OE 2060 - ppt1

References
a) Lewis, E.U; Principles of Naval Architecture (2

nd
Rev.)
Vol. III, SNAME, New York , 1989

b) Harvald S.A.; Resistance and Propulsion of Ships,
John Wiley & Sons., 1983

c) Ghose,J.P and Gokarn,R.P, Basic Ship Propulsion,
Allied Publishers, 2004

d) Tupper,E.C;Introduction to Naval Architecture,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998.

1
COMPONENTS OF SHIP RESISTANCE
Components of total resistance are

Frictional Resistance, R
F
:
Due to viscous effect Integrate tangential stresses over the
wetted surface of the ship.

Residuary Resistance, R
R
:
The total resistance minus the friction resistance. Wave-
making resistance is the major part of R
R
.

Viscous Resistance, R
V
:
Resistance due to viscous effects of water.
2
Pressure Resistance, R
P
:
Resultant of the normal stresses integrated over the surface
of a body in the direction of motion.

Viscous Pressure Resistance, R
VP
:
Resultant of the normal stresses due to viscosity and
turbulence integrated over the surface of a body in the
direction of motion.

Wave-making Resistance, R
w
:
The energy expended in generating gravity waves

Wave-breaking Resistance, R
WB
: Energy loss due to the
breakdown of the ship bow wave.
COMPONENTS OF SHIP RESISTANCE (contd..)
3
Spray Resistance, R
S
:
The energy expended in generating spray.

Other components
Appendage Resistance: This is the resistance due ship
appendages (shaft bossing, shaft brackets, and shafts, bilge
keels, rudders, etc.)
Resistance of hull with no appendages fitted - the bare hull
resistance.

Roughness Resistance:
Increased resistance due to roughness caused by corrosion
and fouling on the ship hull.

4
Air Resistance:
On the above-water portion of the main hull, when ship
moves.

Steering Resistance:
Ship rudder in deflected condition resistance increases.

Resistance Increase due to Waterway Restrictions
Resistance increases due to blockage effect (canal, rivers,
etc)

5
Seaway Effects on Resistance:

Increased resistance due to

wind

ship motion

wave reflection on the hull

drift angle caused by wind, waves and rudder deflection
6
OTHER ASPECTS
DAlemberts paradox

Boundary layer effects

Ship form variation at bow, stern, mid-ship different

Interferences wave patterns
7
Components of Resistance
8
Resistance Coefficient curves
9
Flow Along Ship Length
10
Laminar & Turbulent Flows
11
Laminar flow fluid moves in
layers, which slide over one
another at relative speeds.

Turbulent flow the
fluid velocity fluctuates
randomly, where flow
separates and eddies
are formed.
12
Laminar or turbulent flow - depends on the fluid velocity, the
form and size of the body placed in the flow, the depth of water
and waterway restrictions.

As the velocity increases, the flow changes from laminar to
turbulent, passing through a transition regime. The transition
takes place at a Reynolds number

Thus in ship model experiments, the flow over a larger area
of the model can be laminar. This violates the kinematical
similarity and hence the experiments accuracy.

Laminar & Turbulent Flows (contd)
6 5
10 10 = Rn
Speed & Power Requirement
13
Resistance of Displacement Vessel
14
Ship Types
15
Classification Based on Type of Support
16
17
FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE
Viscosity of fluid causes friction (Viscosity is a measure of
the fluids resistance to shear when the fluid is in motion).

It depends on the type of fluid and the physical configuration
or flow pattern.

Frictional resistance is obtained by integration of the
tangential stresses over the wetted surface of the ship in the
direction of motion.

For ideal fluid there is no friction.
FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE
18
Consider two plates, parallel to each other, one stationary
and the other moving with a steady speed through a viscous
fluid (see Fig. ).
FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE (contd)
19
No slip condition between the fluid and the plates The
layers of fluid in contact with the plates have no relative
velocity.

The fluid is displaced in such a way that the various layers
of fluid slide uniformly over one another.
If no p essure gradient exists
along the plates in the direction
of motion, the fluid between the
plates will have a linear velocity
profile, as shown.
The velocity of the layer at distance
y from the stationary plate is
20
V
h
y
U =
(V is the velocity of the moving plate)
The force that has to act on the
moving plate to maintain the motion is
(S is the area of the plate and
is the coefficient of dynamic viscosity)
h
SV
F =
This force is equal to the resistance offered to the
displacement of the plate. This is due to the tangential
stressesshearing forcesopposing the plate motion.
The shear stress
y
U
c
c
= t
Boundary Layer
21
Region of fluid (viscous) close to the ship wetted surface,
where the transverse velocity gradient is large.

The shear in this region is significant.

The boundary layer may be laminar, turbulent, or transitional,
depending on flow velocity, body size and surface.

The velocity of the fluid just at the surface of the plate will be
zero due to frictional forces. Also, the motion of the fluid in a
thin layer near to the plate gets retarded and beyond it the flow
reaches the free stream velocity
Boundary Layer Thickness
22
The boundary layer thickness, is the distance from
body surface to inviscid flow velocity. For practical purposes
this speed is often taken as 99% of the free stream speed.
Loss of Momentum in Flow
23
0
0 0
( )
L
F
U U U dy dx R
o
t
= =
} }
where
RF the frictional resistance of the plate with length L
the shearing stress on the plate surface
Therefore
0
t
0
0
U
y
t
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
Consider a volume element just aft of the plate.

The rate of loss of momentum is equal to the resistance
experienced by the plate.
Frictional Resistance
24
The frictional resistance R
F
can also be expressed as
2
2
1
. SV C R
F F
=
where
CF = specific frictional resistance or drag
= mass density of fluid
V = relative speed of flow over the plate
S = wetted surface of the plate

In general, CF depends on nature of flow, Rn, form of
surface, Character and condition of surface

Boundary Layer Velocity Distribution
25
The velocity distribution at the plane surface depends on
fluid viscosity, density, and the frictional forces.

The frictional resistance vary with the velocity raised to a
certain power n. Prandtl and Schlichting (934) suggested n
as 1.75.

The velocity distribution is
expressed by
max
n
y
u U
o
| |
=
|
\ .
Von Krman Expression for Boundary Layer Thickness
26
The boundary layer thickness for flow over plane
surfaces is
1
5
0.37l
Ul
v
o
| |
=
|
\ .
The value of n taken for different plate surfaces are:

n=1/9 for Varnished and polished steel surfaces
n=1/7 for Clean surfaces of merchant ships
n=2/11 for Smooth, polished surface of wax, plastic, or wood
models to be used in experiments in towing tanks
n=1/5 for Surfaces covered with long grass
Flow Separation
27
The flow from a solid surface detach due to
Adverse longitudinal pressure/ velocity gradient
Sudden change of the direction of curvature of the
surface

This leads to formation of eddies/ region of reversed flow.
Flow Separation on BL
28
The BL remains thin until the condition of flow separation is
reached.

The velocity profile slope at the wall will decrease when the
flow comes near to the point of separation.

At the point of separation the slope becomes zero and
downstream of this point it is negative.

Near the wall in the downstream area the reversal of flow
will occur.

Also, the boundary layer thickens rather quickly.
Reynolds Number Effect on Flow
29
Reynolds number determines the flow characteristics.

Very low Rn the flow is nearly a potential one.

As Rn increases the flow tends to separate.

The separation takes place in a periodic way by shedding
von Krmn vorticies. A Krmn vortex street is formed.

As Rn increases further a fully separated flow is
formed.
BL Around a Cylinder
30
Negative pressure gradient over the front portion of the
cylinder A thin laminar boundary layer is formed in this
region.

An adverse pressure gradient exists over the rear portion
of the cylinder a rapid growth of the boundary layer and
separation.

The boundary layer becomes turbulent at a still higher Rn.
31
Measured resistance in the following cases:

He used boards of various lengths up to 50 ft
Coated with various substances
Towed at different speeds through freshwater in tank
Derived a formula to represent frictional resistance
n
F
R fSV =
His son, F.E.Froude, in 1988, determined the value of n as
1.825
1.825
F
R fSV =
Experimental Determination -William Froude (1872; 1874)
32
Schoenherrs (1932)
1
1.79 ln( ) 4.13 log( )
n F n F
F
R C R C
C
= =
Hughes Formula
2
0.067
(log 2)
F
n
C
R
=
Experimental Determination Other Formulae

ITTC established a uniform practice for the calculation of skin
friction and the expansion of model data to full size. It studied
many proposals and agreed on the following formula:
ITTC Furmula (1957)
2
0.075
(log 2)
F
n
C
R
=

33
Flow Around Ship & Model Rn Effect
Model experiments are carried out at relatively low Rn.
Therefore. the flow around the model may be laminar.

For a ship, which operates at high Rn, the flow around
it is generally turbulent.

Prediction of ship resistance from model test involves
the assumption that the model is in full turbulent flow.

Therefore, every attempt should be made to ensure
that turbulent flow exists around the model.

At the bow of the ship model the local Rn is low and
there is a negative pressure gradient, so the chances for
laminar or partly laminar flow at the bow is very high.
34
Turbulence Stimulation
So, turbulence is created around the model to some what
match with the flow around ship.

The techniques to simulate turbulence can be divided into
two categories:

Artificial creation of a high turbulence level in the area
of water in which the model moves.

Artificial creation of turbulent disturbances in the
boundary layer of the model.
35
Turbulence Stimulation Ahead of Model
Artificial creation of turbulence in the area of water in
which the model moves
Net in front of model
36
Vertical Rods, Screens or Waterjets in front of model
37
Turbulence Stimulation in Model BL
Sand Strip at Fore End
38
Trip Wire at 19th Station
39
Studs at Forward
Internal vibrators: Flush in the laminar BL flow region,
pass high voltage A.C destabilizes the laminar BL.
But it is dangerous.
40
Roughness
Frictional resistance so far considered only smooth
surfaces.
Causes:

Structural roughness depends on the method of
construction of the hull, openings, scoops, damage-control
valves, waviness of plating between frames etc.

Paint roughness - good paints of partly reduces it. But,
paints of tough texture and/or badly applied increase
resistance.
41
Roughness
Corrosion & Erosion: These in shell plate increases
roughness. Proper cleaning and painting (in dry docks)
reduces these effects.

Marine Growth: On the hull surface during ships service
resistance increases. Periodic cleaning and use of antifouling
paints reduces the effect.

The increase in resistance will vary with type of
roughness. The types of roughness vary from ship to ship
and also vary during the lifetime of the ship.

The model of ship correlation allowance CA given to the
determined model resistance accounts for the ship
roughness.
42
WAVE MAKING RESISTANCE
43
The wave making resistance of a ship is related to the net force
upon the ship due to the normal fluid pressures acting on the hull.
If the body is travelling on or near the free surface this pressure
variation causes waves which radiate away from the body and carry
with them a certain amount of energy that is dissipated in the ocean.
The wave making resistance can then be also characterized by the
energy expended by the ship that is necessary to maintain the wave
system.
WAVE MAKING RESISTANCE cond
44
Waves are formed when velocity and pressure fields of
the fluid around a moving body changes.
Kelvin wave:
3 7 . 5
o
1 9 . 5
o
T r a n s v e r s e w a v e s
D i v e r g e n t w a v e s
45
A single pressure point is traveling in a line over the surface
of the water. It generates waves forming a characteristic
pattern.

The pattern consists of transverse and divergent wave
systems radiating from the point.

The distance between two successive transverse waves
(wave length) depends on the speed of the traveling pt.

The crest lines of the transverse waves will be normal to the
direction of motion, bending back as they approach the
divergent system.
Kelvin Wave Pattern
46
Ship Wave System
Wave system
is built up of
four wave
components
formed at bow,
stern and the
two shoulders
of the hull.
47
High-pressure area in the vicinity of bow The bow wave
system and start with a crest.

Low-pressure area around the forward shoulder The
forward shoulder wave system and start with a trough.

Low-pressure area around the aft shoulder The aft
shoulder wave system and start with a trough.

High-pressure area in the vicinity of stern The stern wave
system and start with a crest.

The wave-making resistance depends on the ship form
shape of section area curve, waterlines and transverse
sections.
48
WAVE MAKING RESISTANCE (contd.)
Wave Component Interference:
The interaction may be constructive or destructive.

The position of a particle in a wave can be described with
[2D wave in x z vertical plane considered]

sin( )
cos( )
n n n n
n n n n
X r t
Z r t
e
e
= +e
= +e

Where
= the water particle orbit radius
= the circular frequency
t = time
=phase angle at t=0

n
r
n
e
n
e
49
Assumptions:

Wave trains having the same velocity also have equal
wave-lengths and wave periods.

The four wave systems following the ship can therefore
only differ in height and phase.

The phase difference is equal for all particles and is
independent of time
50
Addition of the ordinates of a particle resulting from each of
the wave train yields.
1 1 2 2
3 3 4 4
sin( ) sin( )
sin( ) sin( )
x r t r t
r t r t
e e
e e
= +e + +e +
+e + +e
1 1 2 2
3 3 4 4
cos( ) cos( )
cos( ) cos( )
z r t r t
r t r t
e e
e e
= +e + +e +
+e + +e
Superposition of Wave Components
51
For the resulting transverse wave,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2
1 3 1 2 1 4 1 4
2 3 2 3 2 4 2 4
3 4 3 4
2 cos( )
2 cos( ) 2 cos( )
2 cos( ) 2 cos( )
2 cos( )
r x z r r r r r r
r r r r
r r r r
r r
= + = + + + + e e +
e e + e e +
e e + e e +
e e
The phase angle differences is
1,
1
2
n n
n n
W
l
L t

e e
=
The wave height is
2
wn n
r , =
Where is the distance from a crest of the wave in the
transverse system n-1 to the nearest crest in the system n.
1
,
n
l n
Resultant Wave Height

52
The above eq. follows
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4
1,2 1,3
1 2 1 3
1,4 2,3
1 4 2 3
2,4 3,4
2 4 3 4
2 2
2 cos 2 cos
2 2
2 cos 2 cos
2 2
2 cos 2 cos
w w
w w
w w
l l
L L
l l
L L
l l
L L
, , , , ,
t t
, , , ,
t t
, , , ,
t t
, , , ,
= + + + +
+ +
+ +
+
where
2
wn
w n
r
,
, = =
53
The above eq. gives the height of the resulting wave.

The energy in a transverse wave in the Kelvin wave system,

2
w w
E c bL ,
'
=
Where b is the breadth of the wave Lw is the length of the
wave and is the height of the wave
It can be assumed that
2
w
b L V o o
w
,
54
Note:
The wave breadth (b) of the ship wave system can be
assumed to be approximately proportional to the wave
length (Lw ).

We know that the wave velocity
2
2
~1.25
2
w w
w
w
w
L gL
V L
T
L V
b L V
t
o
o o
= =
55
When the ship is moved through a distance x, the
amount of energy required to maintain the wave system
can be expressed by
2
2 2 2
2 2
.
w w w
w
w w
w w
x
R x c b L
L
c b x cV x
R cV
,
, ,
,
'
=
'
= =
=
56
Substituting expression for
2
w
,
1 2 3 4
1 4 1 3
1 4 3
2 4 3 4
2 2 2 2
1,2 1,3
2
1,4 2,3
2
2,4 3,4
2 2
2 cos 2 cos
2 2
2 cos 2 cos
2 2
2 cos 2 cos
w w w w
w w w w
w w
w
w w w w
w w
w w w w
w w
l l
L L
R cV
l l
L L
l l
L L
, , , ,
t t
, , , ,
t t
, , , ,
t t
, , , ,

+ + + +

+ +

=
`
+ +

+

)
57
Assumed that the wave heights are proportional to the
pressure differences in the flow around the body.

We know that pressure is proportional to
2
1
2
p V =
2
V
2
w
V , o
Thus
58
Where the first term indicates the magnitude of the wave-
making resistance if the individual wave systems do not
influence one another.

The last part of the above equation gives the interference
components. Humps & hollows in resistance curve.
low value of interference favourable and thus hollow in
the resistance curve
high value of interference unfavourable and thus hump
is the resistance curve
Therefore, the previous eqn. results in
, 6
2
1 cos
m n
w mn
w
l
R cV C
L
t
= +
`
)

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References

a) Lewis, E.U; Principles of Naval Architecture (2

Experimental Determination Other Formulae

FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE (contd)

Resultant Wave Height

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