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LECTURE 1

Structure: A system of connected parts used to support loads. (e.g.
buildings, bridges, tanks, pressure vessels, etc.). The parts comprising
the structure are called members.

Structural Analysis: The process of determining the performance of a
given structure under specific loads. The performance characteristics
that are usually of interest are: a) stresses or internal forces, b)
deflections and c) reactions.

Types of structural analysis:
i) Classical (good for hand calculations/small structures)
ii) Matrix (good for use of computers)
In this course, we will focus on matrix methods of analysis.

A famous method used today by most (if not all) computer programs is
the Finite Element Method, which can be seen as an extension of
matrix structural analysis and can be applied for any kind of structure
(frame, plate, shell, 3d solid body, etc.)

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In this course, we will focus on framed structures: structures
composed of line members, that is straight members whose lengths are
significantly greater than their cross sectional dimensions.


There are two types of framed structures that we will examine
throughout the course:
Truss: A structure consisting of straight prismatic members
connected at their ends by frictionless hinged joints (joint=the
point at which members are connected). The truss members only
develop axial forces (forces parallel to the member).
Frame: A structure consisting of beams, i.e. straight prismatic
members which develop axial forces, shear forces and bending
moments.


Truss

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Frame

The end-points of the members are also called nodes.

Example:


In the analysis of a structure, we will be using 3 basic principles:
- Equilibrium: the sum of the forces and of moments with respect
to any point must be equal to zero.
- Compatibility: the displacements must satisfy some continuity
requirements.
- Constitutive equations: these are equations describing the
behavior of the material in a member. They relate a force
measure (axial force, bending moment, stress etc.) to a
corresponding deformation measure (axial strain, curvature,
etc.).
Examples (linear elastic): M = EI (Euler-Bernoulli beam), =
node 1 node 2
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Also, throughout the class, we will be making the assumption of small
(infinitesimal) displacements: the deformations in the structures will
be small, so that we can examine the equilibrium in the undeformed
structure.



Solution of structural analysis problems based on governing
differential equations.

The approach is as follows: first of all, we take (cut) a piece of the
member (truss of frame), with length equal to dx 0. We then write
down the equilibrium equations for the internal forces in this piece,
thus obtaining differential equations of equilibrium. If we want the
equations to be written with respect to the deformations in the
structure, we must use the constitutive equations, too, so that the
equilibrium equations will have terms depending on the deformations,
instead of the forces.

Example: Truss member with variable cross section.
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Note that w
x
(x) is a force per unit length.

Take a segment of the member, with length equal to x:


Establish equilibrium for the segment:
N + dN N + w
x
dx = 0 dN + w
x
dx = 0

Then, if we divide all terms by dx we have:

x
dN
w 0
dx
+ =
(1)

This is the differential equation of equilibrium for a truss member
under a distributed axial load. If we now need to express the
differential equation of equilibrium with respect to the axial
deformation, u, we use the compatibility equation:

du

dx
=
(2)
x
w
x
(x)
N(x+dx) = N+dN
N(x)=N
w
x
(x)
dx
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and the constitutive equation for a truss member made of linearly
elastic material
N A A = = (3)
If we now substitute the constitutive equation, (3), and the
compatibility equation, (2), in the differential equation (1), we have:
x
d du
EA w 0
dx dx
| |
+ =
|
\

which is the differential equation or equilibrium for a truss member
with respect to the axial deformations. The axial force can be
determined from the axial deformation field using the constitutive
equation:
du
N EA EA
dx
= =



The differential equation of equilibrium can be solved if we add the
appropriate boundary conditions (BC). The first boundary condition is
that the axial displacement must be zero at x=0 (left support). Thus:
u(x = 0) = 0
Boundary conditions related to the displacement field or its derivatives
are called essential or geometric BC.

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The other boundary condition has to do with the right end of the
member, x = L. There is no prescribed value for u or its derivative at
this end, so the boundary condition will include the force applied at
this end. For the specific example, no force is applied, so we simply
need to account for the fact that a zero force is applied at x =0. To
accomplish this we make a cut very close (at a practically zero
distance) from the end of the member, and take the equilibrium of
forces:



The equilibrium of this piece of the bar gives:

N (x = L) = N(L) = 0, and if we introduce the constitutive equation, we
can express this BC with respect to the deformation:
x=L
du
EA 0
dx
(
=
(


Boundary conditions which have to do with prescribed forces (zero or
nonzero) are called natural BC.


N(x = L)
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Example: Prof. Contes notes, p. 1-3.

The central idea of matrix structural analysis is that we formulate the
analysis equations with respect to the quantities (forces and
displacements) at the NODES.



Example Truss member


Nodal axial forces:
1
2
F
F

`
)
, axial nodal displacements:
1
2

`
)


The key ingredient is the determination and use of matrices which
convert the nodal displacements into nodal forces:

| |
1 1
2 2
F
k
F

=
` `
) )

The matrix [k] is called the member stiffness matrix.
F
1
F
2
u
1
u
2
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Physical meaning of term k
ij
of the stiffness matrix: force developed
in direction i due to a unit displacement in direction j.

The stiffness matrix of a member can be determined through the
solution of a set of appropriate differential equations. More
specifically, to determine the j-th column of the stiffness matrix, we
solve the boundary value problem where u
j
= 1 and all the other
displacements are equal to zero.

The stiffness matrix of a member is symmetric.

** The sum of all the elements on each column of the stiffness matrix
is equal to zero (WHY?).