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Curtin University of Technology Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Design 337

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN


REQUIREMENTS AND CONSIDERATIONS

Lecture WK-1

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

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INTRODUCTION

Essentially, design is the process of problem solving. The primary objective of any engineering design project is to fulfil the human need or desire. Professional engineers are concerned with obtaining solutions to practical problems. Such problems occur in a wide range of types and their degree of complexity also varies. The real challenge is to transform the customers needs and expectations into technical specifications in an efficient and professional manner. This is a complex undertaking, requiring many skills. The provided solutions must reflect an accurate understanding of customer needs and the underlying science. Such solutions also require empirical knowledge as well as engineering judgement. Figure 1.1 shows the basic steps involved in the design process.

Figure 1.1: The design process [2]

Mechanical Design
As shown in Figure 1.2, there are many subfields that are part of the overall domain of the problem solving process mechanical design is one of those. The field of mechanical engineering is divided into two broad areas 1) Energy and 2) Structures and motion. The term mechanical design refers to design in mechanical engineering systems in which both stems of mechanical engineering can be involved, whereas the field of machine design is a subset of mechanical design in which the focus is on the structures and motion stems only.

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Figure 1.2: Design Horizons [2] For example, the design of heat exchangers, air compressors and internal combustion engines are examples of mechanical design, because those devices depend on the use of technical material from heat transfer, thermodynamics, and combustion. These topic areas are related to the energy domain of mechanical engineering. On the other hand, the designs of a gear box, a V-belt drive system, or a machine structure fall under machine design category because they draw on technical material from strength of materials, solid body mechanics, kinematics and dynamics. These technical materials are all connected to the structures and motion stem of mechanical engineering [2].

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Most of the design problems in mechanical engineering do not have a single right answer. Consider, for example, the problem of designing a household washing machine. There are endless alternatives when it comes to the possible number of workable designs and none of which could be called an incorrect answer. Obviously, some of the answers are better than others because they incorporate a more sophisticated knowledge of the underlying technology, a more creative concept of basic design, a more effective and economic utilization of existing production technology, a more pleasing aesthetic appearance, and so on. Therefore, design engineers are required to carefully review the relevant design factors before proposing a solution to a particular design problem. These considerations include issues, such as functionality, reliability and maintainability etc. In addition to the
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traditional technological and economic considerations fundamental to the design and development of mechanical systems, the broader considerations of safety, ecology, and overall quality of life are also required to be addressed. The following is a list of many of the important factors, which play a fundamental role in achieving a good design [3]. They are not necessarily in the order of importance. Functionality Strength/stress Distortion/deflection/stiffness Wear Corrosion Safety Reliability Manufacturability Utility Cost Friction Weight Life Noise Styling Shape Size Control Thermal properties Surface Lubrication Marketability Maintenance Volume Liability Remanufacturing / resource recovery

Most engineering designs involve a huge range of considerations, and it is a challenge to the engineer to recognize all of them in proper proportion. Following is a summary of some of the major categories involved. Traditional Considerations Materials Geometry Operating conditions Cost Availability Producibility Component life Modern Considerations Safety Ecology Quality of life Miscellaneous Considerations Reliability Maintainability Ergonomics Aesthetics

Some of these categories and other design considerations are further discussed in the following sections [2, 4, 5].

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The mathematical relationships used in designing are derived for an idealized material, which is assumed to posses the following properties: a) Perfect Elasticity A perfectly elastic material will return to its original shape immediately upon removal of the loads. If a material doesnt have this property, then the mathematical equations, in many cases, become too complex for practical calculations. However, it should be noted that there may be a considerable variation between the actual stresses in the body and the stresses obtained from equations for an idealized substance.

2.1

Material considerations

b) Homogeneity A homogeneous part/component is one that has the same properties throughout its entire extent. c) Isotropy An isotropic material is one in which the elastic properties are the same in all directions.

2.2

Safety and liability considerations

The strict liability concept of product liability generally prevails in most of the developed countries. This concept states that the producer of an article is liable for any damage or harm that results because of the defect. It doesnt matter whether the manufacturer knew about the defect, or even could have known about it. The best way to prevent the product liability problems is to adopt good engineering in analysis and design, quality control, and comprehensive testing procedures. The followings are some of the techniques to improve product safety [4]: a). Safety awareness

The important first step in developing engineering competence in the safety area is cultivating an awareness of its importance. All engineers and technicians, who are involved in the design process, must be aware of the significance of the safety of the products they are delivering.
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b).

Imagination and Ingenuity

The design engineer must be imaginative and ingenious to anticipate potentially hazardous situations relating to a product. The old saying that anything that can happen probably will happen sooner or later is relevant. c). Techniques and guidelines Review the total life cycle of the product from initial production to final disposal, with an eye toward uncovering significant hazards. Various stages of product life cycle, such as manufacturing, transporting, storing, installing, using, and servicing, should be kept in mind when analysing the product safety attributes. Safety provisions should represent a balanced approach. Safety should be regarded as an integral feature of the basic design. Where possible, a fail sale design should be used. Adherence to government and industry standards should be ensured. Warnings of all significant hazards that remain after the design has been made as safe as reasonable possible should be provided.

The following techniques can be used to improve the safety of a product.

2.3

Ecological considerations

Making a product environmentally-friendly is another very important design aspect that needs to be considered right at the early stages of product development. The basic ecological objectives of mechanical engineering are: to utilize materials so that they are economically recyclable within reasonable time periods without causing objectionable air and water pollution to minimise the rate of consumption of non-recycled energy resources (such as fossil fuels) both to conserve these resources and to minimise thermal pollution

Ecological factors are much more difficult for the design engineer to tie down than are such matters as stress and deflection. The following suggestions are useful to be considered. I. Consider all aspects of the basic design objective involved, to be sure that it is environmentally safe. II. Consider design for recycling.
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III. Select environmentally-friendly materials IV. Select green manufacturing processes. V. Where possible, use reusable packaging

2.4

Ecological assessment and analysis

There are several tools, such as life cycle assessment (LCA), available for the environmental performance evaluation of products and services. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool that can be used to evaluate the environmental impact of a product, service, or activity throughout its life cycle. It can be employed to identify environmental hot spots in a product's life cycle and to select new environmentally optimised solutions for new products. The LCA consists of the following four major steps: Goal definition and scope Inventory analysis Impact assessment Interpretation of results Figure 1.3 shows a generalized arrangement of the four phases of LCA. Goal Definition and Scope

Inventory Analysis

Interpretation

Impact Assessment

Figure 1.3: Generalized framework of LCA [6]

308803 Mechanical Design 337

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2.4.1

Goal definition and scope

This phase is aimed at defining and describing processes, activities, materials, new and old parts used in the manufacturing, packaging, transportation, distribution, use, maintenance and end-of-life treatment of a product. As shown in Figure 1.4, the inputs and environmental impact associated with each of the product life cycle are identified. Measurement units, key assumptions, boundaries and likely limitations are also defined for each of the identified processes and activities.

Materials

Manufacturing

Assembly

Packaging

Transportation

Distribution

Use/ Maintenance

End-of-life

Figure 1.4: Environmental assessment inputs and outs

2.4.2

Inventory analysis

In this stage of LCA, detailed information and data on all the direct and indirect environmental inputs and outputs are gathered. This includes: raw materials (virgin / recycled) energy consumed emissions to air and water waterborne wastes co-products solid waste (from processes and products) and other environmental releases

OUTPUTS (Environmental impacts)

INPUTS (Materials and Energy)

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2.4.3

Impact assessment

In this phase of the assessment, the inventory results are interpreted into potential impacts. Basically, these interpretations reflect the entities, which are to be protected by the impact assessment study. These entities include human health, ecosystem health and the resource base. For the impact assessment phase, the following four steps are recommended [6-8]: a) Classification: b) Characterization: c) Normalization: d) Weighting: defining the impact categories quantifying the environmental impacts and impact categories expressing the results of characterization on a common scale to facilitate comparison reflecting the relative significance of impact categories

2.4.4

Interpretation

This is the final step of the life cycle assessment process. The impact assessment results are interpreted along the lines of the defined goal and scope of the study.

2.5

Factor of safety (SF)

The quality of a design can be measured by many criteria. It is always required to calculate one or more factors of safety to estimate the likelihood of failure. There may be legislated, or generally accepted, design codes which must be adhered to as well. A factor of safety or safety factor can be expressed in many ways. It is typically a ratio of two quantities that have the same units, such as strength/stress, critical load/applied load, load to fail part/expected service overload, maximum cycles/applied cycles, or maximum safe speed/operating speed. A safety factor is always unitless and is denoted by SF.

a).

Value of Safety Factor

As a machine or product may have more than one potential mode of failure, therefore, it can have more than one value of safety factor. The smallest value of SF for any component is of greatest concern, since it predicts the most likely mode of failure. When SF = 1, the stress in the part is equal to the strength of the material and failure occurs. Therefore, the factor of safety should always be greater than 1.

b).

Choosing a Safety Factor

Choosing an appropriate safety factor is very important and requires a thorough understanding and assessment of the related factors. The safety factor can be thought of as a

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measure of the designers uncertainty in the available data, analytical models, failure theories and the material property data. How much greater than one SF must be depends on many factors including: the level of confidence in the model on which the calculations are based the knowledge of the range of possible in-service loading conditions the level of confidence in the available material strength information consequence of failure human safety and economics cost of providing a large safety factor

Table 1.1 provide guidelines for the choice of a safety factor for ductile materials. Table 1.1: Factors used to determine a safety factor for ductile materials [5]

The overall safety factor is taken as the largest of the three factors chosen. Due to the uncertainties involved, a safety factor typically should not be taken to more than one decimal place accuracy.

SF ductile = MAX (F1, F2, F3)

As brittle materials are designed against the ultimate strength, so failure means fracture (without visible warning of failure before fracture), therefore the safety factor for brittle

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materials is often made twice that which would be used for ductile material in the same conditions. SF brittle = 2 x MAX (F1, F2, F3) Table 1.2 provides more information on the recommended values for a safety factor. The method of determining a safety factor are only guidelines to obtain a starting point and is obviously subject to the judgment of the design engineer in selecting factors in each category. Table 1.2: Recommended values for a safety factors [4]

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2.6

System of units

There are three most commonly used systems of units, as shown in Table 1.3. Table 1.3: English, British and SI Units [4]

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a).

BASIC RELATIONSHIPS
Work and Energy

Work done W = Force x distance = FS Where s is the distance through which force is applied. Figure 1.5 shows a wheel being turned by a tangential force F acting at radius R. Let the wheel rotate through q revolutions. Then the work done, W, is given by W = F (2R) (q) = FS

Figure 1.5: Wheel being turned by a tangential force F [4] The torque produce by the force F is give by T=FxR

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Suppose the wheel is rotated through an angle by applying the torque T. Then the work done, W, is given by W = T OR W = FR In SI system, the unit for work is newton.meter (Nm), called the Joule. The work done is also expressed as Kinetic Energy, Potential Energy or Internal Energy. The total amount of energy is conserved in all transfers.

b).

Power

The rate of energy transfer by work is called power and is denoted by . It is given by =FV In SI units, the unit for power is Watt (Joule/s), which is the same as 1 N.m/s. Furthermore: 1 Revolution = 2 radians 60 sec = 1 minute 1000 W = 1 KW Then the power in kilowatt is determined by the relationship as shown in Table 1.4

Table 1.4: Power in Kilowatts [4]

c). Conservation of Energy When there is no mass transfer across the boundaries of the system, the conservation of energy would be represented by the relationship, as shown in Table 1.5.

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Table 1.5: Conversation of energy [4]

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DESIGN TESTING AND VALIDATION

The traditional methods and techniques of stress and deflection analysis are primarily applicable to parts that are made up of simple geometric shapes, such as cylinders, rectangular or triangular prisms. However, many real machine parts have more complicated geometric forms; making accurate calculations of stress and deflection are difficult and even impossible with classical techniques. For example, analysing the stress and deflection in a part like the crankshaft, as shown in Figure 1.6, becomes difficult because of the highly intricate nature of the part. Such problems make the conventional methods highly laborious, inefficient and difficult to apply.

Figure 1.6: Crankshaft of a diesel-truck engine [5] These types of objects can be divided into finite number of contiguous and discrete elements, as shown in Figure 1.7. Then a large set of equations is developed, each of which is applied to an element and to the nodes that connect the elements. These equations are subsequently solved simultaneously to analyse the stresses and deflections. This method is known as Finite Element Analysis (FEA).

Figure 1.7: Finite element method of an engine piston, connecting rod, and crankshaft [5]

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The mathematical theory behind FEA is beyond the scope of this unit, and is covered in a number of books. This topic is also covered in detail in the unit titled Finite Element Analysis 431.

THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD


Finite element analysis is a numerical technique and is well suited to digital computing machines. The FEA is based on the formation of a simultaneous set of algebraic equations relating forces to corresponding displacements at discrete preselected points (called nodes) on the structure. These mathematical equations, also referred to as force displacement relations, are expressed in matrix notation. As stress varies throughout the continuum of any part, dividing the part into a finite number of discrete elements connected together at their nodes (called a mesh) provides an approximation of the stress and strain within the part for any given set of boundary conditions and load applied at various nodes in the structure. The approximation can be improved by using more elements of smaller size at the expense of increased computation time. The computation time has been reduced remarkably because of the development of very high speed computing machines. An important part of the designers work is to choose an appropriate type, number and distribution of elements to optimize the trade-off between accuracy and computation time. Large elements can be used in regions of the part where stress gradient varies slowly. In regions where the stress changes rapidly, such as near stress concentrations or applied loads and boundary conditions, a finer mesh is needed. This is shown in Figure 1.8, in which the mesh density varies in different regions of the part.

Figure 1.8: High density of elements near regions of high stress concentrations [3]

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The basic procedure for stress analysis using FE method include the following steps [4]: I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Dividing the part into discrete elements Defining the properties of each element Assembling the element stiffness matrix Applying known external loads at nodes Specifying part support conditions Solving the system of simultaneous algebraic equations Calculating stresses in each element

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

REFERENCES
Earle, J.H., Engineering Design Graphics. 12th ed. 2007: Pearson Prentice Hall. Spotts, M.F., T.E. Shoup, and L.E. Hornberger, Design of Machine Elements. Eighth ed. 2004: Pearson Prentice Hall. Budynas, R.G. and J.K. Nisbett, Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design. Eighth ed. 2008: McGraw Hill. Juvinall, R.C. and K.M. Marshek, Fundamentals of Machine Component Design. Fourth ed. 2006: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Norton, R.L., Machine Design: An Integrated Approach. Third ed. 2006: Pearson Prentice Hall. Westkmper, E., L. Alting, and G. Arndt, Life cycle management and assessment: approaches and visions towards sustainable manufacturing. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part B-Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 2001. 215(B5 ): p. 599 - 626. Craighill, A.L. and C.J. Powell, A life cycle assessment and economic evaluation of recycling : a case study. 1995, Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment (CSERGE). p. 1 - 28. Rebitzer, G., et al., Life cycle assessment: Part 1: Framework, goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, and applications Environment International, 2004. 30(5): p. 701 - 720.

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8.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q1: Q2: Q3: Q4: Q5: Q6: Q7: Q8: What are the steps involved in the design process of a product? Draw a sketch to illustrate the relationship between these steps. Differentiate between Mechanical Design and Machine Design. Define Homogeneity and Isotropy. What is LCA? Draw a sketch to demonstrate the relationship between different phases of LCA? What is the purpose of Inventory analysis in LCA? Define factor of safety. Usually, the FoS for brittle materials is made twice that would be used for ductile materials in the same conditions. Why? What is FEA?

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