Fulltitle,Shangqingtaijiyinzhu yujingbaojue(191/2pp).Thistextcontainsdiscoursesonvariousmatters,presentedasutterancesofthePerfectedManoftheGreatUltimate.Thepredominant themeishowtoreceive,venerate,andutilizesacredtextssuchastheLaozi,theDadongzhenjing,theLingbaoscriptures,theSanhuangwen,andtheShangqing scripturesandtalismans.TheHeshanggongcommentaryisendorsedasthebestcommentarytotheLaozi.Thetextalsoincludesinstructionspertainingtomeditation andtheobservanceofretreats. Taijizuoxiangongqingwenjingshang(TheScriptureontheInquiriesoftheLeftImmortalDukeoftheGreatUltimate,UpperVolumeDunhuangmanuscripts, Stein1351,51/2pp).TeachingsbestoweduponGeXuanby"thePeerlessMasteroftheDoctrines,theLoftyandSuperiorLaozioftheMostHighGreatUltimate." Majorthemesinclude:1)theimportanceofaccumulatingmeritthroughgooddeeds,2)themeritgainedthroughtheLingbaoandSantian(ThreeHeavens)retreat rituals,3)thebenefitsgainedbyproperlyrecitingtheLaoziandtheDongxuanlingbaoyuqingshanbuxujing,and4)theimportanceofstriving"bravelyand fiercely"invariousaspectsofthereligiouslife. Taishangzhutianlingshudumingjing(TheMostHighMiraculousBookoftheVariousHeavens,theScriptureontheDeliveranceofLivesHY23/TT26,19 pp).TeachingsutteredbythePrimordialHeavenlyWorthytotheMostHighLordoftheTao.ThistextdescribesatlengthhowtheLingbaoscriptureswere manifestedinthefivelandsoftheblessed.ItalsodescribeshowthePrimordialHeavenlyWorthyhasassumeddifferenttitlesandappearedintheworldduringvarious cosmicerastoinstructlivingbeings.Thefinalpartofthetextpresentsfoursetsofversestoberecitedtowardtheheavensoftheeast,south,west,andnorth.These purporttoconferlongevitytopractitionersanddelivertheirancestorstotheSouthernPalaceforposthumouspurificationanddeliverance. Xuanyiquanjiefalunmiaojing(The[PerfectedManof]theMysteriousOne'sMarvelousScriptureoftheExhortationsandAdmonishmentsoftheWheelofthe DoctrineHY348/TT177)Fulltitle,Taishangxuanyizhenrenshuoquanjiefalunmiaojing(61/2pp).Thisisoneofthefourscripturesthatcorrespondtoentry 14ofLuXiujing'scatalog(theotherthreescripturesaretheZhenyiquanjiefalunmiaojing[seetextthatfollows],theTaishangxuanyizhenrenshuosantuwuku quanjiejing[HY455/TT202],andtheTaishangxuanyizhenrenshuomiaotong

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zhuanshenrudingmiaojing[HY347/TT177]).Thesefourscripturesonceformedasingletext.(SeeOfuchi[1974]p.50)Presentedassayingsutteredby"theTao," theXuanyiquanjiefalunmiaojingdescribeshowone'sfateisinalienablylinkedtothequalityofone'sreligioustrainingandmoralconduct.Particularemphasisisput upondescribingthecauses(gooddeedsinpastlives)thatconferonewithprivilegedsocialstatus.Itappearsthattheauthorhadanaristocraticaudienceinmindand soughttoencouragemoralrectitudeinthembyaddressingtheirworldlyconcerns. Zhaijieweiyijue(LessonsonRetreats,Precepts,andMightyRitualsHY532/TT295)Fulltitle,Taishangzhenrenfulingbaozhaijieweiyizhujingyaojue(23 1/2pp).PresentedasutterancesofthePerfectedManoftheGreatUltimate,withcommentaryattributedtoGeXuan.Thistextcontainsvariousinstructionspertaining totheobservanceofretreats.Itspecifiesthemandatoryretreatdaysanddescribestheconductthatisrequiredduringretreats.Anotherprominentthemeisthe sacrednessoftheLaozi,theDadongzhenjing,andtheLingbaoscripturesthesearedescribedasindestructiblescripturesthathaveexistedfromthebeginningof time.Ashortliturgyalsoisprovided,whichbearsthetitle,thePeerlessRetreat(wushangzhai). Zhenyiquanjiefalunmiaojing(ThePerfectOneMarvelousScriptureoftheExhortationsandAdmonishmentsoftheWheeloftheDoctrineHY346/TT177) Fulltitle,Taishangdongxuanlingbaozhenyiquanjiefalunmiaojing(51/2pp).AshasbeenmentionedinthesummaryoftheXuanyiquanjiefalunmiaojing, thisisoneofthefourscripturesthoughttocorrespondtoentry14ofLuXiujing'scatalog.Itappearstohavebeentheprologuetothesingletextthatthefour scripturesonceformed.Itdescribesthescripture'scelestialoriginsandtheeventsthatleduptoitsconferraluponGeXuanonMt.Tiantai. Zhihuishangpindajie(TheGreatUpperSectionPreceptsofWisdomHY177/TT77)Fulltitle,Taishangdongzhenzhihuishangpindajie(16pp).Teachings bestowedupontheMostHighLordoftheTaobythePrimordialHeavenlyWorthy.Thetextlistsvariousprecepts:theTenPreceptsofWisdom,theTwelvePrecepts tobeObeyed,thePreceptsfortheSixSenses,theGreatUpperSectionWisdomPreceptsforDeliveringtheLiving,theGreatPreceptsoftheTenGoodDeedsof EncouragementandAssistance(tentypesofmeritorious,piousconduct),andtheWisdomUpperSectionPreceptsontheRetributionforMeritoriousVirtue (descriptionsoftheblessedconsequencesofgenerousstewardshipandalmsgiving). Zuigendajiejing(TheScriptureontheRootsofSinsandtheGreatPreceptsHY457/TT202)Fulltitle,Taishangdongxuanlingbaozhihuizuigenshangping dajiejing.Twojuan(28pp).ThefirstjuanconsistsofinstructionsallegedlygiventotheMostHighLordoftheTaobythePrimordialHeavenlyWorthy.After describinghowthePrimordialHeavenlyWorthyappearedintheworldduring

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variouscosmicerastoindoctrinatethelivingmasses,thetextprovideslistsofprecepts.ThesecondjuanconsistsofconversationsbetweentheMostHighLordofthe TaoandtheFlyingHeavenlyPerfectedBeingsofthevariousdirections.Intheseconversations,thePerfectedBeingsdescribehowmenandwomenhavecometo sufferthetormentsofthevarioushellsandspecifytheritualmethodsandofferingsrequiredfortheirrelease.

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Notes
1.Introduction 1.ThewuxingorfiveagentstheorywasfirstdevelopedduringtheWarringStatesPeriod(403222B.C.E.)byZouYanandhisschoolofcosmologicalthinkers. VariousEnglishtranslationshavebeenproposedandusedfortheconceptofwuxing,suchasfiveagents,fiveelements,fivephases,orfiveforces.Thefiveagentsare "elements"inthesensethattheyarefivemodesofqi(seenote25later)thatconstitutethings.However,thetermelementsseemstoopassive,sincethefiveagents alsoareactive,abstractforcesthatinteractinlogicallyordainedwaysanddictatetheflowandfluxofthecosmos.TheChineseenvisionedthecosmosasalogical systeminwhichthefiveagentshadtheircorrelatesinvariousthingsatvariouslevels.Theagentshadthefollowingamongtheircorrelates:Woodeast,Jupiter,liver Firesouth,Mars,heartEarthcenter,Saturn,spleenMetalwest,Venus,lungsWaternorth,Mercury,kidneys. 2.WalterO.Kaelber,"Asceticism,"inTheEncyclopediaofReligion,editedbyMirceaEliade(NewYork:Macmillan,1987),1:441. 3.TheLaoziandZhuangzi,inkeepingwiththecustomoftheWarringStatesperiod(403222B.C.E.),bearthenamesoftheirputativeauthorsastheirtitles.Laozi ("theOldMaster")wastraditionallythoughttohavebeenaroyalarchivistnamedLiEr,anoldercontemporaryofConfucius(551479B.C.E.).Mostmodernscholars doubtwhetherLiErwasanactualhistoricalfigure.TheLaozibookfirstappearedinsomethingclosetoitspresentformduringthelatefourthorearlythirdcentury B.C.E.Opinionisdividedregardingwhetheritisofasingularorcompositeauthorship.The"InnerChapters"(chs.17)oftheZhuangzi("MasterZhuang")are generallyacceptedasthewritingsofZhuangZhou(fl.ca.latefourthcenturytoearlythirdcenturyB.C.E.).Therestofthebook'sthirtythreechaptersappeartohave beenwrittenbyvariousauthorsofheterogeneousschools,onlysomeofwhomsubscribedtoZhuangZhou'slineofthinking. 4.TaoTeChing,translatedbyD.C.Lau(London:Penguin,1963),p.68.

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5.Ibid.,p.75. 6.Ibid.,p.107. 7.Inexpoundingtheconceptof"eveningthingsout,"theZhuangziendeavorstodomorethanjustdiscreditcommonconceptualizationsanddistinctions.Itquestions thevalidityofreasoningitself.AccordingtoA.C.Graham,theZhuangzienjoinsthat"weshouldabandonreasonfortheimmediateexperienceofanundifferentiated world."SeeChuangtzu:TheSevenInnerChaptersandotherwritingsfromthebookChuangtzu,translatedbyA.C.Graham(London:GeorgeAllenand Unwin,1981),pp.914. 8.Graham,p.58. 9.Graham,p.46. 10.TheserulersincludedKingWei(r.355320B.C.E.)andKingXuan(r.319301B.C.E.)oftheQikingdom,KingZhao(r.311279B.C.E.)oftheYankingdom,the FirstEmperor(Shihuangdi,r.221210B.C.E.)oftheQindynasty,andEmperorWu(Wudi,r.14087B.C.E.)oftheHandynasty. 11.GooddiscussionsontheimmortalitybeliefsandmethodsofthecourtmagiciansarefoundinOfuchiNinji,Shokinodookyo(Tokyo:Sobunsha,1991),pp.438 68andQingXitai,ed.,Zhongguodaojiaoshi(Chengdu:SichuanRenminChubanshe,1988),pp.4956. 12.Thisportionalsocouldberenderedas"...seeking[toencountera]DivineImmortal...." 13.Sibucongkanchubian,18:10.Thetranslationismyown,butIhaveconsultedthatofYuYingshiborrowedbyJosephNeedhaminScienceandCivilizationin China,vol.5:2(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1974),p.111. 14.SeeAnnaSeidelandMichelStrickmann,eds."Taoism"inEncyclopediaBrittanica(1994ed.),vol.28,p.388.AlsoseeAnnaSeidel,LadivinisationdeLao tseudansletaoismedesHan(Paris:EcoleFrancaised'ExtremeOrient,1969),pp.1725. 15.SeeSakadeYoshinobu,"Changshangshu"(originaltitle,"Chooseijutsu")inFukuiKojunetal.,Daojiao,vol.1(Dookyoo1:Dookyootowananika), translatedbyZhuYueli(Shanghai:ShanghaiGujiChubanshe,1990[OriginalJapaneseeditionpublishedin1983]),p.203. 16.Lunheng(Shanghai:RenminChubanshe,1974),p.113.IhaveconsultedthetranslationofAlfredForke.SeeAlfredForke,Lunheng:PhilosophicalEssays ofWangChung(Leipzig:OttoHarrassowitz,1907),p.346. 17.ThedeificationofLaoziduringtheHanisdiscussedmasterfullyinAnnaSeidel,LadivinisationdeLaotseudansletaoismedesHan. 18.TheearliesthistoricalsourcesrefertothisorganizationastheFivePecksofRiceSchool(wudoumidao).Thiswasbecausetheorganizationcollectedfivepecks ofriceasrevenuefromeachofitsadherents.Whethertheorganization'sadherentsthemselvesreferredtoitbythisnameisunclear.Ithasalwaysbeenknownasthe HeavenlyMastersSchoolduetothefactthattheleaderisgiventhe

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titleofHeavenlyMaster.Today,itisalsoknownastheOrthodoxUnitySchool(zhengyipai)andhasitsheadquartersatMt.LonghuinJiangxiProvince. 19.ThemostthoroughandinformativestudyofthesetwomovementsisfoundinOfuchiNinji,Shokinodookyoo(Tokyo:Sobunsha,1991),pp.5406. 20.AverylargenumberofreligiousandsecularmanuscriptswererecoveredfromtheMogaoBuddhistGrottosatDunhuang(westernGansuProvince)in1908by thepartyofM.A.SteinandPaulPelliot.IncludedamongtheseweremanyTaoisttextsthatwouldhavebeenotherwiseunavailabletomodernscholars. 21.SeeAnnaSeidel,LadivinisationdeLaotseudansletaoismedesHan,pp.5875. 22.SeeKennethScottLatourette,AHistoryofChristianity(NewYork:Harper&Brothers,1953),pp.12223E.GlennHinson,TheEarlyChurch(Nashville: AbingdonPress,1996),p.166. 23.SeeM.G.Bhagat,AncientIndianAsceticism(NewDelhi:MunshiramManoharlal,1976),p.199. 24.SeeKurtRudolph,Gnosis:TheNatureandHistoryofGnosticism(SanFrancisco:HarperandRow,1984),pp.32642. 25.Qiinitsmostcommonusagereferstosteam,air,orgasofsomeform.(Thecharacter'sradical derivesfromapictographdepictingrisingsteam.)Italsocan refertoaninvisibleforceorenergy.Initsbroadestsense,itreferstothebasicmaterialthatmakesupallintheuniverse.Theideaisthatbeforethecreationofthe worldthereexistedonlyanundifferentiated,chaoticmassofqithateventuallycondensedanddifferentiateditselfintovariousformsandconsistencies.Thusessentially allthatexistsisqiinitsvaryingdegreesofturbidity(yin)andrarefaction(yang). 26.SeeHenriMaspero,TaoismandChineseReligion,translatedbyFrankKiermann(Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1981),pp.26667. 27.Asweshallseeinchapter4,thecommentarytotheZhonghuangjinginsomeportionsseemstoconveyabeliefintheimmortalityofasubtleinternalentity. However,thisinterpretationisuncertain.Evenifitiscorrect,thecommentaryprobablydatesnoearlierthanca.700andmayexpoundasoteriologyinconsistentwith thatheldbytheauthorofthemaintext(thatmaydateasearlyasthefourthcentury). 28.TwoinformativestudiesaboutthesebeliefsincludeIsabelleRobinet,"MetamorphosisandDeliverancefromtheCorpseinTaoism,"HistoryofReligions19.1 (1979),pp.3770andAnnaSeidel,"PostmortemImmortalityor:theTaoistResurrectionoftheBody."InS.Shaked,D.Shuman,andG.G.Stoumsa,eds. Gilgul:EssaysonTransformation,RevolutionandPermanenceintheHistoryofReligions,(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1987),pp.22337. 29.Sozomen,EcclesiasticalHistory(ca.443448),translatedbyKathleenO'BrienWickerinAsceticBehaviorinGrecoRomanAntiquity:ASourcebook, editedbyVincentWimbush(Minneapolis:FortressPress,1990),p.338.

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30.ThissentenceisquotedfromPsalms26:2. 31.JacobofSerug(ca.449521),HomilyonSimeontheStylite,translatedbySusanAshbrookHarveyinWimbush,p.21. 32.SeeJacquesGernet,AHistoryofChineseCivilization,translatedbyJ.R.Foster(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1982[originalFrenchedition, 1972]),pp.14957,17494. 33.Thereisconsiderablecontroversyovertheauthorshipofthistext.FukuiKoojunarguesthatitprobablydatesnoearlierthantheTangdynasty.SuzukiYoshijiro citesinternalevidencetoarguethatitindeedmusthavebeenwrittenintheLatterHan.SeeStephenEskildsen,"SevereAsceticisminEarlyDaoistReligion,"Doctoral Dissertation(UniversityofBritishColumbia,1994),pp.19697,ft.nt.4FukuiKojun,"AStudyofChouiTs'ant'ungch'i,"ActaAsiatica,no.27(1974),pp. 1932SuzukiYoshijiro,Shuuekisandookei(Tokyo:MeitokuShuppansha,1977),pp.512. 34.SeeKennethChen,BuddhisminChina:AHistoricalSurvey(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1964),pp.13842.AlsoseeNakajimaRyuzo,Rikuchoo shisooshinokenkyuu(Kyoto:HeirakujiShoten,1985),pp.54752. 35.TheleaderoftheGreatPeaceSectwhoorchestratedtheYellowTurbanrevolt. 36.Seep.29. 37.ATaoistpriestturnedgovernmentofficialwhoisthoughttohavemastermindedNorthernSongEmperorZhenzong's(r.9981016C.E.)ploystosolidifyhis authorityonreligiousgrounds.Zhenzongclaimedthathehadseendivinebeingsinvisions,afterwhich"heavenlybooks"appeareddeclaringdivineblessingforhis regime.Inresponsetothese"signs,"ZhenzongperformedthefengandshansacrificesatMt.Tai.TempleswerebuiltandlavishTaoistritualswereperformed nationwidetocommemoratetheseevents.SeeRenJiyu,ed.,Zhongguodaojiaoshi(Shanghai:RenminChubanshe,1990),pp.46472. 38.ATaoistpriestwhowonthefavorofNorthernSongEmperorHuizong(r.11011127C.E.)throughflattery,declaringhimaworldlyincarnationofasupreme heavenlydeitycalledtheGreatImperialLordofLongLife(changshengdadijun).SeeRenJiyu,ed.,Zhongguodaojiaoshi,p.474. 39.AnalchemistwhoconcoctedthetoxicpillthatpoisonedTangEmperorXianzong(r.805820C.E.).SeeRenJiyu,ed.,Zhongguodaojiaoshi,p.427. 2.TheLivesofTaoistAscetics(1)DepictionsintheLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuan 1.SeeEskildsen(1994),pp.4446MaxKaltenmark,LeLiesientchouan(Beijing:UniversityofParis,1953),pp.15SawadaMizuho,"Ressenden,Shinsenden kaisetsu"inChuugokukotenbungakutaikei8:Hoobokushi,Ressenden,Shinsenden,Sengaikyoo(Tokyo:Heibonsha,1969),pp.55970FukuiKojun,

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"Ressendenkoo"inTooyooshisooshikenkyuu,(Tokyo:ShosekiBunbutsuRyutsukai),pp.11344. 2.SeeEskildsen(1994),pp.4648KominamiIchiro,"Jinyakukarazonshie"inYoshikawaTadaoed.ChuugokuKodookyooshiKenkyuu(Kyoto:Dohosha, 1992),pp.419SawadaMizuho,"Ressenden,ShinsendenKaisetsu"inChuugokuKotenBungakuTaikei8:Hoobokushi,Ressenden,Shinsenden,Sengaikyoo, pp.56469FukuiKojun,"Shinsendenkoo"inTooyooshisoonokenkyuu(Tokyo:Risosha,1955),pp.3066. 3.Initsoriginalusage,thecharacterjingdenotesrefinedwhiterice.However,ithasawidevarietyofotheruses.Itcommonlydenotesthepure,subtleessenceofa thing.Whenusedinaphysiologicalcontext,itrefersabstractlytothebody'svitalityanditsgenerativeforcesor,moreconcretely,toseminalfluid.Insomecontexts,as wewillsee,itreferstothenutrientsinfoods.Also,insomecontextsitreferstothespiritualcomponentofahumanorananimal,ortonaturespiritsthatdwellintrees, rocks,andsoon. 4.PagereferencesfortheLiexianzhuanarefromtheTaoistCanonedition(HY294/TT138). 5.MostextanteditionsofLiexianzhuan,includingthatintheTaoistCanon,refertoherasNWan,whichseemstobeanerror,sincesheisreferredtoasNJiin theYongchengjixianlu(6/9b),Taipingyulan(828/4b),Taipingguangji(59/6b),andZhenxiantongjianhouji(2/13b). 6.ReferencestoPengzuarefoundinvariousancientbookssuchastheShiji,Zhuangzi,Xunzi,andHuainanzi.Accordingtolegend,hisfamilynamewasJianand hispersonalnamewasKeng.HewasthegrandsonofthelegendaryEmperorZhuanxu.HeservedasahighofficialduringthereignofEmperorYaoandcontinuedto serveingovernmentupuntiltheendoftheShangdynasty.Heallegedlylivedforover700years. 7.Thisreferstocertainformsoffungithoughttopossessgreatefficacyforbestowinglonglife. 8.PagereferencesfortheShenxianzhuanarefromtheGuanghanweicongshuversiontextintheDaozangjinghualu,comp.DingFubao(fl.1922)(Hangzhou: ZhejiangGujiChubanShe,1989). 9.In220C.E.,theHandynastyofficiallycametoanendasthethronewasusurpedbytheCaoclan.TheCaoclanthenestablishedtheWeiKingdominnorthern China. 10.SeeSandongzhunang2/4a. 11.QuotedalongwithJiaoXian'sstoryaretheLiexianzhuan'sstoryofYouboziandtheShenxianzhuan'sstoryofKongYuanfang(thetextofSandongzhunang ismissingthecharacterfang fromhisname).Youbozi"alwaysworeasinglelayeredgarmentinthewinterandworeajacketandtrousersduringthepeakof summer."KongYuanfang"alwaysatethetukahoe(fuling,Pachymococos)plantandpineseeds.Heworebadclothesandatecoarsefood"(2/3b).

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12.SeeSanguozhi(ZhonghuaShujuedition),pp.36364.SeealsoAatVervoorn,MenoftheCliffsandCaves:TheDevelopmentoftheChineseEremitic TraditiontotheEndoftheHanDynasty(HongKong:ChineseUniversityPress,1990),pp.1112. 13.SeeEskildsen,''TheBeliefsandPracticesofEarlyCh'anchenTaoism,"M.A.Thesis(UniversityofBritishColumbia,1989),pp.4042. 14.ThismountainislocatedinXingpingxian,ShaanxiProvince. 15.Thisisonlyatentativetranslationofthewordshizhongru.Zhongrushiisthemostcommonwordusedtorefertostalactite.Thispassageseemstobeclaiming thatQiongShuinventedtheword. 16.LocatedinDengfengxian,HenanProvince.ThismountainandnearbyMt.ShaoshiarereferredtocollectivelyastheCentralPeakMt.Song(ZhongyueSongshan) andreveredasoneofthesacredFivePeaksofChina.LocatedatthefootofMt.TaishiisalargeactiveTaoistmonasterycalledtheZhongyuemiao(TheShrineofthe CentralPeak). 17.ThiswasaregionlocatedinwhatistodaythesouthwesternportionofShanxiProvinceandnorthernportionofHenanProvince. 18.AnothernamefortheWesternPeakMt.Hua. 19.AnentryonGuChunisfoundinLiexianzhuan2/6b7a. 20.Thelocationofthismountainisunclear.LongmeimayhavebeenanalternatenameforMt.Qingcheng. 21.ThisisanothernamefortheCentralPeakMt.Song. 22.Afewexamplesarethe"graveofLaozi"atMt.Zhongnan,"GeHong'salchemicalfurnace"atMt.Luofu,"ZhangDaoling'shatchet"atMt.Qingcheng,and"Hao Guangning'sCave"onthesummitofMt.Hua. 23.ThereseemstohaveoncebeenaTaoistnunnerylocatedhere,butnowthereisonlyareststation. 24.The"Qishenpian"chapterintheeighteenthjuanoftheDaoshu(HY1011/TT641648),atwelfthcenturyinternalalchemicalanthologycompiledbyZengZao. 25.SeeJeanLevi,"L'abstinencedescerealeschezlesTaoistes,"EtudesChinoises1(1983):347andKristoferSchipper,TheTaoistBody(Berkeley:University ofCaliforniaPress,1993),pp.16770. 26.Congshujichengchupian(1939),1342:40.AlthoughtheBowuzhiisattributedtoZhangHua(232300C.E.),theoriginaltexthasbeenlost.Thepresent versionisacollectionofwritingsgatheredfromvarioussources,onlyoneofwhichwasZhang'sactualwork. 27.Thecharacter"gu", intothetext.

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28.TheSandongzhunanghasapassagethatreads,"Thesunisthefruitfromwhichthemistissues.Themististheessenceofthesun"("Fushipin"3/3b4a.Quoted fromascriptureentitledJiuhuajing). 29.Atvarioustimes,especiallyduringthelateSixDynastiesandTangperiods,Taoistspromotedthecontroversialhuahu(conversionofthebarbarians)legend.This legendmaintainedthatLaoziandYinXiwenttoIndiaandfoundedBuddhism.LiuXianghimselfprobablylivedtooearlytohavebeenfamiliarwiththislegend.The texthasalmostcertainlybeenembellishedhere,althoughitisdifficulttosaywhenorbywhom. 30.LocatedinZhuxixian,HubeiProvince. 31.Locationunsure.ThiscouldeitherrefertotheMt.HuoinShanxiProvinceortheoneinAnhuiProvince. 32.Aregion(onceanindependentstateduringtheWarringStatesperiod)locatedinpresentdaywesternShandongProvince.ItwasthehomeofConfucius.Kong Anguo'ssurnamesuggeststhathemayhavebeenadescendantofConfucius.DuringthereignofHanEmperorWu(14087B.C.E.),therewasscholar(and descendentofConfucius)namedKongAnguowhowroteacommentarytotheShujing(BookofHistory).ItisunclearwhethertheKongAnguointheShenxian zhuanissupposedtobethesameperson. 33.LocatedinQianshanxian,AnhuiProvince. 34.LocatedinShanxiProvince. 35.SeeNeedham,ScienceandCivilizationinChina5:5(1983),pp.14445. 36.SuchistheattitudeoftheShenxianzhuan'snarrative.However,intheWeile,JiaoXianisnotclearlydescribedasaTaoistadept,andtheimpressiononegetsis thathemayhaveavoidedwomenoutofafeelingofloyaltyandmourningforhisdeceasedwife. 37.AdistrictinpresentdayHebeiProvince. 38.LocatedinFengjiexian,SichuanProvince. 39.TheWukingdomwasakingdomthatextendedoversoutheasternChinaduringtheThreeKingdomsperiodthatfollowedtheHandynasty. 40.AgoodandconcisediscussionaboutsexualyogaisfoundinJosephNeedham,ScienceandCivilizationinChina2(1956),pp.14652.Agoodrecentbook onthesubjectisDouglasWile,ArtoftheBedchamber:TheChineseSexualYogaClassicsincludingWomen'sSoloMeditationTexts(Albany:StateUniversity ofNewYorkPress,1992). 41.ZhangDaoling,whowasactiveduringthemidtolatesecondcentury,isreveredtodayasthefirstHeavenlyMaster.Hissectreacheditsheightasareligiousand politicalbodyunderhisgrandsonZhangLu(thethirdHeavenlyMaster).(SeeOfuchiNinji,Shokinodookyoo[Tokyo:Sobunsha,1991],pp.5406.)Theextant accountsofZhangDaolingvarygreatly.Asmentionedinchapter1,theFivePecksofRiceSectemphasizedritualhealingandrudimentaryethicsandmaynothave beeninvolvedinpropagatingimmortalitytechniques.Noother

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sourcedepictsZhangDaolingasanalchemist,andhisdepictionassuchintheShenxianzhuanseemstobeareflectionoftheauthor'sownalchemicalleanings. 42.This,wearetold,hedidbymeansofamethodof"liberationfromthecorpse"(shijie).Hefeignedillnesstobecomebedridden,afterwhichhemagically transformedabamboocaneintoalikenessofhiscorpse.Leavingthisfakecorpsebehindinhisbed,hewenttojoinhismaster. 43.Thetextisunclearaboutexactlyhowheendedupwithhismaster.Perhapstheideaisthataftercarryingouttheprocedureof"liberationfromthecorpse,"hewas magicallytransportedtothedwellingofhismaster. 44.NingwasavillagelocatedinpresentdayHuojiaxian,HenanProvince. 45.OneoftheancientNineRegions.ItspannedoverthepresentdayHebeiandShanxiprovinces,aswellastheportionofHenanProvincenorthoftheYellow River. 46.Thisseemstobeatextualcorruption,sinceXizhouisthenameofadynasty(WesternZhou)andnotaplacename.MaxKaltenmarkpointsoutthatthetexthere shouldread"Quzhou"(locatedinsouthernHebeiProvince),sincethisishowitisrenderedinthecommentarytotheWenxuan(6/33a),theChuxueji(26/13a),and theTaipingyulan(697/5b).SeeLeLiesienTchouan,(Beijing:UniversityofParis,1953),74nt.a. 47.Thisprobablyreferstoamiddleagedwomanoranelderlywoman,since"Liangmu"wouldtranslateintosomethinglike"themotherfromthestateofLiang"or ''themotherofthebeams." 48.Themeaningof"threebrightnesses"isunclear,butitperhapsreferstocertaincelestialrealms,ortothesun,moon,andpolestar. 49.Thisprobablyisalsoatextualcorruption.Itshouldprobablyread"Quyi,"whichrefersagaintoQuzhou. 50.ThisisthenameofaWarringStatesperiodkingdomthatexistedinpresentdayeasternShanxiProvinceandnorthernHenanProvince. 51.TheDaozangeditionofLiexianzhuanhasanoteherethatsaysthatacertainversionofthetextreadstang Henan,Shandong,Jiangsu,andAnhuiprovinces. 52.LocatedbetweenXi'anandHuaxianinShaanxiProvince. 53.ThisisariverlocatedwestofZhuoxian,ShaanxiProvince. 54.WealsoaretoldthathewaswelcomedasaguestatthehomeofKingKangoftheSongKingdombecausehecouldplaythedrumandlute.Heissaidtohave practicedthemethodsofJuanziandPengzu. 55.TherevoltstookplaceduringthewaningyearsoftheEasternJindynasty(317419).ThefightingoccurredinareassouthoftheYangziRiverandalongthe southernseacoast. 56.SeeJinshu,pp.26312634(allpagereferencesfromtheofficialhistoriesarefromtheZhonghuaShujueditions).Seealsop.44ofAkizukiKanei,"Daojiao .Tangjunspannedoverpartsofthepresentday

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shi"("Dookyooshi")inFukuietal.Daojiaovol.(Dookyoo1:Dookyootowananika),translatedbyZhuYueli,pp.3536.Alengthy,indepthdiscussionof SunEn'srevoltsisfoundinMiyakawaHisayuki,Chuugokushuukyooshikenkyuu,Vol.I(Kyoto:Dohosha,1983),pp.193270. 3.TheLivesofTaoistAscetics(2)DepictionsintheDaoxuezhuan 1.BibliographicalcitationsoftheDaoxuezhuanarefoundinseveraltextstheSuishujingjizhi(byChangsunWujid.659),Jiutangshu(byLiuXu887946),Xin tangshu(byOuyangXiu10071072andSongQi9981067),Tongzhile(byZhengQiao11041162),Daozangquejingmulu(comp.1275),andMaoshan zhi.TheJiutangshu,Xintangshu,andTongzhilegivethenameofMaShuastheauthor,whiletheothersdonotnameanauthor.BoththeJiutangshuandXin tangshurefertotheworkasthe"Xuedaozhuan."SeeChenGuofu,Daozangyuanliukao,vol.2(1963),pp.45455. 2.Thesetextsincludethefollowing:Daodezhenjingguangshengyi(HY725/TT440448),Xianyuanpianzhu(HY596/TT329330),theSandongqunxianlu (HY1238/TT992995),Chuxueji,theTaipingyulanandtheShileifu,andLiShan's(d.689)commentarytotheWenxuan.TheeminentmodernChinesescholar ChenGuofuhaspatchedtogetheralloftheavailabletextfragmentstocreatearestoredversionoftheDaoxuezhuan. 3.SeeYaoSulian(557637),Chenshu(Beijing:ZhonghuaShuju,1972),pp.26465LiYanshou(fl.seventhcentury),Nanshi(Beijing:ZhonghuaShuju,1975), pp.19078. 4.Allofthebibliographiesthatciteit,withtheexceptionoftheXintangshu,describeitasaworkoftwentyjuan.TheSandongzhunang,whichgenerallymentions thejuanoftheDaoxuezhuanitquotesfrom,makesnumerousquotesfromthetwentiethjuan. 5.Ofcourse,someofthesefigures(iftheyactuallylived)didnotseethemselvesasTaoists,butnonethelesscametobereveredwithintheTaoisttradition. 6.PreservedinthefirstjuanoftheXianyuanbianzhu.SeeChenGuofu,Daozangyuanliukao,p.489. 7.PreservedintheeighthjuanoftheDaodezhenjingguangshengyi.SeeChenGuofu,Daozangyuanliukao,p.489. 8.PreservedinLiShan'sWenxuancommentaryandtheTaipingyulan.SeeChenGuofu,Daozangyuanliukao,p.456. 9.Thetextofthe663rdjuanoftheTaipingyulanwhichpreservesthepassagesonJieXiang,JiaoXian,andSheZhengappearstobecorrupt.Itgivesthe namesofthesethreepersonages,respectively,asJieXiang .Thecontentofthefragmentsindicatesthattheydescribethesamepersonagesdescribedinthe Shenxianzhuan.

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10.ThetexttellsusthathehailedfromLangzhong,whichwaslocatedinthenorthernpartofpresentdaySichuanProvince,nearitsborderswithGansuandShaanxi provinces.ItalsosayshemovedtoFuchengin"thefourteenthyearoftheTaiyuanreigneraoftheLiuSongDynasty".Fuchengwaslocatedinpresentday Jingnandao,HubeiProvince.Oddly,therewasnoTaiyuanreigneraduringtheLiuSongdynasty(420479C.E.).DuringtheEasternJindynastytherewasaTaiyuan reignerathatlastedfrom376to396. 11.ThismayrefertooneofthegeneralswhoplayedaninstrumentalroleinfoundingtheNorthernWeidynasty. 12.ThisallegedlytookplaceinthefourteenthyearoftheYuanjiareignera(424553c.e.). 13.TheSouthernPeak(nanyue),oneofChina'srenownedFivePeaks,locatednearHengyanginHunanProvince. 14.ItisunclearwhethertheyhadmovedtoMt.Hengorhadbeenlivingthereallalong.WearetoldthatLiuNingzhiwas"amanofZhijiang,Nanjun"(locatedin presentdayJingnanDao,HubeiProvince),butsometimesastatementlikethisonlymeansthathisfamilyrootswereinthenamedarea. 15.NearpresentdayShaoxing,ZhejiangProvince. 16.HehailedfromthevicinityofpresentdaySuzhou,JiangsuProvince. 17.FrompresentdayYanlingCounty,HenanProvince. 18.FrompresentdayAnqiuCounty,ShandongProvince. 19.YanJizhihailedfromJurongnearpresentdayNanjing. 20.HehailedfromwhatispresentdayXinyeCounty,HenanProvince. 21.Thetextactuallyreads,"Chaozong,"whichapparentlyisanerror,sinceotherpassagesintheSandongzhunangrefertohimas"Zongchao."Hehailedfromwhat ispresentdayJiaoCounty,ShandongProvince. 22.OzakiMasaharu,"Dooshi,ZaikekaraShukkee"inRekishiniokeruMinshuutoBunka(FetschrifteforSakaiTadao,Tokyo:KokushoKankokai,1982),pp. 20520. 23.Ozaki,p.207. 24.ThetextfragmentstellusthatZhangMinwentonafastinthefirstyearoftheDajian(sicTaijian)eraoftheChendynasty(569).XuMingyewasactiveasa monkduringtheTaiqingeraoftheLiangdynasty(547549).XuShiziwasmadeabbotoftheZhongxuDaguanmonasterybyChenEmperorWu(r.557580).Li LingchenhealedtheillnessofthecrownprinceduringthereignofLiangEmperorYuan(therewasnosuchemperor,butthislikelyreferstoEmperorWu[r.502 556]).ChengTongsunwasmadeabbotoftheJingshengGuanmonasteryinthesixteenthyearoftheTianguanera(517).ZhangYuestablishedtheZhaozhenGuan monasteryonMt.Yu(nearChangshouCounty,JiangsuProvince)duringtheTianguanreignera(502519). 25.SeeOzaki,p.207. 26.Sandongqunxianlu2/17a.

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27.ThereisaMt.YunmengnearBaochengCounty,ShaanxiProvince.However,sinceLuXiujinghailedfromWuxing(thepresentdayZhejiangProvince),itseems likelythatthispassageisreferringtoadifferentMt.YunmengthatwaslocatednearWuxing,wherehisfamilypresumablystilllived. 28.AcomprehensivecatalogofTaoistscripturesthatestablishedthestandardofcategorizingTaoistscripturesintothe"ThreeCaverns"orSandong(Dongzhen, Dongxuan,andDongshen). 29.ShanisthenameofacountyandamountainrangeintheEasternZhejiangProvince. 30.NearTiantaiCounty,ZhejiangProvince. 31.ThisepisodealsoisrecordedinXianyuanpianzhu2/4b,Xuanpinlu3/19b20a,Sandongqunxianlu6/20b21a,andNanshi,18731874.Accordingtothe versionintheXianyuanpianzhu,ChuBoyufledfromhisweddingwhenhewassixteen,andpursuedhistrainingonMt.Tiantai. 32.SeeMichelStrickmann,"TheMaoShanRevelations:TaoismandtheAristocracy,"ToungPao63(1977),p.31. 33.LocatedinthevicinityofpresentdayShaoxing,ZhejiangProvince. 34.ByYaoSulian(557537). 35.ThisisfoundinthetwentysixthjuanoftheGuanghongmingji,TaishoCanon52:294,middle,p.298bottom. 36.SeeNakajimaRyuzo,Rikuchooshisoonokenkyuu(Kyoto:HeirakujiShoten,1985),pp.37078. 37.ShewastheauntofZhouZiliang,whowasadiscipleofTaoHongjing. 38.SeeMichelStrickmann,"LiangWuTi'sSuppressionofTaoism,"JournaloftheAmericanOrientalSociety,no.98.4(1978),pp.46775. 39.HehailedfromBoCountyinpresentdayHebeiProvince. 40.Thisseemstobethenameofaspecificliturgyfortheconfessionofsins,whichpurportedtobenefitalllivinganddeceasedbeings.IntheTaoistCanontodaywe haveascriptureentitledTaishangshifangyinghaotianzunxian(HY542/TT296).Thetextislargelyincomplete,asitpreservesonlythesecondandtenthjuanof whatwasoriginallyaworkoftenjuan.ThisscripturecouldwellhavebeentheliturgyusedbyFangQianzhi,althoughthisisdifficulttoascertain.Thescripture,asits titleindicates,isaliturgyofworshipandrepentancedirectedattheHeavenlyWorthiesoftheTenDirections(shifangtianzun).Theliturgyisdesignedtobringabout universalsalvation,whichwasthecentralconcernoftheLingbaomovement.Basedonthisfact,thescriptureprobablywaswrittennoearlierthanthelatefourth century. 41.Guisunmayhavestillbeenillatthistime.However,thisisdifficulttodeterminesincetheportionofthestorydealingwithGuisun'sillnessandtheportiondealing withtheeventsatthe"easternfringes"arefoundinseparateplacesintheSandongzhunang.ItappearsthatXuancheandGuisunfledtothe"easternfringes"together, sincethetextsays"theywenttogetherintotheeasternfringes."

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Asfarasitcanbedetermined,theflightmayhavetakenplaceduringGuisun'sthreeyearsofillness. 42.Forfulltranslationsofthesepassages,seeEskildsen(1994),pp.26669. 43.TaoDanandXuMailivedduringthefourthcentury.XiaoZhengprobablylivedduringthesixthcentury,whennunhoodhadbeenestablishedinTaoism. 44.WangJialivedaroundthelatefourthorearlyfifthcentury. 45.AcountylocatednearpresentdayJingCounty,AnhuiProvince. 46.Thisreferstotheapproximateheightofthehumanbody. 4.TaoistMethodsofFasting 1.SeeHenriMaspero,TaoismandChineseReligion,translatedbyFrankKiermann(Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,1981),pp.33339.JeanLevi, "L'abstinencedescerealeschezlesTaoistes,"EtudesChinoises1(1983):347andKristoferSchipper,TheTaoistBody,pp.16770. 2.Lunheng,p.113Forke,p.347. 3.Fulltitle,Taiqingzhonghuangzhenjing.TwoslightlyvaryingversionsofthetextarefoundintheTaoistCanon.OneversioniscontainedintheYunjiqiqian (HY1026/TT677702),avoluminousanthologyofTaoistwritingscompiledin1028or1029C.E.Theotherisfoundindependently(HY816/TT568). 4.AdetaileddiscussiononthedatingoftheZhonghuangjingisfoundinEskildsen(1994),pp.93103. 5.Forexample,thecommentarytothefifthchapterstatesthattheeyeshaveaperturesonthemthatareconnectedtotheliver,whichisconnectedtotheheart,which isinturnconnectedtothenose.Thuswhenapersonhasasadfeelinginhisheart,tearswellupintheeyesanda"soursensation"becomespresentinthenose.Also, becausethenoseisconnectedtothebrain,a"feverinthebrain"causesthenosetodryup. 6.TranslationsfromtheZhonghuangjingarebasedontheHY816/TT568version.Here,becausethetopicofthechapterseemstobetheretentionofinhaledair, ratherthantheswallowingofair,Ihavechosentotranslatethecharacterfu . 7.TheYunjiqiqian'sversionofthetextreads,"...theyellowcolorwillflourish." 8.Whatexactlyisbeingreferredtohereas"wombqi"ishardtosay.Perhapsitreferstotheqithatgathersandcongealsinthebelly.Perhapsitreferstotheqithatis heldinduringthepracticeofwombbreathing. 9.Thisprobablymeansthattheadeptcantransformhisold,doomedbodyintoanewimmortalbody.ApopularlyheldnotioninChinawasthatwhenonedies

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andthehunsoulsleavethebodytoreturntotheheavens,themournersofthedeceasedcantrytorevivetheirlovedonebycoaxingthehunsoulintoreturningto thebody.Thereisevenatypeofincensecalled"hunreturningincense,"thearomaofwhichissupposedtobehelpfulforcoaxingbackthehunsoul. 10.Theqiofthelivercures"feverishdiseases,"boils,andrashes,aswellasemaciation.Theheart'sqicures"chillydiseases." 11.Itisunclearwhethertheword"corpse"hereisadisdainfulreferencetotheordinarybody,orisratherareferencetothedemonsthatinhabitthebody. 12.Thelargeonesareseveralzhang(onezhangis241cm.),thesmallonesarethesizeofswallowsandsparrows.Somehavewildlydisheveledhairandothersemit lightningfromtheireyes. 13.ThetwoversionsoftheZhonghuangjingcitedifferentscripturesasthesourceofthepassage.TheversionintheYunjiqiqiancitestheTaihuangjing,andthe HY816/TT568versioncitestheTaiweixuanjing. 14.AdetailedandhighlyinformativestudyofthisscriptureisLiviaKohn,TaoistMysticalPhilosophy:TheScriptureoftheWesternAscension(Albany:State UniversityofNewYorkPress,1991).TwoannotatedversionsoftheXishengjingexisttodayintheTaoistCanon(HY726/TT449450,HY666/TT346347). 15.ItshouldbenotedthatthestatementsinquestionherearefoundinonlyoneofthetwoextantversionsoftheZhonghuangjing.Theyarenotfoundintheversion intheYunjiqiqian. 16.Thiscompoundjingqiisdifficulttotranslate,especiallysincewedonotknowtheactualexercisesprescribedintheDaojitunajingandTunajing.However,in combiningthewordsjing(generativeforce,seminalessence)andqi(materialforce,energy,breath)itseemstovaguelydesignatesomethinginthebodythatkeepsit alive. 17.Thetwocharactersqian ("reach")fitinpoorlyhere.Theremaybeatextualcorruption.

18.Eightlimits"referstoinfinitelyremoteregionssituatedinthenorth,south,east,west,northeast,northwest,southeast,andsouthwest. 19.Thesetextsdealtwithvarioustopics,includingprognostication,cosmology,numerology,andmacrobiotics.Theybegantoappearintheearlyfirstcenturyand purportedtobecommentariesandsupplementstotheConfucianclassicsjingor"woof"textsauthoredbyConfuciusandothergreatsages. 20.SeeEskildsen(1994),pp.13741KobayashiMasayoshi,"Taijooreihoogofujonoseishokateinobunseki,"Tohoshukyo71(April1988),pp.2043,72 (October1988),pp.2044YamadaToshiaki,"LongevityandtheLingbaoWufuxu"inLiviaKohn,ed.TaoistMeditationandLongevityTechniques(Ann Arbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1989),pp.99124. 21.TheJadeGirlridestheBeastoftheNineMountainsandtheMostHighTrueKingridestheKunDragon.

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22.Thisdeityseemstoembodythreepersonalities,ashealsoiscalled"PerfectedManZidan"andthe"JadeGirloftheHeavenlyStorehouseofthewujiofthe YellowCourt." 23.Thisapparentlyreferstoaspotontheroofofthemouthfromwheresalivaissecreted.ThistermalsoisfoundintheHuangtingneijingjing.Thereitreferstoa spotunderthetongue(Yunjiqiqian11/20b).IntheHuangtingwaijingjing,itreferstoaplaceinthemiddleofthethroat(Yunjiqiqian12/31b). 24.ThesevariantmethodsforimbibingtheFiveQiareexaminedinEskildsen(1994),pp.36672,50314. 25.SeeKristoferSchipper,"LeCalendrierdeJade:NotesurleLaozizhongjing."NachrichtenderdeutchenGesellschaftfrNaturundVolkerkunde Ostasiens125(1979),pp.7580andTheTaoistBody(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1993),ch.6MaedaShigeki,"RooshiChuukyooOboegaki"in SakadeYoshinobu,ed.Chuugokukodaiyooseishisoonosoogootekikenkyuu(Tokyo:HirakawaShuppansha,1988),pp.49197Eskildsen(1994),p.95,ft. nt.3. 26.Itwouldseemlogicalherefortheadepttofirstvisualizetheqiofthekidneys.Anomissionmayhaveoccurredinthetext.Theversionofthelunaressencemethod in1/19abincludesavisualizationofwhiteqithatemergesfromthekidneysandpermeatesthebody. 27.SeeEskildsen(1994),pp.37279,486503. 28.Accordingtotradition,theSanhuangwenwasdiscoveredbyBaoJinginthesecondyearoftheYuankangreigneraoftheWesternJindynasty(292C.E.).He foundthetextonMt.Song,engravedonthewallofacave.BaoJinglatertransmittedthescripturetoGeHong(seeYunjiqiqian6/12a).ApassageintheBaopuzi reads,"IhaveheardSirZhengsay,'AmongtheimportantTaoistbooks,nonesurpasstheSanhuangwenandtheWuyuezhenxingtu'"(19/8a).Thesurviving fragmentsoftheSanhuangwenaremostlyfoundintheWushangbiyao(25thjuan)andtheDongshenbadimiaojingjing(HY640/TT342).SeeRobinet,La revelationduShangqingdansl'histoireduTaosime,1:12,pp.2629.AlsoFukuiKojun,DookyoonoKisotekiKenkyuu(Tokyo:ShosekiBunbutsuRyutsukai, 1964),pp.17078andOfuchiNinji,DookyooshinoKenkyuu(Okayama:OkayamaDaigakuKyoseikaiShosekibu,1964),pp.277344. 29.Thefinalsentenceherecouldperhapsbetranslatedas"DivineImmortalswillnaturallybemadetocome[beforeyou]." 30.Itcontainsatoxincalledphytolacctoxin(C24H3008). 31.2/23b24b."TheImmortal'sMethodforExpellingtheThreeWormsandSubduingtheCorpses." 32.ThislargemountainrangespansacrosspartsofHenan,Hebei,andShanxiprovinces. 33.Xunisavariantnameforthenanzhushrub,andfandenotescookedrice.Thus,xunfansimplymeans"ricecookedwithnanzhu."Alongernameforthepotion isqingjingganshixunfan(bluerefineddriedstonexunrice).Thenanzhu

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growstoaheightofonetothreemeters.Itsleaveshaveasourandbitterflavor.SeeZhongyaodazidian,entryno.3,261. 34.ThisfragmentispreservedintheSandongzhunang3/6b. 35.Thistranslatesinto"TheMiraculousMethodofSuperiorImmortalsforBlueRefinedRiceDriedStoneXunfanofthePerfectedManoftheGreatUltimate." 36.Oneliangwasequalto13.92grams. 37.Onejinwasequalto222.73grams. 38.Whatkindofdiseasethisreferstoisunclear. 39.Hollowazurite,perhapsduetoitsbluecolorandthecorrelatesthatbluehasinthefiveelementschemewasthoughtto"enter"theliverandcureeyeailments. Italsowasthoughttocureotherconditionssuchaspalsy.Cinnabar,beingred,wasthoughtto"enter"theheart.Itwascommonlyusedtotreat,amongotherthings, mentalconditionssuchasfear,anxiety,andinsomnia.SeeZhongyaodazidian. 40.Thisprobablyreferstoanesotericbiographythatisnowlost.Thebiographyapparentlyincludedteachingsonthemeritsofeatingwhiterocks.SeeRobinet,La revelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,1:56. 41.Oddly,hisentryintheShenxianzhuandoesnotdepicthimasanascetic,norasapractitioneroffasting.Whileitdoessaythatheboiledandatewhiterocks,it alsosaysthathedrankliquorandatedriedmeatsandordinaryfood.Italsosaysthatheexcelledatsexualyogaandtheingestionofliquidgold.Heoptedforthe perpetualenjoymentofworldlythings,ratherthanheavenlyascension.(2/6a) 42.1.Yunjiqiqian74/7b13a,inasectionentitled"Taishangjushengyuzhuwushiyingfa"(ThemostHighMethodforBoilingFiveQuartzPiecesinSesameOil). 2.Ciyijing53b56b,inasectionentitled"Dadongciyitaijidijunzhenshengwuzangfa." 3.Wusangbiyao87/6a13a,quotedfromacertainDongzhentaijidijunzhenshengwuzangshangjing. 43.ThesereferencesappearwithinquotesfromtheXuanmubamenjing(TheScriptureoftheEightGatesoftheMysteriousMother)andthethirdandseventh juanoftheDengzhenyinjue. 44.MichelStrickmannalsodescribesthismethodin"OntheAlchemyofT'aoHungching,"pp.18384. 45.TheDengzhenyinjue,quotedintheSandongzhunang3/6a. 46.ThisnarrativealsoisfoundinZhengao4/16abandWushangbiyao87/11a12a.ItalsoisdescribedinStrickmann,"OntheAlchemyofT'aoHungching,"pp. 18283. 47.TheTunajingstates:"[Inpursuing]theTao[youmust]regardyour[jing]asatreasure.Ifyouadministerityouwillcreateaperson.Ifamanretainsithewillgive lifetohisownbody.Ifhegiveslifetohisownbodyhewillforevertranscendtheworldandtakeontherankofanimmortal.Ifhegiveslifetoaperson,his

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worldlymeritwillbeaccomplished,andhemaygointoseclusion.Peopleoftheworldregardthisassevere.Buthowmuchmore[severetheconsequencesare]if onecarelesslyadministersandabandons[hisjing].[By]discardinganddamaging[theirjing]andnotstudying[theTao],many[people]therebydecline,age,and losetheirlives"(Tunajing,quotedinSandongzhunang4/1b). 5.AsceticismintheShangqingTexts 1.Nanshi,1896. 2.Seep.3ofMichelStrickmann,"TheMaoShanRevelations:TaoismandtheAristocracy,"T'oungpao63(1978),pp.163. 3.SeeIsabelleRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme(1984),1:1078. 4.SeeMiyakawaHisayuki,Rikuchooshikenkyuu:Shuukyoohen(Kyoto:HeirakujiShoten,1964),p.139,andMichelStrickmann,"TheMaoShanRevelations: TaoismandtheAristocracy." 5.LuoyangwassackedbythearmiesofLiuYao(ofXiongnuethnicity)andShile(oftheJietribe)ofthenewHankingdom. 6.SeeLarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme(1984),1:108. 7.Ibid.,p.109. 8.Formoredetailsontheearlyproliferationofthetexts,seeStrickmann,"TheMaoShanRevelations:TaoismandtheAristocracy,"pp.1654.Strickmannhas providedafullEnglishtranslationoftheZhengao19/9b20/4b,whichdescribestheprocessindetail.Themanresponsibleforwritingmuchoftheapocryphal materialwasWangLingqi(seepp.1924,4549ofthearticle). 9.SeeStrickmann,"TheMaoShanRevelations:TaoismandtheAristocracy,"pp.3132. 10.Thisapprecticeshiptookplaceduringthemandatorythreeyearmourningperiod(484486)forhismother'sdeath. 11.Seepp.13940ofMichelStrickmann,"OntheAlchemyofT'aoHungching"inAnnaSeidelandHolmesWelch,eds.,FacetsofTaoism(1979),pp.12392. 12.TheversionintheTaoistCanontodayhasonlythreejuan.Theoriginalworkapparentlyhadasmanyas24juan,asevidencedintheearliestbiographyofTao Hongjing,theHuayangyinjuxianshengbenjilu(Yunjiqiqian107/1b14a),writtenca.499byTaoHongjing'snephew,TaoYi.The"Dadongzhenjingmu,"a catalogofShangqingtextsfoundintheDongxuanlingbaosandongfengdaokejieyingshi(HY1117/TT760761,writtenca.550)5/1a2b,listsitashaving26 juan.AlmostallofthepassagesquotedinotherworksarenotfoundintheTaoistCanonversion.SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredu taoisme,2:347. 13.SeeStrickmann,"OntheAlchemyofT'aoHungching,"pp.15758and"TheMaoShanRevelations:TaoismandtheAristocracy,"p.39.Strickmannalsohas speculated,however,thatevenTaoHongjingandhissecteventuallyfeltthe

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impactofthesuppressionof517,whichwaswhyTaobuiltfacilitiesforBuddhistworshiponMt.MaoandpersonallycarriedoutBuddhistrituals.See Strickmann,"LiangWuTi'sSuppressionofTaoism,"pp.47172. 14.InourexaminationofShangqingasceticism,wewillrelyontextsthatconveytheoriginalteachingsoftherevelations,oratleastreflectthebeliefsofShangqing proponentsduringthefourththroughsixthcenturies.Tobeonthesafeside,IhavereliedheavilyontheZhengaoandDengzhenyinjue,sincetheircontentsaremost readilyverifiableastheauthenticwritingsofYangXiandthetwoXus.Ihavealsocitedvariousscriptures(jing),"esotericbiographies"(neizhuan),andlessons(jue) thatmodernscholarsconsidertheproductsoftheearlyShangqingmovement.Inmyselectionofsourcematerials,IamparticularlyindebtedtoIsabelleRobinet, whoseworkIhaveconsultedrepeatedly. 15.SeeZrcher,"BuddhistInfluenceonEarlyTaoism,"T'oungpao65(1980),pp.84146andRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme, 1:87106. 16.TaishoCanonno.784(vol.17,p.722).ThefirsttodiscovertheZhengao'sborrowingsfromtheSishi'erzhangjingwasHuShi(see"TaoHongjingde Zhengaokao"inHuShilunxuejinzhudiyiji[1935],pp.15567),whovehementlycriticizedTaoHongjingforplagiarismanddeception.YoshiokaYoshitoyohas pointedoutthatTao,asacompilerandanannotatorofthewritingsofYangXiandtheXus,wasnotguiltyasaccused,sincethepassagesinquestioncamefromthe manuscriptsofYangXi.Tao's"innocence"alsoisattestedtobythefactthatborrowingsfromtheSishi'erzhangjingalsoarefoundintheseventhjuanofthe Wushangbiyao,asquotesfromtheZhenjiandDaoji.TheZhenjipredatedtheZhengao,asperhapsdidtheDaoji.SeeYoshiokaYoshitoyo,Dookyooto bukkyoo,vol.3(Tokyo:NihonGakujutsuShinkokai,1976),pp.338.YoshiokaprovidesaveryusefultablethatplacesthetextoftheSishi'erzhangjingalongside thecognatepassagesintheZhengaoandtheShangqingzhongzhenjiaojiedexingjing(HY458/TT203). 17.Bythelatefifthorearlysixthcentury,thisclaimhadbeengenerallyaccepted.However,modernscholarsareskeptical.EstimatesoftheSishierzhangjing'sdate (initsChineseform)rangebetweentheLatterHanandtheearlyfifthcentury.IthasalsobeenquestionedwhetheritisactuallyatranslationofanIndianoriginal.The factthatlargeportionsofitwerefoundamongmanuscriptsbelongingtoYangXiandtheXuswouldindicatethattheSishierzhangjing,oralargeportionofit,was incirculationbythefourthcentury. 18.ThecognateportionintheSishi'erzhangjingreads,"Fromillnesstheyreach[thepointof]death." 19.TheitalicizedportionofthispassagematchesthethirtyfifthchapteroftheBuddhistSishi'erzhangjing. 20.ThisportionmatchesthefortiethchapteroftheSishi'erzhangjing.ThetextoftheSishi'erzhangjingconcludessimply,"Whentheevilsareeliminated,you acquiretheTao."

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21.ThispassagematchesthetwentiethchapteroftheSishi'erzhangjing. 22.ThispassagematchesthetwentysecondchapteroftheSishi'erzhangjing. 23.ThispassagematchesthetwentyfirstchapteroftheSishi'erzhangjing.AnotebyTaoHongjingstatesthattheportionreading,''[Whenyouare]shackled... tiger'sbite"ismissingfroma"differentmanuscriptfromadifferenthand"ofthissamepassage. 24.SeeYunjiqiqian5/3b4b. 25.Thismostlikelyreferstothosewho,byvirtueofpersonalandhereditarymerit,arepredestinedtogainaccesstotheShangqingscripturesandachieveimmortality intherealmofTaiji.Taiji,accordingtoShangqingbelief,wasaloftyrealmofPerfectedBeingsthatrankedbelowtherealmsofYuqingandShangqing. 26.Inhisannotation,TaoHongjingcommentsthatthis"lesson"probablyisnotaproductofoneofYangXi'svisionsbutisnonethelessconsistentwiththeteachingsof therevealedscriptures. 27.Themeaningof"femalepalaces"and"malepalaces"isunclear,butthesetermsperhapsdenotecertaincompartmentsinthebodiesofwomenandmenwherethe Corpsesreside. 28.Theninthofthetwelve"branches."Itcorrelatestotheseventhmonth,4P.M.,andthedirectionofwestsouthwest. 29.Thethirdofthetwelve"branches."Itcorrelatestothefirstmonth,theelementofWood,4A.M.,andthedirectionofeastnortheast. 30.Whatallthismeansisunclear,butapparentlyitisthiscorrelationofthemaleandfemalepalaceswiththebranchesofyinandshenthatdictatesthedayswhen contactwiththeoppositesexmustbemostcarefullyavoided. 31.Thefirstandfinaldaysofeachlunarmonth,alongwiththegengshen(fiftyseventh)andjiayin(fiftyfirst)daysofthesexegenarycycle. 32.Thesedeitieswerebelievedtoexaminethemeritsandmisdeedsofthelivingandthedeadandtherebydeterminetheirjustrewardsandpunishments.Accordingto theearlyHeavenlyMastersSect,theThreeOfficialsweretheOfficialofHeaven,theOfficialofEarth,andtheOfficialofWater.Writsofconfessionwereofferedto themduringhealingrituals.However,theXiaomojing(fulltitle,Dongzhentaishangzhihuixiaomojing,HY1333/TT1032)1/5ab,containsapassagethatstates thattheThreeOfficialswholiveintheEasternPeakMt.Taiare1)theWaterOfficialoftheLeftwhomonitorsthesinsoftheliving,2)theFireOfficialoftheRight whomonitorsthesinsofthedead,and3)theWomanOfficialwhomonitorsthesinsofwomen.Strangely,Zhengao13/4asaysthattheThreeOfficialsresideinthe northernmountainofFengdu,wheretheyareinchargeofthePalacesoftheSix(Infernal)Heavens.TaoHongjing,inhisannotation,takesnoteoftheXiaomojing's alternativetheoryandalsostatesthatthethreepostsarecurrentlyfilledbythethreeMaobrothers. 33.Thisapparentlyreferstosexualdesire."Red"and"white"mostlikelyindicatesexualsecretions,with"red"denotingthebloodofchildbirthandmenstru

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ationand"white"denotingsperm.Anotherlesslikelyinterpretationcouldbethat"redandwhite"refertotherosylipsandfaircomplexionofabeautifulwoman. 34.PassagesconcerningthecelestialbetrothalofYangXiarefoundinZhengao1/11b18a. 35.ThisconceptisexplainedinZhengao2/2a,inadiscourseascribedtoLadyZiwei.Indescribingthenatureoftheliaisons,thediscoursestates,"Eventhoughyou arecalledhusbandandwife,youdonotcarryoutthetracesofhusbandandwife(haveconjugalsexualrelations).Hereanemptynameismerelyusedtoshowtosight andhearing.Ifyellowandred(eroticpassion)existinyourchest,PerfectedBeingscannotbeseen,andcontactcannotbemadewithholybeings." 36.Thecharacterjian .

37.Fulltitle,Taishangyupeijindangtaijijinshushangjing(HY56/TT30).RobinetspeculatesthatthisscripturewaspartoftheoriginalShangqingcorpus.The presenteditionofthetextseemstohavemostlymaintaineditsoriginalform,judgingfromhowwellitscontentsmatchthequotationsfoundintheWushangbiyaoand Sandongzhunang.However,theportiondescribingtheMingtangXuanzhenmethodwasoriginallycontainedintheesotericbiographyofMaoYingandlateradded totheYupeijindangjing.SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,2:21318. 38.ThismethodhaspreviouslybeentranslatedanddiscussedbyEdwardSchafer.SeeSchafer,"TheJadeWomanoftheGreatestMystery,"HistoryofReligions 17:3/4(1978),pp.38798.Ashorterversionofthemethod,whichdoesnotincludetheamorousimagery,isfoundinZhengao9/18a.AccordingtoRobinet,the longerversionrepresentstheoriginalformofthemethod.(SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,2:396.)Schafer,tothecontrary, saysthatthelongerversionisalater,expandedversionoftheshorterone. 39.HereIhaveborrowedSchafer'stranslation. 40.Thiscouldrefertotheocean.Itcouldalsorefertoamythicalislandofimmortals. 41.ThisreferstoMaoGu,thesecondeldestoftheMaobrothers. 42.Thetextstates,"...Ieventuallylostmylife[drowning]intheharborofalongembankment." 43.HereTaoHongjingaddsanotestatingthatXinXuanzi'scaseiscomparabletothatofthedaughterofacertainWangEn,whoalsohaddrowned.Taoremarks thatinsuchcases,thebodycannotberestoredtolifeandonecanonly"returnthesubstancetothewombspirit."Thisseemstomeanthatthepersongains posthumousregenerationintheSouthernPalace.Theunderstandingisapparentlythatsomethingotherthantheordinarybodyisregenerated.However,Tao Hongjing'sattitudeseemstobethattheperpetuationofthebodyisstillthehighestideal.ThisXinXuanzifailedtoachieveinspiteofhisdedication,duetoalackof whatTaoHongjingcalls"deedsoftheTao"whichapparentlyreferstohereditarymerit.

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44.ThisthemeisparticularlyprominentintheTaipingjing.SeeWangMing,Taipingjinghejiao,pp.2224("Jiechengfujue")andpp.5761("Wushijiechengfu fa"). 45.AshasbeenpointedoutbyStrickmann,Zhengao3/13b14agivesagoodexampleofhowthebeliefsinreincarnationandhereditarymeritwerecombined. ThereitstatesthatXuMiwaspredestinedtoattainheavenlyimmortality.ItfurtherstatesthathisblesseddestinyandhisfaithintheTaowerecausedbythemeritthat hisdistantancestorshadaccumulatedbysavingthelivesof408peopleduringafamine.ThetextalsoclaimsthatXuMiwasthereincarnationofaHandynastyadept namedXueL,whohadfailedtoattainImmortalhoodbecauseofhisconcupiscence.XueLhadrequestedrebirthintotheXufamilyinthehopeofbenefittingfrom theirhereditarymerit.SeeStrickmann,"OntheAlchemyofT'aoHungching,"p.188,ft.nt.192. 46.SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,1:132. 47.SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,1:172. 48.TaoHongjing,inhisannotations,speculatesthatthis"Lord"isPeijun(LordPei).PeijunwasasemilegendaryadeptoftheFormerHan.Hisesotericbiographyis foundinYunjiqiqian105. 49.AsStrickmannpointsout("OntheAlchemyofTaoHungching,"p.180),theNinePalacesisthefifthhighesttierofdivinerealms,situateddirectlyunderthe Taiqing,accordingtoTaoHongjing's"ChartofRanksandMeritofthePerfectedHolyBeings"(DongxuanlingbaozhenlingweiyetuHY167/TT73.Thischartalso ispreservedinWushangbiyao83). 50.TaoHongjing,inhisannotation,statesthatsuchastatusisconferredifoneofthescripturesormethodsismastered.Ifallofthemethodsaremastered,one becomesaPerfectedManoftheGreatUltimate. 51.ThisreferstotheimmortalChisongzi(MasteroftheRedPine),whoismentionedinPeijun'sesotericbiographyashisteacher.BiographiesofChisongzi,the contentsofwhichdifferalmostcompletelyfromeachother,arefoundinboththeLiexianzhuan(1/1a)andShenxianzhuan(2/6).TheChisongzioftheShenxian zhuanistheonereveredintheShangqingtradition. 52.QingwugongwasadiscipleofPengzu,accordingtoTaoHongjing'sannotation. 53.LocatedinHuangyanCounty,ZhejiangProvince. 54.LocatedinDantuCounty,JiangsuProvince. 55.ArecipeforagoldenelixirthatwastobeingestedwhilerecitingtheDadongzhenjing,isfoundintheCiyijing57b58b.Thiselixirhascinnabar,micapowder, andhoneyasitsingredients.Theelixirpurportstoallowtheadepttoreturntotheworldandresumeanormaldietoncehehasmasteredtherecitationandpracticeof theDadongzhenjing(thisisstatedinCiyijing16b).Itisunclear

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whetherthegoldenelixirmentionedinthestoryofHuangguanziisthesamepotion. 56.Thenarrativeendswiththecomment,"ThisisnotsomethingthattheBuddhaisabletobringabout.Itisbecausehisinnerinch(hisheart)wasstable"(5/7b8a). ThusmeasuresaretakenheretopreventreadersfromcreditingHuangguanzi'ssuccesstotheBuddha. 57.Thereareseveralpossibilities,butthisprobablyreferstotheZhongshanlocatednearpresentdayJingyangCounty,ShaanxiProvince. 58.LocatednearMianCounty,ShaanxiProvince. 59.TheYixianPalaceisthenameofaparadiseforwomenlocatedinthesubterraneanHuayangGrottoHeaveninMt.Mao.ThiswaswhereXuHui'smotherwas thoughttodwellafterherdeath(Zhengao13/2a6b).SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,1:136. 60."Esotericbiographies"areelaboratelegendsofancientsemilegendaryadeptswhowerereveredwithinthetradition.Theseworkscontaindetaileddescriptionsof thetechniquesallegedlyemployedbytheprotagonists.TheexistenceofanesotericbiographyofPeijunamongoriginalShangqingmaterialsisattestedtobya referenceinZhengao2/18a.AccordingtoRobinet,theversionfoundtodayintheYunjiqiqianisnottheoriginalitmixesfragmentsoftheoriginalwithfragments fromotherShangqingtexts.SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,2:37583. 61.FufengwaslocatedinpresentdayHanchengCounty,ShaanxiProvince.ThehistoricityofthisstoryisclearlydubiousbecausePeijun'sallegeddateofbirthis almosttwocenturiespriortotheofficialintroductionofBuddhismtothecourtofLatterHanEmperorMing. 62.ThereareeightdifferentMt.Jings,eachofwhichcouldwellbethemountainreferredtoheretwoinHenanProvince,twoinAnhuiProvince,twoinHubei Province,oneinShandongProvince,andoneinShaanxiProvince. 63.Fulltitle,Taishangshuozhihuixiaomozhenjing(HY1333/TT1032).AccordingtoRobinet(LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,2:183), thefirsttwojuanoftheextantTaoistCanonversioncanbedeemedauthenticShangqingmaterial,basedoncomparisonswiththecitationsoftheXiaomojingfound intheZhengao. 64.ThefirstfewpagesofthefirstjuantellhowJinqueDijun(TheImperialLordoftheGoldenPalaceGates),whohadheardthisfirstsectionpreachedbyTaishang Daojun,transmitteditorallytoLordBlueBoy,whointurntransmittedittoChisongzi. 65.LocatedinJinhuaCounty,ZhejiangProvince. 66.These"heavens"arenotparadisesrather,theyaresixinfernalrealmsofpunishmentlocatedinMt.Fengdu. 67.TheofficialhistoryoftheFormerHandynasty,writtenbyBanGu(3292C.E.).

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68.SeeEskildsen(1994),pp.144,23035. 69.TheseexpositionsarefoundtheDongzhensantianzhengfajing(quotedinWushangbiyao6),Shangqingsantianzhengfajing(quotedinSandongzhunang 9andYunjiqiqian2),andShangqinghoushengdaojunlieji(HY442/TT198).SeeKobayashiMasayoshi,"JooseikyootoReihookyoonoShuumatsuRon"in ToohooShuukyoo75(May1990)andIsabelleRobinet,LarvlationduShangqingdansl'histoireduTaosme(1984),pp.13841. 70.Seesubsequentnt.77. 71.Idonotunderstandthissentenceclearly,butIthinkitmeansthattracesofwhataregoodanddivinearescarcelytobefoundintheworld,asthedemonicentities carryouttheirproperdutytopunishevilpeoplebyafflictingthemwithmisfortunes. 72.AsisnotedbyTaoHongjing,ChenAnshi'sstoryappearsintheShenxianzhuan8/33b34a(seep.22). 73.Thebodyoffleshwheretheposoulsmaketheirabode. 74.Thistext'sfulltitleisShangqinggaoshangmiemoyudishenhuiyuqingyinshu(HY1345/TT1038). 75.Thistext'sfulltitleisShangqinggaoshangjinyuanyuzhangyuqingyinshu(HY1347/TT1038). 76.SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,2:23744. 77.Theprecisemeaninghereof"SixHeavens"and"ThreeHeavens"isdifficulttoascertain.However,thethemeofthesacredThreeHeavens(theheavensof Qingwei,Yuyu,andDachi)thatsubduethedemonsoftheprofaneSixHeavens(thegodsofnonTaoistfolkcults)wasprominentwithinthebeliefsoftheearly HeavenlyMastersSect.Eventually,theThreeHeavenscametobedescribedastheThreePureRealms(sanqing)ofYuqing,Shangqing,andTaiqing(seeChen Guofu,Daozangyuanliukao,pp.31114).Robinetpointsout,however,thattheHeavenlyMastersSect'snamesfortheThreeHeavensarenowheretobefoundin theShangqingtexts,andtheSixHeavensaredescribedintheShangqingtextsasinfernalrealmslocatedinMt.Fengdu.SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqing dansl'histoiredutaoisme,1:67. 78.Thisreferstothefirstdaysofthefourseasons,thespringandfallequinoxesandthesummerandwintersolstices. 79.ThisoriginalShangqingscripture(whichsurvivestodayonlyinfragmentspreservedinvarioussources)islistedinthe"Dadongzhenjingmu"(seent.12)asShijing jinguangzangjingluxingjing.IntheZhengaoitisreferredtoastheBaojianjing,orsimplyJianjing(ScriptureoftheDoubleedgedSword).TheDaodianlun quotesitunderthetitleTaijizhenrenfeixianbaojianshangjing.SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,2:13740. 80.ThispassagealsoisfoundinDaodianlun2/11a12b.

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81.AfterbeingaMasterintheUndergroundfor1000years,they"managedemonsandspiritsfor1,400years"andfinallybecome"IntermediatelevelImmortalsof theNinePalacesoftheGreatPurity"(Zhengao16/10b,Daodianlun2/11b). 82.Foradetaileddiscussionontheseloftymeditations,seeIsabelleRobinet,LaMeditationTaoiste(1979),whichisnowavailableinEnglishtranslation(Taoist Meditation,translatedbyNormanGirardotandJulianPas(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1993). 83.ThefulltitleofthetextisDongzhengaoshangyudidadongciyiyujianwulaobaojing(HY1302/TT1025)9b.AccordingtoRobinet,theCiyijingwehave todayisacollectionofmaterialsthatoriginallybelongedtovariousdifferenttexts,someofwhichwerewrittenbyYangXi,andotherswhichwereearlyShangqing apocrypha.Thetextdidnottakeonitspresentformuntiltheseventhcenturyorlater.Robinet'sspeculationsarebasedprimarilyontheobservationthattheWushang biyaoandSandongzhunangcontainvariouspassagesthatmatchthecontentsoftheCiyijing,butarepresentedasquotesfromdifferentscriptures.Thiswould indicatethattheCiyijingitselfdoesnotpredatetheSandongzhunang,eventhoughthebulkofitsmaterialdoes.Ciyijing1a19bdealsprimarilywithhowto prepareoneselffortherecitationandpracticeoftheallimportantDadongzhenjing.RobinetpointsoutthatthissectiondiffersstylisticallyfromtheoriginalShangqing writings,andthatp.11acontainsareferencetothePrimordialHeavenlyWorthy(YuanshiTianzun,thesupremedeityintroducedandveneratedintheLingbao scriptures).Thissuggeststhatthesectionwasnotwrittenbeforethefifthcentury.Thepassageinquestionhereisnonethelessrelevanttoourstudy,sinceitdoes conveythereligiosityoftheproponentsoftheDadongzhenjing.SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,2:26176. 84.TheunderlinedportionalsoisfoundinafragmentfromtheDengzhenyinjue,preservedinSandongzhunang3/13a. 85.Onthevarioususagesofthetermdadong,seeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,2:30. 86.SeeMichelStrickmann,"OntheAlchemyofT'aoHungching,"pp.13036. 87.AccordingtoStrickmann,"abandoningthewaistband"meanstocastasidetherestrictivecoilofformalsocialrelationships.See"OntheAlchemyofT'aoHung ching,"p.137,ft.nt.37. 88.Thepassagealsostatesthattheadeptcanrelievethechestpainifheknows"thename(s)ofthedrug(s)."Strickmannunderstandsthisasanallusiontothesecret namesofthemedicine'singredients.Inmyopinion,italsocouldrefertocelestialmedicinesofthekindexaltedintheXiaomojing(seep.86).Thetextalsoprovides theadeptwiththeoptionofremainingintheworldhecandosobylimitingtheamountofwaterhedrinks.Inotherwords,anescaperouteisprovidedforthosewho changetheirmindsbecauseoftheirfearofdeath.See"OntheAlchemyofT'aoHungching,"p.137.

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89.HisstoryisfoundintheLiexianzhuan2/4b. 90.ThislikelyreferstoChouzi,whosestoryisfoundintheLiexianzhuan1/8. 91.ThiscouldrefertoMt.QiaonearZhongbuCounty,ShaanxiProvince. 92.HisstoryisfoundinYunjiqiqian85/8a9a. 93.ThisapparentlyreferstoNingfengzi.Seep.00. 94.SeeLiexianzhuan1/7b. 95.ThesentenceaboutBochengisalsoquotedinTaipingyulan670/2a. 96.SeeEskildsen(1994),pp.19092. 6.AsceticismintheLingbaoScriptures 1.AlthoughnumeroustextsofdiverseperiodsbearthetermLingbaointheirtitles,"Lingbaoscriptures"inthisstudyreferstothetextscategorizedassuchbyLu Xiujinginhisfamouscatalog,theSandongjingshumuluof471C.E.Thecatalogdividesthescripturesintotwocategories,whichmodernJapanesescholarshave convenientlynamedthe"Primordial'scategory"(genshikei)andthe"ImmortalDuke'scategory"(senkookei).ScripturesofthePrimordial'scategoryaregenerally presentedasteachingsutteredbythePrimordialHeavenlyWorthy.AshasbeenpointedoutbyKobayashiMasayoshi,thesescriptureswereapparentlybelievedto havebeenrevealedandexpoundedthroughouttheuniversebythePrimordialHeavenlyWorthyinthefirstyearoftheShanghuangreignera(amythicalerainthe inconceivablyremotepast).ScripturesoftheImmortalDuke'scategoryarepresentedaslessonsbestoweduponGeXuanbydivinebeings,orasdiscoursesdelivered byGeXuanhimself.ThesescriptureswerebelievedtohavebeenrevealedtoGeXuanduringtheChiwureignera(238251C.E.)oftheThreeKingdomsWu dynasty.Whilesucharetheirascribedorigins,theLingbaoscripturesappeartohavebeenwrittensometimebetween420and471C.E. ThefulltextofLuXiujing'scatalog,initsoriginalform,hasnotsurvived.However,mostofitscontentswerepreservedintwomanuscriptsfoundatDunhuang (Pelliotmanuscripts2861and2256).OfuchiNinjihasreconstructedthewholecatalogbysupplementingtheinformationinthesemanuscriptswithinformation foundinafewothertexts("Lingbaozhongmengmulu"inPelliotmanuscript2337Sangdongfengdaokejieyifanand"Zhaitananzhenjingmu"inWushang huangludazhailichengyi,HY508/TT278).HehasalsomadeagallantefforttodeterminewhichscripturesextanttodayintheTaoistCanonandtheDunhuang manuscriptscorrespondtothetitlesenumeratedinthecatalog.(SeeOfuchiNinji,"OnKuLingpaoching"inActaAsiatica27(1974)pp.3456.) 2.AwidelyheldtheoryamongmodernscholarshasbeenthatGeChaofuwrotethetextsaroundtheyear400.However,thistheoryhasbeenforcefullyrefutedby KobayashiMasayoshi,whoarguesforalaterdateandspeculatesthatGeChaofuonlywrotethesetoffivesacredversesknownastheLingbaochishuwupian zhenwen(LingbaoFivePerfectWritsinRedScript).Fordetaileddiscus

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sionsontheauthorshipoftheLingbaoscriptures,seeKobayashiMasayoshi,"RyuusooniokeruReihookyoonokeisei,"ToyoBunka(March1982),pp.99 137andEskildsen(1994),pp.38691. 3.SeeBokenkamp,"SourcesoftheLingbaoScriptures,"pp.44546. 4.ThesearefoundintheChishuzhenwen(ThePerfectWritsandRedScript)1/7b29a,Chishuyujue(JadeLessonsontheRedScript)1/8b16a,and Wushangbiyao24/7b15a(inasectionentitled"Dongxuanchishujing").TheWritsarewritteninaspecialsealscriptintheChishuzhenwen. 5.Fulltitle,Taishangdongxuanlingbaobenxingyinyuanjing(HY1107/TT758). 6.TheDongxuanlingbaoyuqingshanbuxujingstates,"TheMysteriousCapitalofJadeCapitalMountainexistsabovetheThreePureRealms...itistheHeavenof Daluothatiswithoutasuperior,theplacegovernedbytheMostHighVacuousEmperoroftheLimitless"(1a). 7.HisstoryisfoundintheLiexianzhuan1/14b15a. 8.Fulltitle,Dongxuanlingbaozhihuibenyuandajieshangpingjing(HY344/TT177). 9.Thepointbeingmadehereisunclear.Itcouldbesayingthatgoodretributioncannotyetbehadwithonly1,200merits.Ontheotherhand,itcouldbesayingthat theaccumulationof1,200meritsassuresoneofevadingbadretribution(earlydeath,damnation,etc.). 10.AlthoughthistitleresemblesLingbaocatalogentry13,Ofuchi("OnKuLingpaoching,"51)statesthatitisnotthesamescripture.Thisisbecauseitscontents donotresembletheTaishangdongxuanlingbaozhenwendurenbenxingmiaojing(Pelliot3022),whichhebelievestocorrespondtoentry13.Myimpressionis thattheTaishangdongxuanlingbaojieyebenxingshangpinmiaojingconveysthereligiosityoftheLingbaomovement.However,itcontainselaboratediscourses onthemes(suchasanenumerationofgradesofsaints,orsheng)notpresentintheLingbaoscriptures.ItappearstobetheworkofsomewhatlaterLingbao adherents. 11.Onpages8b9a,the"placesofthetengoodnesses"areenumeratedbytheHeavenlyWorthyofthePrimordialOne(yuanyitianzun).Thesearetraitstobe exhibitedbytrulyrighteouspeople,whichincludeanallembracingcompassionandlove,generousalmsgiving,andtheobservanceofretreatsandprecepts.Thesixth iteminthelistis"tobeabletodiewhilemaintainingyourgoodness,withstandingdisgracewithoutkillingandnotstealing."Ifthisisnotaclearenoughexhortation towardmartyrdom,onelaterfinds(onp.10a)thefollowingwordsofadviceonhowtodealwithpersecutionatthehandsoftheunrighteous:"Irevealedthesuperior sectiononthetengoodnessesinordertomakeallgodsandpeoplethroughoutthetendirectionsavoidthetenplacesofevil.Beingso,iftherearethosewhopractice thetenevils,youmustnotfollowthem.Ifyougoamidstthem,andtherearethosewhosaythepraisesof[sensual]pleasures,youshouldavoid

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them.Iftherearethosewhosaytheywanttocomeandharmyou,youshouldwithyourwholeheartcontemplatetheremonstrancesaboutkarmaand concentrateuponthePerfect,andthereuponletthemkillyou.Theprinciple[ofcauseandeffect]willthennaturallyworksothattherecanbenoharm.Yourown bodywilltransformintoanUtmostPerfectedBeingthatiswithoutSuperior.Thosepeople[whokillyou]willnaturallysuffertheretribution(punishment)for murder." Thus,atrueadeptwassupposedtobewillingtodieforthepurposeofmaintaininghismoralintegrity.Ratherthancommitaviolentact,hewastoallowhimselfto beharmedorevenkilled.Suchmartyrdomistheultimateexpressionoffaithandtherenunciationofevilandgreed. 12.AsBokenkamphasillustrated,thisnotionoffivelandsisinspiredbythePureLandBuddhistbeliefinAmitabha'sWesternPureLand,athemeadoptedand grafteduponthatoftheheavensoftheFiveDirections.See"SourcesoftheLingpaoScriptures,"pp.47273. 13.AsimilarstorybelongingtotheLingbaotraditionisfoundinthe"ChronicleoftheWorthyGodoftheSouthernExtreme,"quotedfromtheDongxuanbenxing jinginYunjiqiqian102/12b13b. 14."SourcesoftheLingpaoScriptures,"p.474. 15.TaishoCanonno.557(vol.14,p.909,bottom). 16.Bokenkampinterpretsthisportionofthenarrativedifferently.Accordingtohim,theDemonKingstoldherthatherfatherwasabouttoberebornasawoman andthatshemustfollowhisexamplebyremainingawoman.Hehasapparentlymisinterpretedthephrase . TheaccuracyofmyinterpretationisattestedtobythetextofthesamestoryfoundintheYunjiqiqian102/11b.There,thecorrespondingportionreads .Clearly,thepassagemeanstosaythatherfatherhadmadeplansforhermarriage. 17.Thetexttellsusthatduringhislifeasaprince,heacquaintedhimselfwithacircleoffuturereligiousfigures(whowerepalaceattendantsatthisparticular incarnationandtime).TheseincludedtheBuddhistsShiDaoweiandZhuFalanandtheTaoistsZhengSiyuanandZhangTai.Nothingisknownbymodernscholarship aboutShiDaoweiandZhangTai.ZhengSiyuanwasadiscipleofGeXuanandtheteacherofGeHong.ZhuFalanisthenameofoneoftheIndianBuddhistmasters inthefamouslegendofHanEmperorMing'sdream(whichledtotheintroductionofBuddhismintoChina),whoputativelycametoLuoyangin67C.E.However, BokenkampspeculatesthattheZhuFalanmentionedhereisamonkbythesamenamewhotrainedtogetherwithZhiQianonMt.Qionglong.Bokenkampfurther speculatesthatduringthethirdcentury,theGeclanmayhavehadconnectionswithanearlysouthernBuddhisttraditionforwhomZhiQianhadcarriedouttranslation work.SeeBokenkamp,"SourcesoftheLingpaoScriptures,"pp.46667. 18.Thelegendarycosmicmountaininthewest. 19.Anotherpossibletranslationis,"...burdensofforms."

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20.OneoftheThreePureRealms.ItrankedbelowtherealmsofYuqingandShangqing.TaoHongjing'sZhenlingweiyituplacesanotherrealm,Taiji,inbetween theShangqingandTaiqingrealms. 21.TheFoshuoamituosanyesanfosaloufotanguodurendaojing(TaishoCanonno.362),aBuddhistscripturetranslatedbyZhiqianofthethirdcenturyC.E., describesthreecategoriesofdevoteeswhogainrebirthinthePureLandoftheAmitabha.TheXuanyiquanjiefalunmiaojing'sthreecategoriesofgentlemenmay havebeenformulatedpartiallyundertheinfluenceofthisBuddhistconcept. IntheBuddhistformulation,thecategoriesconsistof1)monkswholiveapure,disciplinedlife,2)laypeoplewhoactasgenerous,piouspatrons,and3)less wealthylaypeoplewhodistinguishthemselvesthroughritualfastingandinnerpurification.Peopleofallthreecategories,iftheyearnestlydesiretoberebornin Amitabha'sPureLand,willhavetheirwishfulfilledupontheirdeath.ThemonkswhomakeupthefirstcategoryattainthestatusofBodhisattvaimmediatelyupon theirentryintothePureLand.However,thelaypeopleofthetwolattercategories,aftertheirblessedrebirth,mustwaitmuchlonger(over500years)before gainingBodhisattvahood.Thisisbecausetheyhaveintermittentlywaveredintheirfaithanddevotion. TheFoshuoamituosanyesanfosaloufotanguodurendaojingemphasizesthecompassionofAmitabhaandhispowertobringsalvationtoallwhodesireit, evenlaypeopleoflimitedfaithanddevotion.IntheXuanyiquanjiefalunmiaojing,thethreecategoriesofgentlemenallappeartobefulltimereligious practitionerswhoearntheirimmortalitythroughtheirownvirtuesandefforts.Overall,thedescriptionsandteachingsofthetwotextsdifferconsiderably.However, itisinterestingthatthecategoriesdescribedinbothtextsseemtobedefinedtoacertaindegreebysocialstatusandwealth. 22.AlongerversionisfoundintheTaishangzhutianlingshudumingmiaojing(HY23/TT26),11b14a. 23.BythisImeantosaythattheyarenotenumeratedinthetextsthatfitmyworkingdefinitionof"LingbaoScriptures"(seent.1). 24.ThisdeityappearsprominentlyintheShangqingtextsasarevealerofscriptures.(SeeRobinet,LarevelationShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,1:127, 187).InTaoHongjing'sZhenlingweiyitu,heisdescribedastheteacheroftheQueenMotheroftheWestandisrankedintherealmofTaiqing. 25.See"SourcesoftheLingpaoScriptures,"pp.47071. 26.Foranindepthdiscussionofthem,seeEskildsen(1994),pp.44248. 27.InBuddhisttexts,thistermreferstogreed,anger,andignorance.Suchcouldalsobewhatismeanthere. 28.ThisisanamefortheinternalbabymentionedintheWufuxu,Laozizhongjing,andHuangtingjing.Here,however,ZidanhashisdwellingintheThreeElixir Fields. 29.ThisreferstoatechniqueofinnervisualizationcarriedoutinpreparationfortherecitationoftheDadongzhenjing.TheadeptvisualizestheThreePrimal

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GoddessesofSimplicityinthecranialJinhua(GoldenFlower)Palace.SeeRobinet,TaoistMeditation,pp.13134. 30.InaBuddhistcontext,AnyangreferstotheWesternparadiseoftheBuddhaAmitabha. 31.ThisreferstoavisualizationmethoddescribedattheendoftheShangqingdadongzhenjing(HY6/TT1617,6/16a18a).Itwasmeanttobecarriedoutafter therecitationandpracticeoftheDadongzhenjing.Theadeptvisualizes''onehundredgods,"whotransformintowhiteqi,enterhismouth,pervadetheinteriorofhis body,exitfromhisextremities,encircleandilluminatehisbody,andfinallymergetobecometheImperialWorthyLordoftheDadong.Thisdeitythenentersthe "LiuhePalace"intheadept'sbrainthroughhismouth.SeeRobinet,LarevelationduShangqingdansl'histoiredutaoisme,2:36.Also,TaoistMeditation,pp. 10317. 32.Thisprobablyreferstothebelieverwhosehomeisservingastheritualarena.Theparticipantsatthefinalfeastaretoldtowishforhisorherascension.This perhapsimpliesthat"thehost"isrecentlydeceased,andtheritualisconductedforthedeliveranceofhisorhersoulattherequestofhisorherfamily. 33.SeeSunayamaMinoru,ZuiTooDookyooshisooshikenkyuu(Tokyo:HirakawaShuppansha,1990),pp.19394.AlsoYoshiokaYoshitoyo,Dookyooto Bukkyoo,2:67. 34.SeeSunayamaMinoru,ZuiTooDookyooshisooshikenkyuu,pp.20111.TheTaixuanfaction,accordingtoSunayama,wasamovementthatpromotedthe Laozi,theXishengjing,andtheMiaozhenjing.ItsmostprominentfigurewasMengZhizhouoftheLiangdynasty,whodevisedthesystemofcategorizingscriptures intothefourfu,whichcomplementedthepreviouslydevisedthreeCaverns,ordong. 35.AdetaileddiscussionofthispracticeinChineseBuddhismisJulianPas,"SixDailyPeriodsofWorship:SymbolicMeaninginBuddhistLiturgyandEschatology," MonumentaSerica37(19861987),pp.4982. 36.Buddhisttexts,instatingthetimesforworship,arenotentirelyconsistentwitheachother,butdogivetimesroughlysimilartothis.SeePas,"SixDailyPeriodsof Worship:SymbolicMeaninginBuddhistLiturgyandEschatology,"pp.50,5354,82. 37.Buddhistterms.ApassagefromZhengao6,whichismostlyborrowedfromtheSishi'erzhangjing,enumeratesthe"eightdifficulties":"LordWangofXicheng proclaimed,'Itisdifficultforapersontoavoidthethreebadexistences(hell,hungryghost,animals)andgettobecomeahuman.Onceonehasgottentobea human,itisdifficulttoavoidbecomingawomanandtobecomeaman.Onceonehasbecomeaman,itisdifficulttobecomefullyendowedwiththesix sensesandfourlimbs.[Even]whenonehasthesixsenses,itisdifficulttogettobeborninChina.OnceonehasbeenborninChina(italicsadded),itis difficulttogettoliveunderparentsandarulerwhomaintainstheTao.Evenifonegetstoliveundera

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rulerwhomaintainstheTaoandisbornintoafamilywhichstudiestheTao,itisdifficulttogettohaveagoodheart,anditisdifficulttogettobelieveintheinner poweroftheTaoandlonglife.EvenifyoubelieveintheinnerpoweroftheTaoandinlonglife,itisdifficulttogettoliveduringthemomentoftheGreatPeaceof Renchen.Howcanyounotbediligent!"(Zhengao6/6b7a) "TenSufferings"referstothesufferingcausedby1)birth,2)oldageanddecrepitude,3)illness,4)death,5)despair,6)resentment,7)emotionaleffectsof suffering,8)worry,9)fearofdeath,and10)transmigration. 38.Thisinterpretationcanbededucedfromthefactthatinsomeplacesthetextreads"hityourcheek"(bojia),ratherthan"hityourself"(zibo). 39.ABuddhisttermreferringtothreerealmsthatmakeupsamsaratherealmofdesires(yujie),therealmofforms(sejie),andtherealmofnoforms(wusejie). 40.SeeHenriMaspero,TaoismandChineseReligion,pp.38186. 41.Here,HenriMaspero(whosetranslationIhaveborrowed)hasrenderedthecharactershias"hours."However,"times"wouldprobablybethecorrecttranslation here,sincethissentencereferstotheBuddhisticcustomofworshippingsixtimesaday. 42.HereIhaveborrowedMaspero'stranslation.SeeTaoismandChineseReligion,pp.38182. 43.OneofthefewfaultsinMaspero'sotherwisemasterfulworkisthathemistakenlyunderstoodtheGreatPeaceSectandFivePecksofRiceSecttobetwo branchesofthesameorganization.Hethususesthename"YellowTurbans"torefertobothgroups,eventhoughonlytheantiHanrebelsoftheGreatPeaceSect wereknownbythisnametotheircontemporaries.Hismisunderstandingislikelyduetothefactthatthetwogroupscarriedoutsimilarpracticesandtheirleaders sharedthesurnameZhang. 44.SeeTaoismandChineseReligion,pp.38788. 45.Thecharactershuanghasnocommonnominalusage.However,asanadjective,itcanrefertothebrightnessofdawn.FollowingtheexampleofIsabelleRobinet, Ihaverenderedthiswordas"light,"forlackofabetterconceivablealternative.SeeRobinet,Histoiredutaoisme:desoriginesauXIVesiecle(Paris:LesEditions duCerf,1991),p.157. 46.SeeD.C.Lautr.TaoTeChing,p.69. 47.Daodezhenjingzhu(HY682/TT363)1/10b.ThecommentaryisascribedtoaFormerHandynastyhermitknownasHeshanggong.Opinionamongmodern scholarsaboutthedateofthistextisdivided.EstimatesrangefromLatterHantoroughlythetimeoftheLingbaoscriptures.KusuyamaHarukiproposesthetheory thatthecommentarywaswrittenintwostages.HebelievesthatmuchoftheHeshanggongcommentarycoulddateasearlyastheLatterHan.However,accordingto him,theportionsdealingwithphysiologicaltheoriesandmacrobioticmethodswereclumsilytackedonduringthelateSixDynasties(Liangdynastyorlater)by Lingbaoproponents.SeeRooshidensetsunokenkyuu(1979),pp.5160.

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48.TheTaijiyinzhubaojue14abclearlyendorsestheHeshanggongcommentary. 49.LiviaKohnobservesthatthewordshen(translatedearlieras"body")generallyisusedinTaoisttextstorefertothebodythatisafflictedwithselfinvolved concernsandneeds.Xing(translatedearlieras"bodilyform"),ontheotherhand,isusedtodescribethebodyinitscapacityasamicrocosm.Shethusproposesthat shenshouldbetranslatedas"personalbody"or''extendedself,"andxingshouldbetranslatedas"physis"or"physicalbody."However,shealsoadmitsthatthe usagesofthetwowordsdonotalwaysconformtothispattern.Here,thetwowordsareusedinterchangeably.SeeLiviaKohn,"EternalLifeinTaoistMysticism," JournaloftheAmericanOrientalSociety110.4(1990),pp.62240. 50.SeeEskildsen(1994),pp.485500. 51.Thisscripture,whichnolongersurvivesasanindependenttext,appearstohavebeenoneofthescripturescitedinLuXiujing'scatalog.Thetitleresemblescatalog entries13and27.TheaforementionedstoryofAqiuZeng,foundintheChishuyujue,alsoisfoundintheYunjiqiqianasaquotefromthisDongxuanbenxingjing. 52.ThisscriptureanditsconceptofmieduhavebeendiscussedbyStephenBokenkampin"DeathandAscentinLingbaoTaoism,"TaoistResources1.2(1989), pp.120.BokenkamphasunderstoodmieduinadifferentwaythanIhave.Heunderstandsitasaprocesswhererebirth,notresurrection,isachieved.His interpretationdoesnotappeartomakesense.Ifoneistoenterahumanwombtobereborn,itwouldbesenselesstopreservethecorpseintheground.Aswehave alreadyseen,theLingbaomovement'sunderstandingofrebirthwasthatthebodywoulddecomposetodustandthenlight,afterwhichitwouldreunitewiththehun soultobereborn. 7.CriticismsofHereticalAsceticismintheYuqingjing 1.Majorexamplesofsuchscriptures,asidefromtheYuqingjing,aretheTaixuanzhenyibenjijing(HY1103/TT758),Taishangyishenghaikongzhizangjing (HY9/TT2022),Taishanglingbaoyuanyangmiaojing(HY334/TT168169),Dashengmiaolinjing(HY1387/TT1049),Taishangdongxuanlingbaoyebao yinyuanjing(HY336/TT174175),andTaishangdongxuanlingbaoshengxuanneijiaojing(HY1114/TT759). 2.Thescripture'sfulltitleisTaishangdadaoyuqingjing.ThescripturealsoisincludedintheDaozangjiyaonos.2627.TextualdiscrepanciesbetweentheTaoist CanonandDaozangjiyaoeditionsarefewandinsubstantial. 3.ForadiscussionoftheYuqingjing'sauthorship,seeEskildsen(1994),pp.53438. 4.ThetexttakesupthreefullboundvolumesintheTaoistCanon.Itisdividedintotenjuan,whichcontainatotalofnineteenchaptersorpin(numbered1through 20theseventhchapterismissing).Foranoverviewofthenineteenchaptersandthetopicscoveredineachofthem,seeEskildsen(1994),pp.52933.

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5.SeeEskildsen(1994),pp.588619. 6.Itshouldbeclarifiedthatwordssuchas"heretical"or"heresy"areusedinthisdiscussiontorefertobeliefsandpracticesdeemedassuchbytheauthor(s)ofthe Yuqingjing.''Orthodoxy"referstowhattheauthor(s)consideredcorrectTaoism.Inusingsuchwords,Iamnotmakinganyvaluejudgmentsofmyown. 7.Throughoutthischapter,thisishowIwillrenderthetermwaidao.ItwasoriginallyaBuddhisttermusedtorefertononBuddhistfaithsanddoctrines.Whenused inTaoisttexts,itreferstononTaoists."Infidel"appearstobethemostappropriateEnglishwordfortranslatingtheterm.WhileIfearthatcertainreadersmayfeelthat theword"infidel"istooloadedwithconnotationsofreligiousdogmatismandconflict(thingsthatpeoplemorecommonlyassociatewithWesternreligion),Iwould contendthatsuchconnotationsarequiteappropriateinlightoftheharshpolemicaltonethatpervadesthistext. 8.Inchapter3,mentionwasmadeofthesuppressionofTaoismintheearlysixthcenturyunderEmperorWuoftheLiangdynasty.Beforeandafterthisincidentthere occurredcaseswhereemperorsheavilypersecutedBuddhism.Thefirstofthesepersecutionsoccurredduringtheyears446452underthereignofNorthernWei EmperorTaiwu(Taiwudi).Thesecondoccurredduringtheyears574578underthereignofNorthernZhouEmperorWu.Thethird(mostinfamous)persecutionof BuddhismwastheHuichangPersecutionof845underTangEmperorWuzong. 9.Thetenordinancescanbeparaphrasedasfollows:1)Donotbedisrespectfulordisobedienttowardyourparents,teachers,andsuperiors.2)Donotkill.3)Do notcommittreason.4)Donotcommitadultery,especiallyincest.5)DonotblasphemetheTao.Donottransmitscripturesinanimproperway.6)Donotdefileholy altarsoractcontemptuouslyintheirmidstbybeingnaked.7)Donotdeceiveorderidethosewhoarepoororwholackfamilies.8)Donotgoaboutnakedbeneath thesun,moon,andstars.Donotdeceiveorderidetheagedortheill.9)Donotdrinkliquorexcessively.Donottellliesanddonotinsultothers.10)Donotdothings inacruelandarbitrarymanner.(See1/8b9a.) 10.TheYangNineisatermusedintheWufuxutorefertotheGreatKalpa.SeeEskildsen(1994),pp.144,23035. 11.Theauthorapparentlybelievedthattheuniverseunderwentapreordainedsequenceofcosmiccycles.Eachcyclehaditsoperativeelementthatdictatedthetype ofcalamitythatwoulddestroytheworld.ThenarrativeheretakesplaceintheFireKalpaintheinconceivablyremotepast,whichwastobefollowedbytheWater Kalpa.ThisWaterKalpaisthepresentcosmicera,whichisduetoendwithagiganticflood. 12.Here,kalpaseemstorefertothecosmicdisasterratherthanthecosmiccycle. 13.ThisquitepossiblyreferstothefirstHeavenlyMasterZhangDaoling,whoheretakestheformofadeified,cosmicbeing.Thedoctrinesandmethodsofthe HeavenlyMastersSectarecommonlyreferredtoas"Zhengyimeng(=ming)

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weizhidaosantianzhengfa,"or"TheWayoftheMightoftheCovenantoftheOrthodoxUnity,theOrthodoxMethodsoftheThreeHeavens." 14.niji.Ihavetentativelyunderstoodni ,whichcanmeantorememberorhavesomethinginmind.

15.Aspiritdenotedbythischaracterusuallyisananimisticnaturespiritthatdwellsinaplant,tree,orrock.Italsocanbethetransfiguredformofananimalthathas reachedanunusuallyoldage. 16.Thesearetwoofthethreerealmsofsamsara.Therealmofdesireisthelowestrealm,whoseinhabitantspossessdesires.Therealmofformistherealmwhere desiresnolongerexist,butwherepeoplearestilldeludedbytheirperceptionofforms.Abovethesetworealmsistherealmofnoforms,arealmwherealldesiresand formsaretranscendedinastateofdeepsamadhi.BydescribingthewickedImmortalsascitizensofthetwolowerrealms,thetextissayingthatinspiteoftheir considerablepowers,theywerestillnotPerfectedbeingsofthehighestcaliber.TheconceptofthethreerealmswasadoptedfromBuddhism. 17.Seent.11. 18.ThisreferstospecialphysicalfeaturesthatarepossessedbyextraordinaryholybeingssuchastheBuddhaandLaozi. 19.JudgingfromitsusagethroughouttheYuqingjing,thetermDharmaBodyreferstothestatewhereonehasachievedthefinalgoalinthereligiousquest.Itis,of course,anoriginallyBuddhisttermthatreferstothecosmicbodyoftheBuddhathatisbeyondforms,shapes,anddifferentiations.Itisequivalentto "emptiness"(sunyata),theultimateandabsolutelytrueprinciple.TheYuqingjingappearstobeoneoftheearliestTaoistscripturestomakefrequentuseoftheterm. 20.Jingmayrefertothebodily"essences"orfluidsthatseepoutofthecorpse.Italsocouldrefertoasoulsubstanceofsomekind.Italsocouldbeanadjectivethat modifiesthewordshuang.Themeaningofshuangisunclear,sinceitisnotnormallyusedasanoun.Asmayberecalled,theLingbaoscripture,theGongde qingzhongjing,saysthatthehumanbodydecomposesintodust,whichthentransformsintoshuang,whichItentativelyrenderedas"light"(seep.123). 21.Thisprobablymeansthatthebodyisboththeproductandcauseofconfusion.Confusioncausespeopletobebornintoabodyofflesh,andthebody'sneedsand impulseskeepthemconfused. 22.Thisseemstorefertothespiritualandmentalcapacitiesthatthe"infidels"believedtosurvivethedeathofthebody.However,itisprobablyactuallya mistranscriptionof ,whichwouldtranslateinto"hunsoulconsciousness." 23.SeeMochizukiShinko,Bukkyoodaijiten,3,76768. 24.AccordingtoBuddhistmythology,thesefourgodsliveonMt.SumeruandservethegodIndrainthetaskofprotectingtheBuddhistreligion.Theirnamesare Dhrtarastra,Virudhaka,Virupaksa,andVaisravana.SeeNakamuraHajime,Bukkyoogojiten,1:52728.

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25.Forsomethingtobeemptymeansthatitisconditionedbycausesandhasnoselfsufficientreality.Buddhismteachesthatdelusionandsufferingcomefrom attachmentstothingsandconcepts,andthattheseattachmentsresultwhenonedoesnotrealizethatallisemptiness. 26.SeeKennethK.S.Ch'en,BuddhisminChina:AHistoricalSurvey,pp.7881andMatsunagaYukei,MikkyoonoRekishi(Kyoto:HeirakujiShoten,1969), pp.13135. 27.OnthepracticeofhumansacrificeinChinesefolkcults,seeSawadaMizuho,"SatsujinSaiki"inChuugokunoMinkanShinkoo(Tokyo:Kosakusha,1982),pp. 33273. 28.Beijingdaxueguoxuejikan3(1923),pp.2746. 29.ThekeypassageisfoundinWeishu,juan#102(pp.2,27172)andBeishi,juan#97(pp.3,22223).AccordingtotheWeishu,theGodofHeavenalsowas worshippedinthenationsofGaochang(locatedinthevicinityofpresentdayTurfan)andYanzhi(locatedinthevicinityofpresentdayYanzhiCounty,Xinjiang Province).ThisseemstoindicatethatZoroastrianslivedinthosenations.AnotherpossibilityisthatthewordtianshenisusedtodescribenonChineseastraldeitiesin general,ratherthanjustthoseofZoroastrianism.ContactwithZoroastriansapparentlywasalsomadebytheSoutherndynasties,sincetheLiangshu(54thjuan,p. 812)andNanshi(79thjuan,p.1,984)describeaCentralAsiannationcalledGuguo,wherepeopleworshippedhuoshenandtianshen.Thisnationsentenvoyswith tributetotheLiangcourtin516and521. 30.SeeMaryBoyce,Zoroastrians:TheirReligiousBeliefsandPractices(London:Routledge,1979),pp.2327,119. 31.BuddhisminChina:AHistoricalSurvey,pp.27982. 32.HereIhaveborrowedChen'stranslation.SeeBuddhisminChina:AHistoricalSurvey,p.281. 33.TaishoCanonno.189(3:634middleandbottom). 34.TaishoCanonno.374(12:462top). 35.HY334/TT168169.Fulltitle,Taishanglingbaoyuanyangmiaojing.Thepassageinquestionhereisfoundin3/13bline3character1314aline5character4. Actually,mostoftheYuanyangjing'scontentsweretakenfromtheNirvanasutra.ThisfactwasfirstbroughttotheattentionofmodernscholarsbyKamataShigeo inChuugokuBukkyooshisooshikenkyuu(Tokyo:Shunjusha,1968),pp.16872.AppendedtothisbookisatabledisplayingthetextoftheYuanyangjing alongsidethematchingpassagesfromtheNirvanasutra.TheErjiaolun,aBuddhistpolemicaltextof570C.E.,mentionsatextcalledtheYuanyangjingand criticizesitforbeingaplagiarismoftheLotusSutra.ThiscouldbethesameYuanyangjinginquestionhere,sinceasKamatapointsout,aportionoftheYuanyang jing(the"Wenxingpin"chapterinthe4thjuan)indeedmatchestheLotusSutra'sintroductorychapter.Itis,however,oddthattheErjiaolundoesnotmentionany plagiarismfromtheNirvanasutra.AsithasbeenpointedoutbyOfuchiNinji,twodifferentscriptures

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bearingthetitleYuanyangjingappeartohavecirculated.Onlyone(Pelliot2450)ofseveralDunhuangmanuscriptsentitled"Yuanyangjing"matchestheTaoist Canonversiontheothershaveanentirelydifferentthemeandcontent.SeeTonkoodookyoo:Mokurokuhen,pp.1045. 36.ThisreferstoademonifugictalismanendorsedintheShangqingtradition.SeeRobinet,TaoistMeditation,p.32. 37.Thisisaderogatorytermthatmeansthatsomeoneisworthlessandnogood,nomoreusefulthanacorpse. 38.Hisfulltitleis"theGoldenPerfectedBeingoftheRedJadePalace,theLatterAgeSagelyHeavenlyWorthyoftheHeavenofJadePurity." 39.InHinduism,Brahmaisthedivinecreator.InBuddhism,heisaprotectoroftheBuddhistreligion. 40.TheoriginsofthislegenddatebacktotheLatterHanorThreeKingdomsperiods.VeryearlyversionsofitarefoundintheHouhanshuandtheSanguozhi. AccordingtoaBuddhistsource(theChusanzangjiji),aTaoistpriestnamedWangFuforgedaHuahujing(ScriptureontheConversionofBarbarians)duringthe reignofWesternJinEmperorHui(291307C.E.).ThelegendisnarratedinvarioussourceswithconsiderablevariationinhowtheyexplaintheidentityoftheBuddha. SomeversionssaytheBuddhawasaguisetakenbyLaozi,somesayhewasLaozi'sdiscipleYinXi,andotherssayhewasavaingloriouskingwhowasconvertedby Laoziafterunsuccessfullytryingtoburnhimtodeath.SeeKusuyamaHaruki,Rooshidensetsunokenkyuu(Tokyo:Sobunsha,1979),pp.43772.KuboNoritada hasproposedthenoveltheorythatthefirstfabricatorsofthelegend,contrarytothecommonassumption,wereBuddhistswhohadhopedtofacilitatethegrowthof theirreligionbyidentifyingtheirBuddhawithasaintmorefamiliartotheChinesepublic.SeeChuugokushuukyooniokerujuyoo,henyoo,gyooyoo(Tokyo: YamakawaShuppansha,1979),pp.624. 41.TheThreeVehiclesareteachingsfor:1)SravakaThosewhotrainfortheirownenlightenmentafterlearningthedoctrinesfromsomeoneelse.Theybecome arhatsafteralongperiodoftime.TheyarepractitionersoftheSmallVehicle2)PrattyekabuddhaThosewhoachieveenlightenmentontheirown.Thisrefers primarilytothosewholivedandattainedenlightenmentpriortotheministryofthehistoricalBuddha3)BodhisattvaThosewhoachieveenlightenmentthroughthe doctrinesoftheGreatVehicleandcompassionatelystayintheworldtohelpothers.PractitionersoftheGreatVehicle. 42.ThisspeculationfindssupportintheXishengjing(TheScriptureoftheWesternAscension),afamousTaoisttextwrittensometimebetweenthemidfourth centuryandtheendofthefifthcentury.TheXishengjingopenswiththepassage,"LaoziascendedtotheWesttoopenuptheTaoinIndia.HewascalledMaster Gu(guxiansheng,"theancientmaster")skilledatenteringnonaction."TheXishengjingalsoincludesapassagethatreads,"Laozisaid:[Yin]Xi,Itellyouonce again,MasterGuismyself."SeeLiviaKohn,TaoistMysticalPhilosophy:TheScripture

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oftheWesternAscension(Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1991),pp.235,255. 43.Specialphysicaltraitspossessedbysuperhumanbeings. 44.Anindestructiblebody.InBuddhisttexts,thisreferstotheBuddha'sDharmaBody. 45.Thereappearstobeatextualcorruptionhere.Thecharacterer .

46.Thetenwishes(paraphrased)wereasfollows:1)ThatthedoctrinesoftheTaowillspreadandpervade.2)ThateverybodywillbeabletounderstandtheTao.3) Thathunsoulsinthenetherworldwillbereleased.4)Thatthewanderingsoulsofthedeadwhohavenosupport(descendantstomakeofferingstothem)willgain rebirth.5)Thatpeacewillprevailandcropswillbeplentifulthroughouttheworld.6)Thatsubjectswillbeloyalandsonsfilial.7)Thatallenmitiesandconflictsinthe worldwillberesolved.8)Thatallembryosandseedsingestationwillbesafelybornandrearedtomaturity.9)Thatalldiseaseswillbehealed.10)Thatallliving beingswillbeprovidedwithabundantfoodandclothing(7/12b). 47.Thetextalsodescribeshowflowersandsweetdewcamerainingdown,theearthtrembled,themusicofimmortalityfilledtheair,andunicornsandphoenixes appeared. 48.AsaBuddhistterm,thisrefersto1)killing,2)stealing,3)lechery,4)lying,5)eloquentdeception,6)slander,7)doubletalk,8)greed,9)wrath,and10) ignorance.TheauthoroftheYuqingjingmaywellhavehadthesamesinsinmind. 49.AsaBuddhistterm,thisrefersto1)thekillingofone'sownmother,2)thekillingofone'sownfather,3)thekillingofaholyman,4)harmingthebodyofthe Buddha,and5)causingschismanddestructionwithinthereligiousorganization.SomethingsimilarisprobablybeingreferredtohereintheYuqingjing. 8.Conclusion 1.Certainexceptionsshouldbenoted.InsouthernChina(primarilyGuangdongProvinceandHongKong)andinoverseasChinesecommunities,onecanfind organizationsthatareatleastnominallyaffiliatedwiththeCompletePerfectionSectbutdonotpracticemonasticism.TheseorganizationsvenerateandworshipL Chunyang,WangChongyang,andotherimportantfiguresassociatedwiththeCompletePerfectionSect.ProbablythelargestoftheseorganizationsistheChing ChungTaoistChurch,whichhasitsheadquartersinHongKongandseveralbranchtemplesinNorthAmericaandAustralia. 2.ForastudyanddescriptionofTaoistmonasticlifepriortocommunism,seeYoshiokaYoshitoyo,"TaoistMonasticLife"inFacetsofTaoism,editedbyHolmes WelchandAnnaSeidel(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1977),pp.22952.

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3.Foragoodgeneralsurveyoninternalalchemy,seeJosephNeedham,ScienceandCivilizationinChina,vol.5,no.5(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress). 4.Mt.Mao,themostsacredmountainoftheShangqingSect,todayhastwoactivetemplesthatareinhabitedbyOrthodoxUnitySectpriests.Thesepriests,fortheir selfcultivation,practiceinternalalchemyakintothatoftheCompletePerfectionSectandapparentlydonotpracticethemethodsoftheoriginalShangqingtexts. 5.SeeEskildsen(1989)YaoTaochung,"Ch'anchen:ANewTaoistSectinNorthChinaDuringtheTwelfthandThirteenthCenturies,"DoctoralDissertation (UniversityofArizona,1980)KuboNoritada,Chuugokunoshuukyookaikaku:Zenshinkyoonoseiritsu(Kyoto:Hozokan,1967).

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Page215

Index
Note:Inthereferencestoendnotematerial,thenumbersinparenthesesindicatethepageofthemaintextonwhichthenumberofthenoteisprinted. A abortion,108 adultery,107 AhuraMazda,139 airswallowing,11,12,2224,34,41,4447,51,57,59,61,77,114,116,154 alchemy,5,16,25,2728,113 allegoryoftheignorantchild,74 allegoryoftheox,74 allegoryofthepearls,74 allegoryoftheprisoner,74 allowancesforthelesshardy,117118,119 altruism,1920,40,96,97100,103,104,110,155 ameshaspentas,139 Amitabha,192n.12(100),193n.21(105),194n.30(111) analogyofthetiger'sbite,74 anatman(doctrineofnosoul),1213 ancestors,110,117 ancientmaster(guxiansheng),144146 anoxaemia,24 Anqisheng,98 antiworldlyattitude,93,137,144,154 oftheShangqingmovement,8490 Anwu,41 anxiety,46 AqiuZeng,101,162 arborvitae,22,41 ascension,50,82,99,125126,128,155,163 ofZhangDaoling,78 astraldeities,53 autumnroot,22 "avoidanceofgrains"(bigu),4344,60,115,153154 azurite,hollow(kongqing),64,65 medicinalpropertiesof,181n.39(65) B BabyChild,56 babyinthestomach,5758 Badong,25 badouplant(crotontiglium),22 Baishisheng(Baishizi),98 Baishizi(MasteroftheWhiteRocks),65 intheShenxianzhuan,181n.41(65) BaiyunGuan SeeWhiteCloudMonastery Baoguang,148 Baojianjing,9091,188n.79(90) Baqie,141 beastlikeimmortals,17,21 begging,1920,26,33,136,138,141,142,159 Beishi,139 Beijing,157

Page216

Benxingyinyuanjing,9798,102103,161 Benyuandajiejing,99,124125,161 bigu See"avoidanceofgrains" bittertraining(kuxing),81,91,131,132 BlackandWhite,Wayofthe,77 bloodsacrifice,136,139,142,145 BuleBoyofFangzhu,73 Bodhisattva,9899,155,200n.41(145) Bodhisattvaideal,40 bodilydeities Seeinternaldeities body,abuseof,8,1112,13,28,4142,129,132,143,144,153,156 annihilationof,143,149,151 asbasisoftheTao,149,156 asempty,124,155 astemporarydwelling,122,123,144,155 Chineseviewof,7 Christianviewof,7,810 completingthe,151 forgettingthe,124,147148,150151,155 "having"a,110,122,123124 negativeTaoistviewsof,143144,156 revivaloftheweakened,2,10,46,5153,59 soteriologicalroleof,7,1011,13,152 transformationintoformalessstate,150 valueofthe,42,152 weakeningofthe,47,5153 bodyfollowingthespirit,150 bodyofconfusion,135,136 bodyofPerfection,122,124125 Bokenkamp,Stephen,101,107 BookofChanges.SeeYijing Bowuzhi,2122,172n.26(21) Bozhong,Mt.,83 Brahma,145 BrahmanKing,147 BrahmanMasters,136 brambleroots,22 breathholding,11,2224,41,44,45,5556,66,82,93,154 Zhonghuangjingmethodof,4750 broomplant,22 Buddha,1213,73,82,84,140,156 asLaozi'sdisciple,145 Buddhism,persecutionof,197n.8(130) Buddhistinfluence,1,7,1213,25,36,39,40,42,91,96,9899,101,102,107,117,153,156 afterthesixthcentury,158 ontheLingbaomovement,121128,155 ontheShangqingmovement,7275,154 onTaoistviewofthebody,144 Buddhistmonks,138 burial,108 byexposure,139,142 C Cain,17 calamities,87 cantalope,22 CaoCao,6 causeandeffect,102103,105,122,123 celibacy,1,1617,36,102,104,109110,153,157 asaconditionforfasting,59,6263,6465,67 asaconditionfortransmissionofscripture(s),9192 forcommunicationwithdivinebeings,6768 intheLiexianzhuanandShenxianzhuan,2425 intheShangqingmovement,154 Pengzu'scriticismof,17 purposeof,1125,7579 Chan(Zen)Buddhism,158 Changan,19,140 changpu(acorusgramineus),22,24 Changsangzi,23 Changsha,5 chaos,primordial,105 charlatanry,109 ChenAnshi,22,87 Chen,KennethK.S.,140 ChenYuan,139 ChengTongsun,36 Chengdu,19 chestnuts,22 Chishuyujue,101,161 Chishuzhenwen,113,162 Chisongzi,86 Chixuzi,2223 Chongguang,King,148151 Chongxuanfaction,115 chosenpeople,132 ChouJizi,9293 chrysanthemum,22 ChuBoyu,37,71

Page217

chujia(leavingthefamily),36 ChunyuPuqia,36 cicada,51 cinnabar(dansha,mercuricsulfide),22,64,65 medicinalpropertiesof,181n.39(65) cinnamon,22 citywalls,worshipof,136 Ciyijing,9192,111 authorshipdateof,189n.83(92) clairvoyance,138 CloudPalace,146,147 CloudPowder,93 CloudSprouts,53 coarseeating,116 communicationwithdivinebeings,11,53,61,6768,70,7879,7984,89,9697,112,113114,117,154 compassion,97100,103,108,110,132 CompletePerfection(Quanzhen)School,157,159 nonmonasticvariety,201n.1(157) confession,97,113,114,117,119 contestofsupernormalpowers,134 corruptionofhumanity,98 cosmiceras,60,67,8687,88,95,105106,130,133,162 CrimsonPalace,56 crucifixion,Christianthemeof,101 CulturalRevolution,157 cypressresin,22 D Dabanniepanjing.SeeNivanasutra Dadong,69 Dadongzhenjing,69,71,83,88,92,93,111,154,164,165,194n.31(114) rulesfortransmissionof,91 "Dadongzhenjingmu",182n.12(72) DaiSheng,36 dansha.Seecinnabar Daoan,121 Daodejing.SeeLaozi Daojitunajing,5152,86 Daoxuezhuan,3142,154 authorshipof,31 credibilityof,32 DarkMother,49 death,byselfstarvation,41,93 feigningof,12,27,28,9293,98,126,154,156 glorificationof,137,146 loveof,137, overcomingfearof,26,42,83,93 deception,107 deerbamboo(huangjing),20,22,60,6263 deerhorn,22 dehydration,45 deliveranceofdamnedsouls,111,118121,163,166 DemonKings,8890,101 demons,52,76,8490,129,154,162 possessionby,133,134,136,137 vanityof,133,134 worshipof,110,139 DengYu,69 DengYuzhi,35 Dengzhenyinjue,64,66,72,74,77 depression,45,46 deprogrammingheretics,136,140 desires,eliminationof,74,154 sublimationof,68,7879,85 devotion,147148,149,150151,155 Dezheng,King,130 Dharmabody(fashen),135,149150,198n.19(135) Dharmakshema,141 dietaryrestrictionsforretreats,112,115116 Dinglujun,81 Dingzhitongweijing,107,124,162 diseases,47,8586 disguises,ofdemons,85 ofdivinebeings,83 divinemedicinesoftheXiaomojing,86,189n.88(92) divineprotection,85 divinesympathy,7984,90,9697,119,147148,154 Dongfang,23,66 DongxiangZongchao,36,38,39 Dongxuanlingbaoyugingshanbuxujing,164 driedbones,venerationof,131,138

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DuJingchan,71 DuanJiurouwen,39 DukeofThunder,135 Dunhuangmanuscripts,6,169n.20(6) durability,8 Duyangzapian,140 E earth,worshipof,139 earthboundimmortals,82,9798,102,104 eatingofimpurities,131,132,142 eccentricity,33 EightDifficulties(banan),118,194n.37(118) EightGates,111 ElderofthePrimalQi,54 ElderoftheWesternPeak,81 eliminationofmentation,114 elitism,103,105 elixirfield(s)(dantian),45,46,49 EmperorofHeaven,131 emptiness,124,133,134,138,162,199n.25(138) emptyburialmounds,131,138 envy,106 epidemics,130,149,150 Erjiaolun,121 Ershisishengtujing,126,155,162163 esotericbiography(neizhuan),84 EthiopianMoses,9 evangelism,104,106 exorcism,136 expellingandtakingin(tuna),51,52,114 expiation,96,118119 extinctionanddeliverance(miedu),122123,126128,144,145 F fagara,60 FamenTemple,140 familyleavingTaoistmonks(chujiadaoshi),150 famines,60,67 FanChai,32,3334 FangQianzhi,3940 fangshi.Seemagicians fasting,1,8,69,86,104,153,159 afterthenoonhour,81,91,104,110,115,116 asconditionforscripturetransmission,9192 drugsandpotionsfor,11,2122,23,6067,99,148,154 forsurvivingfamine,60,67 intheDaoxuezhuan,4142 methodsof,4368 ofIndianascetics,141 purposeof,11,2122,42,47,50 specialtechniques,11,2224,34,41,4449,79,80,91,99,116,148,154,163 FatheroftheGreatOne,56 fatigue,121 inducingtrance,115 overcomingof,45 FemaleOne(ciyi),111 FengYanshou,75 Fengdu,Mt,90,188n.77(88) filialpiety,101 FireKalpa,135 fireworship,135136,139,141,142,145 fists,clenchingof,45,49 fiveagents(wuxing),1,46,48,53,167n.1(1) fivedeadlytransgressions,151 fiveelements.Seefiveagents fiveflavors,46 fivegrains,154 FiveHeavens,54 FiveMonarchs(wudi),89,101,162 FiveMonarchDemonKings,101 FivePalaces,127 FivePecksofRiceSchool(wudoumidao),6,25,121 fiveplanets,53 fivepungentvegetables,108 FiveQi,46,50,61,116,126,162,163 methodforimbibingthe,5356 fiverocks,66,127 FiveSprouts.SeeFiveQi FiveVenerables,89 fiveviscera(wuzang),44,45,46,4748,52,53,66 flightintoheavensintheZhonghuangjing,4950 flood,127,132,162 FlyingCelestialBeings,111,113 FlyingImmortal,101 ''folkballadin3000lyrics"89

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formlessnessasperpetuallife,150 Foshuoamituosanyesanfosaloufotanguodurendaojing,193n.21(105) fortunetelling,108,109 FourDevaKings,138 FourDevas,133,138 fourheavens,131 Fozutongji,38,39 Fufeng,84 fuling.Seetukahoe G GanShi,23,24 Gaoyi,24 GeChaofu,190n.2(95) Geclan,95 GeHong,1516,95,117118 GeXuan,95,9699,102103,104,113,161,164,165 geomancy,108,109 GodofFire(huoshen),139 GodoftheHeavens(tianshen),139 goldenelixir,83 goldenliquid,82,92 goldenthread,82 Gongdeqingzhongjing,122123,125126,128,155,163 goodandluminousdemons,90 good(yang)vs.evil(yin),asceticismasastrugglebetween,11,49 "grain"qi,44,52 grains,infastingpotions,60,63 GrandEmperor,54 GrandMasteroftheColdForest,150 GrandMasterofthePrimalQi,54 GreatKalpa,131 GreatKingoftheJadePuritywhoEliminatesDevils,89 GreatOne,114 GreatPeace,87 GreatPeaceSchool(taipingdao),6,121 GreatSpirit(dashen),66 GreatStorehouse,57 GreatSublimity,44,50 GreatUltimate,44,50,82,104 GreatVehicle(dasheng,Mahayana),9596,9899 greed,107 GuChun,20 GuHuan,71 Guanghongmingji,38 Guangmiaoyin,96 guanshendajie.SeePreceptsforMonitoringtheBody GuardingoftheOne(shouyi),77 Guoquxianzaiyinyuanjing,140141 H hallucination,61 HanEmperorMing(Mingdi),81,192n.17(102) HanEmperorWu(Wudi),4,32 Hanshu,87 HanYu,140 HaoJicheng,84 healing,48,113 heart,48 hearttreasures,147 hearthfire,worshipof,136 heavenlygarment,51 HeavenlyGirlsofResoluteMind,99 HeavenlyMastersSchool(tianshidao),6,7,25,29,41,70,71,77,95,103,121,157 heavenlyrealmsintheZhonghuangjing,50 heavenlysplendor,50 HeavenlyWorthy,131,146,147,151 HeavenlyWorthyofGreatCompassion,147,150 HeavenlyWorthyoftheGoldenPalaceGate,134 Hedong,17 hell(s),102,111,118,119,123,126,166 hemp,63,116 Heng,Mt.(southernpeak),34,35,69,157 hereditaryguilt,8182,90,163 herditarymerit,76,9091,163 ofGeXuan,97 hereditarypriesthood,157 heresy,129,138,143,144,146,152,156 Taoistsfallinginto,143144 hermits,3536 HeshanggongcommentarytotheLaozi,123124,164,195n.47(123)

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hibernation,24 Himalayas,144 Hinayana,98 hollowazurite.Seeazurite,hollow HomilyonSimeontheStylite,910 honey,45,63,65,66 Hua,Mt.,20,21,81,82, Huahujing,200n.40(145) huahulegend(conversionofthe"barbarians"),144145,173n.29(23),200n.40(145) HuangJing,23,58 HuangLaoschool,5 HuangYuanqiu,21 Huangdisijing,5 Huangguanzi,8283 huangjing.Seedeerbamboo Huayin,Mt.SeeHua,Mt. Hugong,27 humansacrifice,134,139,149 humility,83,110 hunsouls,7,49,50,66,76,110,114,123,128,133,135 hunger,121 causedbyfood,47 inducingtrance,115 overcomingof,45 Huo,Mt.,23 huoshen.SeeGodofFire I ImbibingEssences,116 ImbibingLight,116 ImbibingthePrimalQi,116 ImbibingQi,116 ImbibingSprouts,116 ImmortalBoys,111 immortality,theoriesof,78 ofsubtleentity,8,5051 asmetaphor,3,8 doubtsregarding,78,156 Lingbaomovement'sunderstandingof,126 immortalitybeliefs,priortocommonera,35 linkagewithTaoistphilosophy,56 ImmortalsWhoWithstandHumiliation,99 incantation,55,5556,66,71,76,112,126,154 incest,131 Indianascetics,nonBuddhist,140142 infidels,129,136,137,138,139,141,144,152 internalalchemy(neidan),28,157 internaldeities,11,46,47,125126,155,163 internaldemons,11,44,77,109,144 intestinestransformingintomuscles,56 invulnerability,3,18 islandsoftheimmortals,4 J JacobofSerug,9 JadeBoys,96,97,113 JadeCapital,97 jadeflowers,92 JadeGirlofGreatCinnabar,54 JadeGirlofNocturnalRadiance,54 JadeGirls,53,67,68,79,96,97,111,113 SixJia,23,58,67 Jainism,7 JiHuiyan,36,37 Jianjing.SeeBaojianjing JianWu,4 Jiankang,70 Jiao,Mt.,83 JiaoXian,1719,24,32,65 JieYu,7 Jinshu,29 Jinan,35 jing(essence,generativeforce,semen),asanutrient,59,67 definitionof,171n.3(16) naturespirits,133 nurturingthe,5 retentionof,25,75,67,86,109110,125,181182n.47(67) Jing,Mt.,85,93 jingtree(vitexnegundo),64 Jinhua,Mt.,86 JiuhuaZhenfei,78 Jizhou,29 jujube,41,115 seedof,59 Jurong,70 K kalpas,86,96,97,127,131,133,151 GreatandSmall,87 karma,1213,39,7374,101,102103,156,163 kidneys,48

Page221

killing,107,108 KingoftheDivineEmpyreanoftheJadePurity,88 KingofHeaven,136 kissoftheJadeWoman,79 KobayashiMasayoshi,190n.1(95) KongAnguo,23,24 KongGui,35 KongLingchan,3435 KongYuanfang,171n.11(18) kongqing.Seeazurite,hollow kowtowing,118119,120,155 Kuaiji,37 Kuaiji,Mt.,35 Kunlun,Mt.,103,146 spiritof,134 L LadyofDai,5 LadyoftheYixianPalace,83 LadyWangYouying,7879 LadyZhonghou,81 LadyZiwei,77,78 LandoftheHallofGreatBlessings,100 landsoftheblessed,100,164 lanterns,118,119 Laocheng,Mt.,97,161 Laozi,5,23,77 asfounderofBuddhism,145 asimmortalityseeker,56 asmasterofsexualyoga,16 deificationof,6 Laozi,35,123,161,164,165,194n.34(116) andasceticism,23 authorshipof,167n.3(2) andtheFivePecksofRiceSchool,6 andtheHuangLaoschool,5 interpretationsbyLatterHanTaoists,6 Laozibianhuajing,6 Laozizhongjing,56,87 methodofimbibingessencesofsunandmoon,5758 lead,22 pillsof,23 leprosy,67 LiA,19 LiBabai,27 LiDong,41 LiLingcheng,36 LiShaojun,4 LiYiqi,19 LianShu,4 LiangEmperorWu,69,72 suppressionofTaoism,3839 Liangshu,38 Liangmu,29 LiaoXian,35 liberationfromthecorpse(shijie),93,98,126 Liexianzhuan,1530 authorshipof,15 LifeExtendingTalismanoftheGreatMystery,125 lifesacrifice,99101,144,151 light(shuang) limitedeating,116 limonite,22 LinLingsu,13,170n.38(13) Lingbaobenxingjing,127 LingbaoFivePerfectWrits,95,106,113,119,162 LingbaoFiveTalismans,32 Lingbaomovement,7,56,59,95128,155156 mythologyof,95,105106,144 soteriologyof,121128,155156 Lingbaoscriptures,72,91,161166,190n.1(95) authorshipof,95 Lingdanzi(MasteroftheMiraculousElixir),157 liquor,63,107 liturgy,54,113,117,118121,162,163 LiuFenglin,82 LiuGang,wifeof,76 LiuGen,21 LiuMi,13,170n.39(13) LiuNingzhiandwife,34,40 LiuShaoweng,81 LiuWeidao,83 LiuXiang,15 LiuSongEmperorMing,35 liver,47 LodgeofPerpetualEnjoyment,100 longevityvs.transcendence,13,42,121128,144,152,153,156,158 Longhu,Mt.,157 Longmei,Mt.,21 Longshinjing,101 LordBaoming,87

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LordLaooftheGreatUltimate,83 LotusSutra,199n.35(142) Lu(region),23 LDongbin,1920,83 LuJia,4 LuXiujing,32,3637,121,163,164,165,190n.1(95) lunchboxes,58,67 lungs,48 Lunheng,56,4344 Luobi,134 Luofeng,Mt.,89,90 Luoyang,thefallof,70 Lupigong,92 lycheefruit,22 M Mafamily,71 MaShu,39 agendaof,32 lifeof,31 maggots,27 magicians(fangshi),4,5,54 MahayanaBuddhism,40,96,9899,107,138,155,158 malechauvinism,38,101 mallow,22 Manichaeism,7 mantras,136,138 Maobrothers,184n.32(78) Mao,Mt.,70,72 MaoShanSchool.SeeShangqingschool Maon,20,21 marks(xiang),135,146 MarquisoftheYellowRiver,81 marriage,avoidanceof,3738,74,101,108,154 martyrdom,100,191192n.11(100) Maspero,Henri,7,121 MasterNing,93 MasterXuanhe,127 MastersintheUnderground(dixiazhuzhe),90 matrimonyvine(gouqi),45 meats,dried,59 "medicinalstrength,"75 meditation,11,34,45,71,77,79,80,84,91,99,110,111,113,114,125,137,138,146,157 mediums,70 MengDaoyang,35,39,40 MengZhizhou194n.34(116) mercury,22 mergingofbodyandspirit,122,123,124125 merit,7374,99,102,105,110,113,119,151,155 metal,worshipof,136 MethodoftheWhirlwindandtheImperialOne,114 methodsofextinction,131,132,138 Miaozhenjing,194n.34(116) mica,22,69 miedu.Seeextinctionanddeliverance milk,45 millet,63,116 mind,equatedtotransmigratingspirit,122,155 mindandbody,Chinese/Taoistviewof,78 mindfulness,110 Mingtangyuanzhenjingjue,79 Mingzhenke,118120,126,163 Minhoucounty,35 minorimmortals,90 minormethods(xiaofa),71,98 miraculousconception,148 Mr.Fu,83 MisterNing,21 MiyakawaHisayuki,70 MoQiu,93 monasticism,25,3639,75,109,110,153,154,157 moon,53,77,79,111,118,141 imbibingessencesof,2223,79,127,163 worshipof,136,139 MostHighLordoftheTao,150,161,163,164,165 MotheroftheBlackRadiance,56 mountaindwelling,2021,118 mountainspirit(s),135,136 ofMt.Jing,85 N Nanshi,35,38,69 Nanjing,70 Nanyuejiuzhenrenzhuan,35

Page223

nanzhu(vacciniumbracteatum),64 nationalcrises,119 naturaldisasters,87,130 Needham,Joseph,24 neidan.Seeinternalalchemy NineDarknesses,118 ninedietaryregimensoftheXuanmendalun,116 Ningfengzi,28 nirvana,98 Nirvanasutra(Dabanniepanjing),141142,199n.35(142) niter,22 Niwan,77,114 noodles,41 NorthernEmperorofFengdu,81 NorthernZhouEmperorWu(Wudi),58 NJi,1617 nunhood,3738,102,157 O OfuchiNinji,163,190n.1(95) onions,22 OrthodoxUnity(Zhengyi)School,157 OzakiMasaharu,36 P pagodatree,61 pain,118121 paraffin,93 "partnerships"withoppositeseximmortals,7879,154 peachblossoms,22 PeerlessEmperoroftheVoid,97 PeerlessRetreat(WushangZhai),117,165 Peijun,84 PengChu,41 PengJiao(lowerworm),46 PengJu(upperworm),46 PengZhi(middleworm),46 Pengzu,17,98,171n.6(17) PerfectGodoftheTao,101 PerfectLordWithoutSuperior,131 PerfectWritsoftheBlackEmperor,127 PerfectWritsoftheFiveMonarchs,130 PerfectedManMingwei,132133 PerfectedManoftheGreatUltimate,83,112,113,114,124,161,164,165 PerfectedManoftheNinePalaces,82,104,127 PerfectedManQingxu(WangBao),7778 PerfectedManZidan,111 PerfectedMenoftheMysteriousOne,96 perpetualretreats(changzhai),103,104,112,115 Persia,139 pessimism,10,12,154 intheShangqingtexts8490 pine,needles,22 sap,22 seeds,20,22,23 PineMasteroftheSouthernPeak,82 PlainGirloftheMostHigh,54 PlainGirls,68 planets,53 plumblossums,22 posouls,7,49,66,110,114,128,135 poison,6970,93 anddietary/sexualprohibitions,65 ashungersuppressant,61 pokeroot(zhanglu,phytolaccaacinosa),6061 porridge,62,115 posthumousexpiationrites,78 posthumoussalvation,8182,9091,110,164,185n.43(81) prattyekabuddha,200n.41(145) precepts,99,101,103,130,161,162,163,164,165 ofLingbaomovement,106112,155 rudimentary,106107 PreceptsforMonitoringtheBody(guanshendajie),106,108112,124 predestinationforimmortalhood,7576 primalqi(yuanqi),44,46,48,50 imbibingthe,116 primalspirit(yuanshen),49 primitiveinnocence,98 PrimordialHeavenlyKing(yuanshitianwang),106 PrimordialHeavenlyWorthy(yuanshitianzun),95,99,100,101,105106,118,122,130,132,134,162,163,164,165 prognostication,108,109 psychosomaticeffect,23,58 puredemons,90

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purificatoryprohibitions,113 purity,110 Q qi,asmaterialconstitutingtheuniverse,7 cherishingthe,5 definitionof,169n.25(7) equatedtomentalcapacities,11,48 oftheTao,131,143 retentionof,125 Qi(WarringStateskingdom),4,5 Qian,Mt.,23 Qiaoling,93 QinFirstEmperor(Shihuangdi),20 QinGao,29 Qingwugong,82 QiongShu,20,21 Qionglong,Mt.,192n.17(102) quartz,white,6567 QueenMotheroftheWest(xiwangmu),81 Quegushiqipian,5 R rainbowelixir,93 rapeturnipseeds,22 rapture,147148,150151 realgar,22 RealmofDesires,134,147,148 RealmofForms,134 redchild,56 "redflowerpills,"22 RedRealmoftheYellowBook,methodofthe,7778 reincarnation,40,42,7374,82,96,101,102103,104,105,122,134,141,151,155,156,161,163,165 equatingimmortalitywith,1213 foreignersintoChinese,152 Lingbaotheoryof,123,128 andhereditarymeritinShangqingdoctrine,186n.45(82) remorse,147,149,155 repentance,147,163 resurrection,8,40,6667,126128,150 reticence,18 retreats(zhai),65,86,9192,9697,99,101,103,106,108,130,165 communalvs.personal,112 oftheLingbaomovement,112121,155 perpetual,103,104,112,115 whentocarryout,112113 RetreatofSmearingSoot(TutanZhai),120 rice,61,63 ritualpiety,117,119120,147148,150151,155 RiverSpirit,135 roads,worshipof,136 Robinet,Isabelle,70,72,88,92 Rong(western"barbarian")region,135,136 Rongchenggong,16 rougheating,116 rush,22 S SacredLord,87 saintlyidealofLingbaomovement,96105,111 salivaswallowing,11,2223,5556,57,59,76,79,91,114,116,154 salvationfornonascetics,9091 samsara,111,119,121,144,155,158 Sandongjingshumulu,190n.1(95) Sandongzhunang,18,31,51,52,65,66,72 Sanhuangwen,5859,6768,164,180n.28(58) sarira,138 scallion,22 scripturerecitation,91,113,114,117 "SectiononPovertyandFrugality"(pinjianpin),18,31 selfburningbyChineseBuddhists,140 selfcremation,2829,93,101,131,135,137,141,145,151 selfdrowning,28,29,93,131,141 selfflagellation,8,146,149,151 selfhumiliation,118121,155 selfimposedpoverty,1,18,3335,97,104,153,157 selfmutilation,131,132,136,137,138,146,149,151 byChineseBuddhists,140 sesame,oil,65,66 seeds,22,41,45,60 sexualdesire,astheworstkindofdesire,74 exploitedbydemons,85 methodforeliminating7677

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sexualintercourse dangersof65,76,7778,108 betweendemonsandhumans,133 sexualyoga(fangzhongshu),5,1617,23,159 shallots,65,66 Shanmountains,37,71 Shangpinjiejing,99100,163 Shangqingapocrypha,7188,92 Shangqingdaoleishixiang,31 Shangqingdongzhenzhihuiguanshendajiewen,106,164 Shangqingmanuscripts,37 authorshipandtransmissionof,7072 Shangqingmovement,7,41,56,58,6993,127,154 fastingpotionsof,6467 Shangqingrevelations,69,70,72 ShangqingSchool,72 ShangqiuZixu,24 Shanxiu,King,130 SheZheng,25,32 Shenxianshiqijinguimiaolu,58 Shenxianzhuan,1530,58,65 authorshipof,15 ShiDaowei,192n.17(102) shiguitree,22 Shiji(ChroniclesoftheHistorian),4 Shijing(BookofPoetry),5 Shu(region),27 Shu(ThreeKingdomsstate),10 shuplant(atractylodesmacrocephala),41 Shuangling,49 Shujing(BookofHistory),5 Shun,Emperor,32 shunningofliquids,45 SimaJizhu,93 SimaQian,4 SimeontheStylite,910 Sishierzhangjing(FortytwoChapterSutra),7374,154,183n.17(73) SixBowels,125 SixCorpses,76 SixHeavens,86,87,88,133,188n.77(88) SixRetreatsoftheYear,108,113 sixsenses,108 sixtimesofworship,117,121 sky,worshipofthe,139 slappingofcheeks,118119,120,155 sleepavoidance,1,8,12,33,34,49,76,84,121,153,159 SmallVehicle(Hinayana),96,98 smearingwithsoot(tutan),119121,155 SnowyMountains,youthsfromthe,144146 Song,Mt.,21,23,81,82 SongYuxian,36,3738 Songgao,Mt.SeeSong,Mt. souls,Chinese/Taoisttheorieson,7 SouthernPalaceofFire(Zhuling),8182,128,164 soybeans,63 spiritandmatter.Seemindandbody spleen,48 sravaka,200n.41(145) stalactite,20,22,25 stars,53 worshipof,139 stealing,107 stonegrease,22,23 storyofthebarbarianinvasion,148152 storyoftheconversionofthedemons,146148 storyofthewitheredtree,81 Strickmann,Michel,39,70,92 stupas,138 SuE,140 suckingonaseed,59 suffering,73,74,81,9697,119,120,141 Suishu,139 suicide,12,2829,9293,131,132,136,138,144,145,146,149,151,154,156 sulphur,22 Sumeru,Mt.,137 sun,53,76,79,111,118,141 imbibingessencesof,2223,62,79,126,163 worshipof,136,139 SunDeng,19,32 SunEn,13,29 SunQuan,63 SunYouyue,72 SunayamaMinoru,115 SuperiorVows,99100

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SuperiorWorthies,78 suppressionofTaoism,3839 T Tai,Mt.,55 Taiguang,49 Taihangmountainrange,62 Taihuashoushijing,48 Taijiyinzhubaojue,112,113114,164 Taijizuoxiangongqingwenjingshang,164 Taipingyulan,52,72 Taiqing,83,104,127 Taishangdongxuanlingbaojieyebenxingshangpinmiaojing,100 Taishangdongxuanlingbaomieduwulianshengshimiaojing,127128 Taishangdongxuanlingbaozhihuishangpindajie,163 "Taishangjushengyuzhuwushiyingfa,"65 TaishangLaojun,77 Taishangshengxuanjing,46 Taishangxuanyizhenrenshuomiaotongzhuanshenrudingmiaojing,164165 Taishangxuanyizhenrenshuosantuwukuquanjiejing,111,164 Taishangzhutianlingshudumingjing,100,164 Taishi,Mt.,20 Taisuzhuan,65 Taiwan,157 Taiyuan,23 talismans,54,99,162 ofthesixJia,41 swallowingof,11,2223,5859,126,154 writingof,113 TangGongfang,27 TantricBuddhism,138 Tao,ashighestdeity,109 asnonbeing,124 asobjectofdevotion,148 aspersonaldeity,165 astruefatherandmother,122,123 hearingthe,151 intheLaozi,6 loveofthe,124 mergingwiththe,116 powerofthe,148,151 seeingthe,146,151 withinthebody,124125 TaoDan,41 TaoHongjing,28,41,7172,74 TaoistBuddhistrivalry,7,130,138,145 Taoistphilosophy,1,23 linkagewithimmortalitybeliefs,56 teeth,knockingof,45,76 temptations,8490,154 tenevils,151 TenRetreatsoftheMonth,113 TenSufferings(shiku),118,195n.37(118) TenSuperiorPreceptsofWisdom,127 TheravadaBuddhism,98 threecategoriesofgentlemen,103105 ThreeCorpses,46,76,86,114 ThreeHeavens,188n.77(88) ThreeOfficials,78,90,125,184n.32(78) ThreeOnes,114 ThreeOrigins,116 ThreePalaces(elixirfields),107,111,125 ThreePoisons,110 ThreePureRealms(sanqing),188n.77(88) ThreeRealms,119,195n.39(119) ThreeVehicles,144,145,200n.41(145) ThreeWorms,46,49,6061,65,110,144 tianmendong(asparaguscochinchinensis),22,61 tianshen.SeeGodoftheHeavens Tiantai,Mt.,96,113,161,165 Tiewei,Mt.,136,137 trances,8,11,24,48,4950,53,61,6768,70,7879,80,113114,137 transcendence,yearningfor,10,1213 transcendencevs.longevity.Seelongevityvs.transcendence transgressions,113,119,123,146,147,148,149,155 trials,73,154 bydemons,8586 byDemonKings,89 bydivinebeings,86 intheShangqingtexts,8286 intheShenxianzhuan,2528 tukahoe(fuling,pachymacocos),45,64 Tunajing,51,5253,86 turtlebrains,22 tutan.Seesmearingwithsoot TutanZhai.SeeRetreatofSmearingSoot U universalsalvation,9596,98,104,106,107,117,118121 upasatha,112

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urine,45,52 UrsaMajor,118 utopia,87 V vegetarianism,35,36,3839,81,108,110,112,115,157 VenerableLordofCinnabarNuminosity,127 venison,dried,115 visions,24,70,72,85,89,110,113,137,145,146 visualization,11,2224,48,4950,5658,71,77,79,91,93,111,114,126,154,162 methodforidentifyingfemaledemons,85 vitalenergy(jingqi),51,52 W walkingcorpses,143 WangBao.SeePerfectedManQingxu WangChang,25,26 WangChong,56,4344 WangChongyang,20,157,159 WangDaolian,36 WangFu,200n.40(145) WangGongchao,121 WangJian,33 WangLong,161 WangQinruo,13,170n.37(13) WangXuanhe,18,31 WangZiqiao,43,44 wastes,purgingof,45,46,47,52 water,andfasting,22,24 worshipof,136,145 WaterImmortal(shuixian,29 WaterKalpa,131 WayoftheFireBells,143 WayofLife,133 Wei(region),20 Wei(ThreeKingdomsstate),10,19 wei("weft")apocrypha,54,179n.19(54) WeiBoyang,1112,27,28 WeiHuacun,69,78 Weishu,139 Weiyu,Mt.,82 wheat,157 WhiteCloudMonastery,157 whiterocks,17,64,6567,127 wickedreligion(s),131,132,133,135,137 identityof,138142 wildernessseclusion,1,2021,62,7981,97,104,105,110,153 wind,worshipof,136 WoQuan,20 wombbreathing(taixi),23,44,45,47,55 Wombeating,116 women,avoidanceof,76,108 wood,worshipof,136 WorldofQixian,130,132 worldlycorpses,88 WorthyGodoftheSouthernExtreme,101 Wu(region),70,121 Wu(ThreeKingdomsstate),10,25,63 Wudang,Mt.,157 Wufuxu,67,87,93 drugrecipes6063 onimbibingtheFiveQi,5456 onimbibingessencesofsun,moonandpolestar,5657 Wuling,23 Wushangbiyao,58,106 WushangZhai.SeePeerlessRetreat wuxing.Seefiveagents X xenophobia,135,144,145,146,152 Xian,19 XiaoZheng,41 Xiaofu,29 Xiaomojing,8586 Xiayang,84 XinXuanzi,81,90 XinYin,81 Xinyu,4 Xishengjing,194n.34(116),200n.42(145) Xiuyanggong,20,21 XuHui,41,70,72,82,83,92,93 retirementanddivorceof,75 XuLaile,99 XuLingqi,36 XuMai,41 XuMi,41,70,72,7879,82,87 XuMingye,36 XuShizi,36

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Xuanmendalun,115116 Xuanmendayi,115 Xuanyiquanjiefalunmiaojing,103105,164165 XueL,186n.45(82) xunfan,6465,180n.33(64) Xunfanlingfang,6465 Y Yan(Warringstateskingdom),4 YanJizhi,35 YangNine,131 YangXi,69,70,71,72,78,80,82,85,88,92 Yao,Emperor,32 yazatas,139 yeast,61 YellowCourt(huangting),57 YellowEmperor(huangdi),5,28,93 yellowessence,57 YellowRiver,81 YellowTurbanRevolt,6,10 Yijing(BookofChanges),19 YinFaren,36 yinqi(evilenergy),131,132,133 YinSheng,19 YinXi,2223,200n.40(145) Youbouzi,171n.11(18) Youjing,49 Yu,Emperor,35 YuChengxian,35 Yuanyangjing,142,199n.35(142) YueZichang,59 Yuluoqiao,96 Yunjiqiqian,64,66,115,127 Yunmeng,Mt.,36 Yuntai,Mt.,27 Yupeijindangjing,79 Yuqing,126 Yuqingjing,13,42,129152,156,158 authorshipof,129 Yuqingyinshu1and2,8890 Yuzi(ZhangZhen),23,24 Z zhai,definitionsof,112 Zhaijieweiyijue,112113,114115,117118,165 ZhangDaoling,2526,32,77,95,103,173n.41(25),197n.13(132) ZhangGuisun,40 ZhangJue,13 ZhangLu,121 ZhangMin,36,3940,4142 ZhangTai,192n.17(102) ZhangXuanche,40 ZhangYu,36 ZhangYunzhi,36 ZhangZe,35 ZhangZhen.SeeYuzi zhanglu.Seepokeroot Zhao(region),29 ZhaoChengzi,6667 ZhaoKangzi,84 ZhaoSheng,2527 Zhaoling,134 Zhendingguang,96 ZhengSiyuan,192n.17(102) ZhengRenan,127 Zhengao,28,65,41,72,73,77 ZhengyiSchool,157 Zhenji,71 Zhenlingweiyetu,193n.20(104) Zhenyanschool(TantricBuddhist),138 Zhenyiquanjiefalunmiaojing,9697,99,113,164,165 zhi(fungi),17 zhiplant(irisflorentia),22 Zhihuishangpindajie,163,165 Zhiqian,101,192n.17(102),193n.21(105) Zhonghuangjing,52,53,67,86 authorshipof44 fastingregimenof,4451 Zhongshan,83 Zhongtianyujing,51 ZhouZiliang,92 Zhoushimingtongji,39 Zhouyicantongqi,1112,27 authorshipof,170n.33(11) zhu(atractylodesmacrocephala),22,24 ZhuFalan,192n.17(102) ZhuSengbiao,71 Zhuangzi,2,8,35 andasceticism,3 authorshipof,167n.3(2) ''evening

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thingsout",3 ondeathandimmortality,3 thedaemonicman,4 Zhuanxu,Emperor,32 ZhuoRiver,29 Zoroastrianism,139140,142 ZouRong,36 Zuigendajiejing,105,106107,165166 Zrcher,Erik,72