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Solar Energy Vol. 66, No. 5, pp. 325335, 1999 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd S 0 0 3 8 0 9 2 X ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 3 5 3 All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain 0038-092X / 99 / $ - see front matter

MULTILEVEL CONVERTERS FOR SINGLE-PHASE GRID CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS: AN OVERVIEW

MARTINA CALAIS* ,, , VASSILIOS G. AGELIDIS** and MIKE MEINHARDT*** ,
*Curtin University of Technology, Centre for Renewable Energy Systems Technology Australia (CRESTA), GPO Box U 1987, Perth 6845, Western Australia, Australia **Curtin University of Technology, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, GPO Box U 1987, Perth 6845, Western Australia, Australia ***PEI Technologies, National Microelectronics Research Centre (NMRC), Lee Maltings, Cork, Ireland Received 9 October 1998; revised version accepted 28 March 1999 Communicated by ROBERT HILL

AbstractMultilevel voltage source inverters offer several advantages compared to their conventional counterparts. By synthesising the AC output terminal voltage from several levels of DC voltages, staircase waveforms can be produced, which approach the sinusoidal waveform with low harmonic distortion, thus reducing lter requirements. The need of several sources on the DC side of the converter makes multilevel technology attractive for photovoltaic applications. This paper provides an overview on different multilevel topologies and investigates their suitability for single-phase grid connected photovoltaic systems. Several transformerless photovoltaic systems incorporating multilevel converters are compared regarding issues such as component count and stress, system power rating and the inuence of the photovoltaic array earth capacitance. 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. INTRODUCTION

Grid connected photovoltaic (PV) systems, in particular low power, mostly single-phase PV rooftop systems and their contribution to clean power generation are recognised more and more worldwide. Grid connected PV rooftop systems are generally privately owned, single-phase systems in a power range of up to 10 kW. The main aim of a private operator who owns such a system is to maximise its energy yield. Issues such as low cost, reliability, long life time (20 years and longer), high (part-load-) efciency and good environmental conditions (availability of solar radiation) are hence of importance to the private operator. Other important requirements for these PV systems (see Fig. 1) are the fulllment of standards concerning power quality, electromagnetic compatibility, acoustic noise limitations as well as safety and protection requirements. The rst commercially available grid connected PV inverters were line commutated inverters. These were followed by self commutated, pulse

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 161-8-9266-3369; fax: 161-8-9266-3107; e-mail: pcalaism@cc.curtin.edu.au ISES Member. 325

width modulation (PWM) inverters including either line or high frequency transformers, often incorporating several stages of power conversion (Hotopp, 1996). Newest trends in this eld are string based units with a power rating around 1 kW (Keller et al., 1997; Schmid and Kleinkauf, 1997) and transformerless concepts (Gru et al., 1997; Meinhardt and Mutschler, 1995; Shinohara et al., 1994). For larger systems the overall efciency can be increased through application of several small string inverters replacing a single unit which avoids losses through module mismatch and decreases the DC wiring effort. Transformerless concepts (in particular inverters with high input voltages) are advantageous regarding their high efciencies. Their peak efciencies of up to 97% are equivalent to efciencies reached in drives applications (Keller et al., 1997). Avoiding the transformer has the additional benets of reducing cost, size, weight and complexity of the inverter. However, the removal of the transformer and hence its isolation capability has to be considered carefully. Multilevel converter technology is based on the synthesis of the AC voltage from several different voltage levels on the DC bus. As the number of voltage levels on the DC side increases, the synthesised output waveform adds more steps, producing a staircase wave which approaches the

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Fig. 1. Issues regarding grid connected PV systems.

sinusoidal wave with minimum harmonic distor tion (Bhagwat and Stefanovic, 1983). Multilevel converters are particularly interesting for high power applications such as Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) since the need of lters is reduced and the efciency is high because all devices switch at fundamental frequency (Lai and Peng, 1996; Peng et al., 1996). In low power applications where switching frequencies are not as restricted as in high power applications various control methods such as multi-carrier pulse width modulation or multiple hysteresis band control methods can be used to further reduce harmonics in the stepped waveforms (Agelidis et al., 1997; Marchesoni, 1992). Multilevel converter topologies are especially suitable for PV applications since due to the modular structure of PV arrays different DC voltage levels can easily be provided. This paper provides an overview on various multilevel topologies which have been suggested or are considered for (transformerless), singlephase grid connected PV systems. Each topology is briey described, listing advantages and disadvantages regarding issues such as component count and stress, system power rating and the inuence of the photovoltaic array earth capacitance. Due to quick voltage and current transitions most power electronic equipment emits disturbances which propagate either by conduction or radiation. In transformerless systems leakage currents due to the photovoltaic array earth capacitance can additionally occur and increase electromagnetic emissions (both conducted and radiated). Since the paper focuses on transformerless systems the issue of leakage currents in transformerless photovoltaic systems will be discussed rst.

2. LEAKAGE CURRENTS IN TRANSFORMERLESS PV SYSTEMS

Avoiding the transformer in PV inverter topologies results in a galvanic connection of the grid and the PV array. Due to the capacitance between the PV array and earth, potential differences imposed on the capacitance through switching actions of the inverter inject a capacitive earth current (see Fig. 2). The PV array earth capacitance, Cearth , is then part of a resonant circuit consisting of the PV array, DC and AC lter elements and the grid impedance. Due to necessary efciency optimisation of PV systems the damping of this resonant circuit can be very small so that the earth current can reach amplitudes well above permissible levels. Also, the resonant frequency is not xed due to the varying PV array earth capacitance, which is dependent on environmental conditions. Depending on the topology, switch states and environmental conditions the capacitive earth current can cause more or less severe (conducted and radiated) electromagnetic interference, distortion of the grid current and additional losses in the system. Measures to minimise this current are mentioned in (Meinhardt, 1997; Meinhardt and Mutschler, 1995). Besides the implementation of a special control theory, it is suggested to add passive components to dampen the resonant circuit. The magnitude of the PV array earth capacitance depends on weather conditions and physical structure of the array. It can be estimated according to the physical dimensions of the PV array and its grounded frame area. One electrode of the capacitance is formed by the photovoltaic cells, the other by the grounded frame (see Fig. 3(b)). In the worst case the complete surface of the PV

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Fig. 2. Grid connected PV system without transformer including the PV array earth capacitance.

Fig. 3. (a) Maximum and (b) minimum PV module earth capacitance.

array is covered by a conducting layer (e.g. formed through humidity or dirt) increasing the area of the grounded electrode of the array (see Fig. 3(a)). Table 1 summarises estimates and measurement results of PV module earth capacitances for monocrystalline modules with the following specications and dimensions: Ppeak Cells in series VMPP (258C) 55 W 36 17 V

IMPP (258C) VOC (258C) (Length3width3depth)

3.23 A 21.2 V 1004 mm3448 mm338.5 mm

Table 1. PV module earth capacitances. CPVearth,min Estimated Measured 17.0 pF 110 pF CPVearth,max 6.64 nF 4.2 nF

For the experimental determination of the PV module earth capacitance, a HP 4262 digital LCR Meter was used and connected to the PV module as shown in Fig. 4. Different measurements were performed (measurement frequency: 1 kHz) with up to three modules forming an array, showing that the capacitances add independently of series or parallel connection of the modules. In order to create the worst case, the surface of a PV module was sprayed with salt water and as a result the highest capacitance of 4.2 nF was recorded. The difference between estimated and measured re-

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Fig. 4. PV module earth capacitance measurement.

sults can be explained as follows: The measurement for the lowest capacitance was conducted on a PV module which was not in a perfectly clean condition, resulting in a higher capacitance than estimated. For the measurement of the worst case, the PV module was sprayed with salt water and not completely submerged in salt water, resulting in a lower capacitance than estimated. An analysis of different standards addressing the grounding of PV systems shows that US standards require all exposed, non-current-carrying metal parts to be grounded (National Electrical Code, USA, 1999; The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1998). The European standards (International Electrotechnical Commission, 1997) only require grounding if the following conditions do not apply: The system voltage is equal to or below 50 V (Safety Extra Low Voltage, SELV). The system has an electrical separation. The insulation class is II or equivalent. Where grounding of the frames is a requirement, the PV array earth capacitance needs to be considered in transformerless topologies. Where grounding is not a requirement and / or where frameless modules are used the PV array earth capacitance is reduced in value and hence its inuence will be reduced. However, each PV system will have some PV array earth capacitance which is dependent on its location and environment, and may cause interference.
3. MULTILEVEL INVERTER TOPOLOGIES

3.1. Half-bridge diode clamped

Fig. 5(a) shows a half-bridge diode clamped three-level inverter (HBDC) (Nabae et al., 1981)

as part of a single-phase transformerless grid connected PV system as suggested in (Hinz and Mutschler, 1996). With simultaneous switching on the switches S1 and S2, a positive voltage can be created at the inverter output terminal. A zero output voltage is created by switching on S2 and S3 and a negative voltage is created by switching on S3 and S4 respectively. In order to allow power transfer into the grid, the DC bus voltages VPVA1 and VPVA2 must always be higher than the grid voltage amplitude vgrid . Since currently available PV modules have operating voltages around 17 V a large number of modules is required resulting in a minimum system size of approximately 3 kW. An advantage of this system is that the midpoint of the PV array is grounded which eliminates capacitive earth currents and their negative inuence on the electromagnetic compatibility of the circuit. The half-bridge diode clamped inverter can be expanded from three-levels to ve-levels as shown in Fig. 5(b). Five switch combinations, where four switches are always switched simultaneously, generate ve different voltage levels at the AC output of the inverter, e.g. switching on S1, S2, S3 and S4 at the same time generates VPVA1 1VPVA2 at the AC output, switching on S2, S3, S4 and S5 generates VPVA2 at the AC output and so forth. In Xu (1998) a three phase grid connected PV system using a diode clamped velevel inverter is discussed. By adding more levels on the DC bus, the number of levels of the voltage at the inverter output terminals are also increased. This allows for reduced distortion of the output waveform. To further reduce harmonics an extra degree of freedom is given by choosing the number of cells in series (and thus the

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Fig. 5. Grid connected PV systems with (a) half-bridge diode clamped three-level inverter (HBDC) and (b) half-bridge diode clamped ve-level inverter.

voltages) of the outer PV subarrays (1 and 4) to be different than those of the middle PV subarrays (2 and 3). Drawbacks of this topology, however, are the high number of semiconductor devices required, the DC wiring effort of four PV subarrays, and since the loading of the outer PV subarrays (1 and 4) is different to that of the middle PV subarrays (2 and 3) careful sizing of each PV subarray is necessary to ensure maximum power transfer from each subarray.

3.2. Full-bridge single leg clamped

In Agelidis et al. (1997) and Hinga et al. (1994) a full-bridge single leg switch clamped inverter (SLSC) is described and suggested for residential PV systems. The topology (see Fig. 6(a)) is comprised of a conventional full-bridge (switches Sa1 , Sa2 , Sb1 and Sb2 ) where a bi-directional switch (realised with Sa3 , Sa4 , Da1 and Da2 ) is added controlling current ow to and from the midpoint of the DC bus. When applied in a transformerless PV system, the minimum system size with this topology is approximately 1.5 kW.

A transformerless PV system with similar characteristics can be realised with a full-bridge single leg diode clamped inverter (SLDC) as shown in Fig. 6(b) (Hinga et al., 1994). With the single leg diode clamped conguration the devices Da1 , Da2 , Sa1 , Sa2 , Sa3 and Sa4 all can be rated for half the blocking voltage of switches Sb1 and Sb2 . However, with the single leg switch clamped conguration, this only applies to the devices Da1 , Da2 , Sa3 and Sa4 , and not to Sa1 and Sa2 . In both systems both PV subarrays are symmetrically loaded.

3.3. Cascaded ( CC)

Fig. 7 shows a transformerless grid connected PV system where a cascaded inverter (Marchesoni et al., 1988) is used for DC to AC power conversion. The topology comprises of two fullbridges with their AC outputs connected in series. Each bridge can create three different voltage levels at its AC output allowing for an overall ve-level AC output voltage. The advantage of this topology is the modular character. In Gru et

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Fig. 6. Grid connected PV systems with (a) full-bridge single leg switch clamped inverter (SLSC) and (b) full-bridge single leg diode clamped inverter (SLDC).

al. (1997) the concept is suggested for transformerless PV systems using more than two fullbridges connected in series on the AC side with small DC bus voltages of e.g. 40 V each. High power applications using cascaded inverters are described in (Joos et al., 1997; Peng et al., 1996).

3.4. Step
The step converter (Schmid and Schatzle, 1982) switches PV subarrays of different voltages

to the AC output. In Muller (1994) a topology using ve arrays with nominal voltages of 11 V, 22 V, 44 V, 88 V and 176 V is suggested for a grid connected PV system as shown in Fig. 8. A rst conversion stage generates a rectied AC voltage waveform with 32 different voltage levels, a second conversion stage switches the polarity of every second half-wave generating an AC voltage with 63 different voltage levels. The energy delivered from each of the PV subarrays increases

Fig. 7. Grid connected PV system with a cascaded inverter (CC).

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Fig. 8. Grid connected PV system with a step inverter.

with increasing voltage. Each PV subarray has different sizing requirements in order to ensure maximum power extraction of each individual PV array during operation. A major drawback of this topology is the high and complicated DC wiring effort due to the ve differently sized PV subarrays.

3.5. Magnetic coupled

Fig. 9 shows a single-phase PV system with a magnetic coupled inverter as described in Thomas (1994). The inverter consists of three full-bridges each with their midpoints connected to a primary winding of a transformer. The secondary windings of the transformers are connected in series. Due to different turn ratios of each of the transformers and the ability of each full-bridge to create three

different voltages across the primary winding ( 1VPVA , 2VPVA and 0), the voltage at the AC terminals can be comprised of 27 levels. The advantage of this circuit is the relatively accurate replica of a sine wave accomplished with low switching frequencies. A major drawback of the circuit, however, is the need for three transformers.

3.6. Flying capacitor ( FC)

In Fig. 10 a half-bridge three-level ying capacitor inverter is suggested for a transformerless grid connected PV system. Flying capacitor converters (which are also referred to as oating capacitor or imbricated cell multilevel converters) are described in (Lai and Peng, 1996; Meynard et al., 1997). The features of this topology are

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Fig. 9. Grid connected PV systems with magnetic coupled inverter.

similar to the diode clamped topology. Important for the operation of this converter is a stable voltage ratio of VPVA1 /VC2 5VPVA2 /VC2 51. Therefore control methods are required which ensure that the average current owing in the capacitor C2 is zero. This complicates the control of the inverter and excludes solutions with varying dutycycles (e.g. hysteresis control).
4. DISCUSSION

The following system comparison does not include all described topologies. It excludes the

magnetic coupled topology since it focuses on transformerless systems. Only those topologies, where the amounts of energy extracted from each PV subarray are equal are considered. This condition simplies the design of the systems, hence the step and the half-bridge diode clamped velevel topology are not included in the comparison. Table 2 compares the remaining topologies regarding minimum rated power, Pr,min , number of PV modules and PV subarrays, number of DC bus capacitors, number of semiconductor devices and their ratings, possible levels of the AC voltage at the inverter output terminals and the negative

Fig. 10. Grid connected PV system with a half-bridge three-level ying capacitor inverter (FC).

Multilevel converters for single-phase grid connected photovoltaic systems: an overview Table 2. System comparison FB Pr,min / kWp No. of PV modules No. of PV subarrays No. of Capacitors No. of Switches No. of Diodes Vblock,max / kV Imax /A AC voltage levels Capacitive Earth Currents 1.5 28 1 1 4 0 0.7 9 3 Yes SLSC 1.5 28 2 2 6 2 0.7 or 0.35 9 5 Yes SLDC 1.5 28 2 2 6 2 0.7 or 0.35 9 5 Yes CC 1.5 28 2 2 8 0 0.35 9 5 Yes FC 3 54 2 3 4 0 0.7 18 3 No HBDC 3 54 2 2 4 2 0.7 18 3 No

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HB 3 54 2 2 2 0 1.4 18 2 No

inuence of the PV array earth capacitance. Additionally, transformerless systems incorporating full-bridge (FB) and half-bridge (HB) topologies as shown in Fig. 11 are included. The determination of the minimum rated power of the systems, Pr,min , and respectively the number of required PV modules is based on a maxi] mum grid voltage amplitude of vgrid,max 51.1?2? 240 V. All listed topologies have step-down characteristics. Therefore, for the half-bridge topologies (HBDC, FC, HB), the DC bus voltages VPVA1 5VPVA2 must always be higher than vgrid,max . For the full-bridge topologies (SLSC, SLDC, CC), VPVA1 5VPVA2 .vgrid,max / 2 applies. Since the operating voltage of silicon cells reduces with increasing temperature, the DC bus voltage is lowest on hot summer days. This lowest operating voltage determines the minimum number of cells which have to be connected in series to ensure energy transfer from the PV array to the grid at all times. Then, based on the minimum number of

cells connected in series, the highest possible voltage, the open circuit voltage on the coldest day has to be calculated since it determines the voltage rating of the DC bus capacitors as well as those of the semiconductor devices. For silicon solar cells the temperature behaviour and hence the voltage variations can be estimated according to Wenham et al. (1994). The system sizes listed in Table 2 have been calculated for environmental conditions for Perth, Western Australia (maximum ambient temperature in summer: 458C, minimum ambient temperature in winter: 08C) and for typical, available PV modules as specied in section 2. Major drawbacks regarding the minimum size of all discussed systems are the lack of exibility and the relatively high number of modules required (For half-bridge topology systems, twice as many modules are required as for full-bridge topology systems). By adding additional step up conversion stages, sizing exibility can be enhanced, however, overall system ef-

Fig. 11. Grid connected PV system with (a) a full-bridge inverter (FB) and (b) a half-bridge inverter (HB).

334 Table 3. Number of switches Topology SLSC SLDC CC Vblock,max 5700 V Imax 59 A 4 2 0

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Vblock,max 5350 V Imax 59 A 2 4 8

ciencies will decrease. Modules with higher operating voltages are favourable for the discussed systems since installation costs can be reduced. Todays availability of high voltage modules with operating voltages above 30 V, however, is still limited. For minimising leakage currents topologies where the PV array can be grounded are advantageous. Here the HBDC topology is more favourable than the FC topology, where there is need to control the oating capacitor voltage. The HBDC compares favourably with the conventional HB topology in two ways: rstly in the ability of creating a three-level instead of a two-level voltage at the inverter output and secondly in respect of lower voltage switch ratings. When compared with the FB topology the HBDC is still preferable due to the grounded midpoint of the PV array. SLSC, SLDC, and CC can create ve-level inverter output voltage waveforms and consequently demand less lter effort on the AC side. In all three topologies, however, PV array earth leakage currents can have a negative impact and measures to decrease these are required. For the three topologies the required numbers of semiconductor switching devices and their ratings are specied in Table 3. Considering costs, the CC topology promises to be cheaper to produce than the SLSC and SLDC due to its modular nature.
5. CONCLUSION

system sizes of 1.5 kW upwards in transformerless applications due to the relatively low operating voltages of most currently available PV modules. Availability of PV modules with higher operating voltages is desirable since this would reduce system costs. An additional step-up conversion stage between PV array and inverter can increase the exibility regarding the system size, but will reduce the systems overall efciency.
AcknowledgementsThe authors wish to acknowledge the valuable discussions with Mr. M. Dymond and Mr. A. Ruscoe, PowerSearch Ltd, Perth, Western Australia, with Mr T. Spooner, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, and with Mrs J. Myrzik, ISET, University of Kassel, Germany. This work was supported by the Australian Cooperative Research Centre for Renewable Energy (ACRE).

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