Human-Computer Interaction

Unit #1 Introduction History

1) Middle Ages: <1450: Persian astrologer, Al-Kashi, used device to calculate conjunction of planets 1600: German mathematician, Wilhelm Schichard, develop tool to perform simple addition and substraction. Blaise Pascal built simplified replica of Schichard device Early PC users mainly consist of enthusiasts and experts build their own systems, little incentive to design for casual end-user or improve HCI 2) Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century: 1700: Agriculture & industrial revolutions in Europe increased trading, which increased need to produce accurate maps and navigation charts. 1791 1871: Charles Babbage built Difference Engine to calculate 6th degree polynomials. This machine never completed. Charles Babbage Analytical Engine programmed using punch cards, which can be viewed as first solution to user interface problem. 1900: People from Ireland & Scandinavia fled from famines to USA. USA government wanted to monitor immigrant population. 1860 1929: Herman Hollerith developed computational device, using punched cards, to calculate census statistics. 1911: Computer-Tabulating-Recording Company, first computer company was founded 1914: Tomas J. Watson joined Computer-Tabulating-Recording Company and built it up to form International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) Term COMPUTER originally used in early 20th century to describe people manually perform Calculations. 3) The Mid-Twentieth Century: Mid 1900: Second World War created another set of narrow applications for computing devices 1943: Alan Turning developed Colossus to try and break German encryption techniques Colossus was first truly interactive computer. Colossus accepted input via keyboard and produced output via teleprinter 1945: Vennevar Bush published As we may think article in Atlantic Monthly, introducing Memex system Memex store records, retrieved rapidly through indexing, keywords. Could also instruct links through material. System never implemented, but conceived idea of hyper text 1946: ENIAC, first electronic digital computer, programmed by physical manipulating plugs and relays (from military) 1957: IBM introduced FORTRAN high-level programming language Mid 50s: Computer had displays, could be used for pictures 1963: Ivan Sutherland developed SketchPad system at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, first sophisticated drawing package. Hardware developments include graphics terminals, input devices (tablets), processors capable of real time image manipulation. Doug Engelbart and Ted Nelson took concept of Memex. Nelson focussed on links and interconnections (hypertext). Engelbart focussed on hierarchic structure of documents 1963: Engelbart published A conceptual framework for augmenting human intellect. 4) Turning Points: Mid 70s: Development of computer allowed it to become available to man in street 1976: Steven Wozniak produced Apple I based on MOStek 6502 chip 1981: IBM produced first PC with DOS Casual workers appeared for first time

1982: Xerox produced star user interface (Star VI) files represented by icons and deleted by dragging over wastebasket. Market advent of modern desktop Both Apple and Microsoft got idea of GUI from Xerox 5) The Internet, World Wide Web and Social Networks: 1962: Rand Corporation (USA leading military supplies) concerned communication after nuclear holocaust Solution = ARPANET grow into Internet highly connected network of computer systems Development built on Internet: 1) Electronic mail systems (e-mail) 2) World Wide Web (www) 3) Web based social networks (Facebook) E-Mail: 1980s electronic mail restricted to academic communities Companies develop internal mail systems, local networks since concerned security Isolate users from outside Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape encouraged companies extend email access

World Wide Web (www): Grew from National Centre for Super computer Applications (NCSA), University of Illinois and CERN, European Research for nuclear physics, concerned efforts improve passing files over remote networks Client programs (browsers) translate user request into communications primitives necessary to translate data from remote servers. Social Networks: Structure connects individuals Connections base on friendship, kinship, common interest, financial exchange, dislikes, sexual relationships, relationship of beliefs, knowledge or prestige Facebook and Twitter Mobile Computing: Can take place over large distances using cellular and satellite links Made intent access integral part of everyday life through notebook computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs) like iPhone and cell phones Laptop and notebook use wireless access o WiFi o Cellular broadband Trends indicate user interface design always be important: User population growing Application range growing Expertise growing Current Context affect HCI Distributed systems (people surf net for access to distributed information source) Multi-media interfaces (Text integrated into graphics, video & audio sources) HCI development environments (User customise working environment) Advanced Operating systems (OSs provide facilities manipulating multimedia documents) Ubiquitous computing (UbiComp) (embedded everyday objects) Mobile technology (changed context technology used, compilation of population and user interface) Future Directions (mobile and ubiquitous computing remain focus) transitions in computing affect HCI: Changing notation of the interface Increase dependency on technology Hyper-connectivity Changes in means and reasons for recording information Increased creativity through technology

HCI
Is the study of people, computer technology and ways influence each other Human = whoever trying to do something using technology (individuals, groups) Computer = Any technology (general / embedded computers, process control systems) Interaction = communication between user and computer 1) Direct Interaction: Involves dialogue with feedback & control during performance of task 2) Indirect Interaction: Involves background / batch processing HCI: Concern with design, evaluation, implementation of interactive computing systems for human use, and effective and efficiency of computer use. Concern with studying and improving factors influence effectiveness and computer use. Involves disciplines like: psychology, cognitive science, philosophy, sociology, physiology, engineering, computer science, anthropology, ergonomics, graphic design, management, communication science and linguistics. HCI Multi-discipline field of study, perception, cognition, technology, ergonomics, physiology Foundations of HCI focus on psychological and physiological attributes of human user, capabilities and limitations of computing devices, dialogue between the two. HCI is about designing for people (users). Have wide context addressing interactive situations in everyday life. Terms used in conjunction with HCI: 1) Ergonomics: Environment factors Incorporating comfort, efficiency, safety into design Traditional study of physical characteristics of interaction: How controls are designed, physical environment, layout & physical qualities of screen Primary focus on user performance and how interface enhances / detract from this Involves design of total working environment, including neigh of chairs etc . . . Contribution of ergonomics to HCI determining constraints on way design systems and suggesting guidelines and standards 2) Human Factors: Study of user interface guidelines and standards in their working context Addresses entire person o Physiology (physical characteristics, height, reach) o Perception (ability to sense information, hearing, touch, sight) o Cognition (Faculty of perceiving things. Way we process data, like on screen) Also refers to safety-critical applications Difference between ergonomics and human factors: Ergonomics work environment Human factors personal characteristics 3) Usability / Ease of use: Vague term, specify why system easy to use Eg. Easy for novices, experts, low learning time, low error occurrences o Effectiveness: accuracy and completeness users achieve goals o Efficiency: resources expended relation to accuracy and completeness goals achieved o Satisfaction: comfort and acceptable of system to users and people affected use

4) User experience: Refers to how people feel about a product. How satisfied are they when using it, looking at it, or handling it? It includes the overall impression as well as the small effects such as how good it feels to touch. According to Preece et al. (2007) you cannot design a user experience, you can only design for user experience. 5) Interaction Design: Products support way people communicate and interact Identify needs and establish user requirements Develop alternative design according to requirements

 Build prototypes of design to assess Evaluating designs and user experience 6) Accessibility In the context of HCI is designing products so that people with disabilities can use them. Accessibility makes user interfaces perceivable, operable, and understandable by people with a wide range of abilities, and people in a wide range of circumstances, environments, and conditions. Thus accessibility also benefits people without disabilities, and organizations that develop accessible products (Henry, 2007). It is the degree to which a system is usable by people with disabilities (Preece at al., 2007). Some people see accessibility as a subset of usability, while others regard it is a prerequisite for usability. People involved in HCI: Designers should have expertise in: 1) Psychology & Cognitive science (insight users capabilities and skills) 2) Environmental factors & ergonomics (users work environments and capabilities) 3) Organisational factors (training, job design, productivity, work organisation) 4) Health and safety factors 5) Philosophy, sociology, anthropology (understand wider context of interaction) 6) Linguistics 7) Computer science (build technology) 8) Graphic design (effective interfaces) 9) Technical writing (produce manuals) 10) Business & marketing Design and developing interactive artefact, better done by design team than by individual person Preeces model show how above disciplines interact when designing 4 components of Preeces model: 1) People 2) Work 3) Environment 4) Technology Each component in model interacts with others contributing to design requirements. The user (people) interacts with computer (technology) in order to achieve goal (work) within particular direct environment

Unit #2 Human Issues in HCI

Cognitive Psychology in HCI: Cognitive process underlie performance of task or action by human Human Information processing interacting systems: 1) Perceptual system 2) Cognitive system 3) Motor system Characterise human (user) resources 1) Perception Way detect information 2) Cognition Way process information 3) Physiology way move and interact with physical objects Perception: Use senses to detect information The way users detect information in environment Factors affect perception: 1) Change in output (loudness / size) 2) Maximum & minimum detectable levels 3) Field of operation (can user see display?) 4) Fatigue / boredom 5) Background noise 6) Ageing, partial sight To make people see / hear display, make signals redundant Dont display critical information through small changes Ageing congenital colour defects and colour conventions influence way perceive colour Assume user see less contrast between colours than you If lighten light colours and darken dark colours will increase visual accessibility Violet and Yellow is effective colour combination

Colour Hue: o Variety, tint, or quality of a colour o Attribute of a colour by which recognised as red, green, blue, yellow, purple is independent of intensity/lightness o Hue enables to identify basic colours o Normal vision: Hue follow natural sequence based on similarity o Colour defects: Diminished ability to discriminate between colours on basis of hue. o Effective to contrast hues from opposite parts of hue circle Colour Lightness: o How much light appears reflected from a surface relation to nearby surfaces o Lightness most important attribute making contrast more effective Colour Saturation: o Degree of intensity of a colour o Associated with colours perceptual difference from white, black or grey of equal lightness. o Eg. Blue de-saturated colour because similar to grey o Colours deflects make it difficult to discriminate between colours on basis of saturation. Convention: Certain conventions used to interpret the world If violated explicit support must be given to enable to form correct mental model Colour can convey wrong message in situations where colour conventions exist Eg. If edit box is grey, appears read-only Cultural convention / constrains:

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Left taps cold, right are hot Turning screw clockwise tightens, anti-clock loosen

Cognition: The way you process information Involves: Short-tem memory and information processing Long-term memory and learning Problem solving Decision making Attention Search and scanning Time perception 1) Attention process concentrating something Influenced by way information presented and peoples goals. If information on interface poorly structured, users difficult finding information How information displayed determines how well able to perform searching task Find ways to lead users to information 2) Memory Consist of number of systems distinguished by cognitive structure and roles in cognitive process a) Short-term memory (STM) information retained automatically and retrieved without effort o Amount information retained limited 5-7 times o Never expect user hold more than 7 items at time o Chunking involves grouping information into meaningful sections o Involve mnemonics & acronyms help user recall additional detail o Memory fragile get distracted, stuff in STM disappear o Relative low capacity, fast access, short retention period o Design interfaces make efficient use of STM o User only required remembering few items information o Support STM by representing additional information on display o Menus provide fast access to commands, dont have to be memorized o Design must reduce load on short-term memory o Record information in the world not in the head b) Long-term memory (LTM) high capacity, slower access, long retention period o Takes time put stuff in LTM and time & effort to get out again o How well recover knowledge from LTM depend upon how material interpreted o Stored LTM under one interpretation not found later when under another interpretation o No capacity limit to LTM o Difficulty not capacity, but organisation (getting material in and figure how to retrieve) o Storage and retrieval easier when material make sense o When make no sense, material must be worked on, structure and interpretation until can be retrieved c) Knowledge in the World vs Knowledge in the head: Knowledge World Head Retrievability Easily retrievable whenever visible or More difficult to retrieve audible Require memory search or reminding Learning Learning not required, only interpretation Requires learning, can be considerable Efficiency of use Slowed up by need to find interpret Very efficient external source Ease of use at High Low first encounter Aesthetics Unaesthetic and inelegant, especially if Nothing need visible, gives designer need to maintain lot of information freedom 3) Physiology The way you move and interact with physical objects in environment Definition: Physiology involves study of human anatomy. Users must be able to view display, reach devices....

Things that intervene prevent users from achieving goals: o Paper documentation (bulky dominate users working environment) o Other users, cups of coffee (unexpected events in environment cause disasters) Interface reflect assumptions designers make about physiological characters of users (everything is average) Work place pressures may reduce physiological ability of user Physiologically influenced guidelines used for computerised systems: o Visual display units should be visible visual angle of user o Keyboards prolonged periods of data entry place heavy stress upon wrist and upper arm. Repeative strain injury and carpal tunnel syndrome caused by prolonged periods of computer work. Frequent breaks can help preventive strain injury and carpal tunnel syndrome o Chairs and office furniture well designed chairs give lower back support, reduces risk of back pain o Placement of work materials users able to operate system conjunction with other sources of information Repeated gaze transfer while working at computer leading to neck and back problems. o Noise distraction distractions caused by sounds of workers, equipment, etc ... Can introduce screens around desks, use voice mail to reduce telephone noise o Light distraction impact of light, distraction reduced by blinds and artificial lightning 4) Urban Myths Eyesight computer use doesnt damage eyesight, but can make you aware of existing defects Epilepsy computer does not appear to induce epileptic attacks TV can trigger photosensitive epilepsy; VDUs dont have same effect Radiation VDUs dont significantly increase risk of radiation related illnesses Rule of thumb: Do not make interfaces objects small cannot be selected by user in hurry Also do not make disastrous options easy to select that can be started by accident 5) Users with disabilities: a) Visual: Enlarge portions of display, convert display to Braille/voice output b) Hearing: Convert tones to visual signals c) Physical: Use devices like speech recognition, eye-gaze control, head-mounted mice 6) Individual differences: Personality differences people like/dislike computers, have different preferences for interaction styles Design must understand differences in personality and cognitive styles Realise effect of command names will have on both men and woman Avoid terminology compares computation and thought processes repels some users 7) Culture and international diversity: Culture = behaviour typical of group/class of people Culture includes race, ethnicity and is manifested in customary behaviours, assumptions, values, patterns of thinking and communicative style. Approaches designers follow when called onto create designs span language or culture groups: o Internationalisation single design appropriate for use worldwide. Important for WEB base applications. o Localisation specific group or community with unified language and culture Factors need addressed before software package can be internationalised or localised o Overt Factors Tangible, straightforward, publicly observed elements.

Includes: Dates, calendars, weekends, day turnovers, time, phone formats, character sets, collating order sequence, reading & writing direction, punctuation, translation, currency, units of measure Covert Factors Intangible elements depend on culture or special knowledge. Includes: Graphics, colours, functionality, sound metaphors, mental models (Careful with metaphors and graphics might offend target culture)

8) Errors People Make: Mistakes (Incorrect Plans): o Includes forming wrong or performing wrong action relation to specific goal o Mistakes difficult to detect because action performed appropriate for goal o EG. Situations operators adopt unsafe working practices o Arise through lack of training, poor managements or deliberate negligence o Mistakes result from conscious deliberations Slips: o Observable errors from automatic behaviour o IF from appropriate goal but mess up performance o Include confusions as left and right o Usually small things, relatively easy to discover by observation Slip person had correct goal but performed incorrect action Mostly skilled behaviour, lack attention Mistakes goal was incorrect Kinds of slips: Captive errors Descriptive errors Data-driven errors Mode errors Associative activation errors Loss-of-activation errors Cause of Human Error: No simple way to improve operational safety of computer systems Improving operator training wont address fundamental problems created by lapses & slips Errors latent within us, never engineer out human error Steps to reduce frequency & cost of human error: Engineer decision support systems give user guidance during critical operations Improve working practices (introduce job monitoring and formal examinations)

Unit #3 Design Problems and Solutions

Design tested, problems discovered, process repeated Over time, this process results in functional, aesthetically pleasing objects Mistakes designers can make: 1) Forces work against evolutionary design 2) Putting aesthetics first, above usability 3) Designers regarding themselves as typical user Hampering Natural Evolution of Design: 1) Demands of time new version of object already design before current version released 2) Pressure to be distinctive features distinguish from previous models new improved version 3) Individuality and market differentiation same product with unique design carries signature Goal should be to improve product, not to stand out Individuality is mixed curse, also lead to new ideas and innovation

Common Design Mistakes: 1) Putting Aesthetics above Usability Interface must be art work to be aesthetically pleasing Free from clutter, interface elements organised in logical way, colours tasteful 2) Thinking for the user Designer believe they know what user want 3) Cluttering the Interface Interface should provide users with enough information allow them to perform task Screen Clutter: - Difficult for users to understand objects - More objects on screen, more meanings user must unravel - Harder for user to find ones they need - Smaller size of each object make hard to select individual components Design Solutions: 1) Affordance Property of object/interface refer to perceived and actual properties telling user how it can be used 2) Constraints Restricts allowed behaviour of user: Physical Constrain insert ATM cards certain way Culture Constrain red means stop, green means go Logical Constrain handle on door to pull to open Forcing Function Cannot switch on front loading washing machine when door is open 3) Mapping - Relationship between two things - Relationship between devices controls and movements, result actual use of control 4) Visibility - Parts of system that is essential must be visible - Give user clues how to operate 5) Feedback - Information sent back to user on action actually performed, and results of action - Novice want more feedback on actions - Frequent users less distracting feedback - Sound is important feedback door of washing machine close when hear click sound Guidelines Principles and Standards - Help designers improve usability of products by giving rules to make decisions. - Restrict design options and prevent designer making choices likely to harm usability of product Standards Set by bodies, high authority, limit in application Guidelines More general in application Low-level detailed rules Application specific and not need much interpretation Design Principles Informs design of system Usability Principles Basis for evaluating prototype and complete systems. More prescriptive than design principles Sets of Guidelines High-level directing principles with aim improving usability of interactive systems 1) Learnability Ease user enter new systems and reach maximal level performed Principles affect Learnability: Predictability: Determine effect of future action based on past interaction Synthesisability: Affect of past operations on current state

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Familiarity: Users knowledge/experience in real word or computer-based domains applied when interacting with new systems Generalisability: Extend knowledge of specific interaction within and across applications to other similar situations Consistency: Likeness input-output behaviour arising from similar situations or similar task objectives Principles relate to Learnability Operation visibility: Way possible next operations are shown and inform if certain operations not available Honesty: Ability of interface to provide observable and informative information account of any change operation make to internal state of system. Immediate when no action required. Is Eventual when user need issue explicit directives to make changes to observable Guessability and Affordance: Object stimulates familiarity with behaviour or function Flexibility many ways interaction between user and system can take place Dialogue initiative: Freedom from artificial constraints on input dialogue imposed by system Multi-threading: Ability to support user interaction pertaining to more than one task at time Task migratability: Ability to pass control for execution of given task to become internalised by user or system or shared Substitutivity: Allow equivalent values of input and output arbitrarily substituted for each other Customisability: Modifiability of user interface by user or system Principles related to Flexibility principles: System pre-emptiveness: System initiates all dialogue and user respond to request for information. Hinders flexibility, necessary in multi-user systems where users not allowed perform actions simultaneously User pre-emptiveness: User initiates action towards system. Promotes flexibility, cause losing track of uncompleted tasks Concurrent/Interleaving multi-threading: Simultaneous communication of information pertaining to separate tasks. Permits temporal overlap between separate tasks, but any time dialogue restricted to single task Multi-modality: Separate modalities (channels of communications) combined to form single input or output expression Representation multiplicity: Flexibility for rendering state information (in different formats or modes) Equal opportunity: Blurs distinction between input and output at interface user choice of what input and what output, output can reused as input Adaptability: User initiated modification to adjust form of input and output. Choose language or complexity levels Adaptivity: System initiated customise user interface automatically. System observe user behaviour (repeated tasks) and determine level expertise to adjust level of task Robustness Level support user given for successful achievement and assessment of goals Observability: User evaluate internal state of system from perceivable representation Recoverability: User take corrective action once error recognised Responsiveness: User perceive rate of communication with system. Response time duration to inform user of state changes. If not instant, should have indication of task in progress Task Conformance Principles relate to Robustness Principles: Browsability: Allow explore current internal state of system Static/Dynamic defaults: Defined within system or acquired at initialisation Reachability: Possibility of navigation through observable system state Persistance: Duration of affect communication act and ability of user to make use of affect Backward Recovery: Undo effects previous interaction return to prior state Forward Recovery: Acceptance of current state and negotiation from that state towards desire state Commensurate Effort: If difficult to undo effect should be difficult to do in first place Stability: Invariance in response time for identical or similar computational resources Task Completeness: Coverage of all tasks of interest and whether/not supported in way user prefers Task Adequacy: Users understanding of task

Goals in Interaction Design 1) Usability Goals Ensure users interaction with technology is effective and enjoyable o Effectiveness: How well system doing what designed for o Efficiency: How well system support user carrying out their work. Productivity o Safety: Protecting from dangerous conditions and undesirable situations o Utility: System provides required functionality for task intended to support o Learnability: How easy users learn to use system o Memorability: How easy to remember how to perform tasks done before 2) User Experience Goals How user feel about product irrespective of efficiency, effectiveness, learnability - Plays role in being accepted - For positive experience of interaction, attend to features that is satisfying, enjoyable, engaging, pleasurable, exciting, entertaining, helpful, motivating, aesthetically pleasing, supportive of creativity, surprising, emotially fulfilling, challenging and enhancing sociability - Features make product boring, frustrating, annoying or overly cute should be avoided 3) Design Principles Suggestions help designer explain or improve designs. Inspired careful design, what will work and what not Visibility: more visible functions are, better user able to perform task Feedback: Information about what action user performed and what effect on action was Constraints: Restrict actions user can take at specific point during interaction. Effective error prevention mechanism Mapping: Relationship between interface elements and effect on system Consistency: Likeness in input-output behaviour arising from similar situations or similar task objectives Affordance: Attribute of object telling how to be used. Perceived affordance of interface element help user see what it can be used for 4) Recognise Diversity (Shneiderman 1998) Before design of system need to gather information about users, tasks, environment of use and frequency of use Usage profile: Understand intended users Task profile: Task analysis on all task objects and actions identified Interaction styles: Styles identified from available Eight Golden Rules for Interface Design 1) Strive for consistency 2) Enable frequent users to use shortcuts 3) Offer informative feedback 4) Design dialogues to yield closure (completion of group of actions) 5) Offer error prevention and simpler error handling 6) Permit easy reversal of actions 7) Support internal locus of control (user feel in control of system and not vice-versa) 8) Reduce short-term memory load Prevent Errors - Prevent user from making errors. - Reduce loss in productivity due to errors to improve error messages provided by system. - More effective prevent errors from occurring - Understand nature of errors - Organise screens and menus functionally - Design commands and menu choices - Choice distinctive making difficult to perform irreversible actions Shneiderman 3 techniques to reduce errors by ensuring complete and correct actions: 1) Correct matching pairs: User type left parenthesis system display message that right parenthesis outstanding Message disappears when user type right parenthesis 2) Complete sequences: Logging onto network requires user perform sequences of actions. When user done for first time, system store information allow user trigger sequence with single action. User not required to memorise complete sequence

3) Correct commands: Help user type commands system can employ completion to display alternatives when typed few letters of command Design Standards Ways of discussing, presenting or doing something. Achieve consistency across products of same type. Standardization in interface design: Provide common terminology Facilitates program maintenance and allow additional facilities to be added Similar systems same look and feel Reduce training needs knowledge transferred between standardized systems Promote health and safety, experience less stress due to system behaviour

User interface design rule rigidly applied without taking target user skills, psychological and physical characteristics or preferences into account, may reduce product usability Design guidelines don not provide recipes for designing successful systems Provide guidance and not guarantee optimum usability

Unit #4 Interaction Design

Interface Types:
1) Advanced Graphical Interfaces Graphical user interface (GUI) use pictures to communicate information Strengths of GUI: Visibility: Represent complex relationship in data Cross-cultural communication: Exploit common denominators Impact and animation: Greater intuitive appeal Weakness of GUI: Clutter: Graphical display with array of symbols and colours Ambiguity: Associate semantic information with image (have to know meaning of image) Impression: Graphical interface not convey enough information without textual annotations Slow Speed: Not suitable if low-bandwidth communications or low quality presentation device 2) Web-Based Interfaces - Graphical interfaces located on servers connected to Internet, accessed by users through web browser - Restricted by bandwidth and download time - Users should always know where they are, what can find and where to go next - Relies on text - Access to large volumes information - Allows people to connect socially with anybody anywhere in the world 3) Speech Interfaces - User talk to system capacity to interpret language - Common used systems provide specific information (flight times) or transaction (buy movie ticket) - Helpful to disabilities Disadvantages: Difficult to develop Not adaptable to different accents, voice pitch and speech defects Misinterpret what user is saying Voice response appear unnatural 4) Pen, Gesture and Touch Screen Interfaces - PDAs use pen for making on-screen selections, write or sketch freehand - Gesture-based involves camera, capture and compute vision to detect peoples adm and hand gestures - Sign language interpreting system

Touch screens allow manipulate screen objectives with fingers These interfaces can increase speed and accuracy of input Use natural gestures to interact Disadvantage: Flow of action may be interrupted incorrect option accidentally chosen and movement and handwriting misinterpreted 5) Mobile Interfaces - Hand held devices intended for use on the move - Space limitations use buttons for multiple purposes - Limit screen size restrict font size and amount information displayed 6) Multimodal Interfaces - Different ways interacting touch, sight, sound, speech combined - User experience or control information in multiple ways - More flexible interaction, support users disabilities or young users Disadvantage: - Input need calibrated for accurate interpretation - Complex and difficult to implement - Expensive 7) Shared Interface Allow more than one user interact with system, multiple (simultaneous) inputs Disadvantage: - Separating personal and shared workspace require specialised hardware and software and correct positioning at interface - Expensive to develop 8) Tangible Interface - Hornecker and Buur (2006) encompassing a broad range of systems and interfaces relying on embodied interaction, tangible manipulation and physical representation (of data) embedded in real space and digitally augmenting physical spaces - Sensor-based interaction. React user input (speech, touch, manipulation of object). Physical object (toy ract to child spoken command) or place (screen) - Sensors RFID tags, can be stickers, cards, disks used to store and retrieve data through wireless connection with RFID transceivers - Suitable for young children Problems: Development cost, accurate mapping between actions and effects, incorrect placement of feedback 9) Augmented and Mixed Reality Interfaces - In Augmented reality interface virtual representation superimposed on physical devices and objects - Mixed reality environments view of real world combined views of virtual environment - Enhance perception of real-world, support training and education (flight simulations) - Added information could be distracting, difficult distinguish real and virtual worlds - Expensive 10) Wearable Interface - Input and output devices integrated apparel (head gear spectacles) - Mobile less restrictive - Sense of realism, immediate feedback Problems: Uncomfortable size and weight, restricted battery life 11) Robotic Interface - Enable move and steer remote robot - Physical appearance and behaviours of human or animals - Embedded sensors detect user behaviours and response to them Interaction Design Techniques Process involves 1) identify users needs and requirements 2) Develop alternative design according requirements 3) Build interactive versions (prototype) of design

4) Evaluate experience with product

HCI Life Cycle (Williges and Williges, 1984)

Prototypes: Definition and Purpose: Limited representation of design allow user interact and explore usability. Form of paper-based storyboard of interface screens to functional reduced actual system Prototype functions: 1) Test different design ideas 2) Communication medium within design team 3) Communication between designers and clients Users respond how prototype does or not address their needs 4) Help designers choose between alternative designs Low-Fidelity Prototypes: - Cheap mock-up of systems - Convey basic components and functionality of system Advantage: - Cheap and produced quickly - Adapted easily with limit cost

- Useful at beginning and still need explore ideas - Not spend on sophisticated prototype to find completely missed point in design Low-fidelity prototypes not meant as real system, thrown away afterwards Examples: - Storyboards (simple images of screen) - Sketching (more detail, icons) - Index cards (each card represent screen or element of task) - Wizard of Oz (basic software but lack functionality. Operator make up responses to user actions) High-Fidelity Prototypes: - Resemble final system, same materials - Requires software tools and programming skills - Delphi and VB powerful prototype tools - Time consuming and expensive - Cannot easily adapt to changing requirements - Create high expectations, more is possible to be done Advantage: - Gradually develop into final program - Time and resources worthwhile - Called evolutionary prototyping Conceptual Design: Involves turning users needs and requirements into conceptual design Conceptual Model: - High-level description of how system is organised and operates - It is not description of interface - Give idea what user can do with system and concepts to familiar to use Principles to follow when doing conceptual design: - Keep open mind, but think of users context - Discuss design ideas with all stakeholders often - Use low-fidelity prototyping to get feedback - Do above over and over until correct conceptual design achieved Process requires determine functions performed divided between system and users, how functions relate each other and what information available to perform functions Factors in conceptual design: - Interface metaphors - Interface Types Interface Metaphors: - Provide structure similar to familiar entity, but has own behaviours and properties - Use to explain something by comparing with familiar easy to grasp - Metaphor chosen must fit task and be suitable for intended users Interface Types - Conceptual design should not be influenced by specific, predetermined interface type - May stifle design process and potential good solutions missed - Reinterpret initial conceptual design for all different types interfaces - Consider effect change in type has in design - Systems has constrains on type interface used Evaluation of Interactive Systems: Validation of interface system against human-computer interaction requirements Used throughout design process to provide feedback from beginning Main goals of evaluation:

1) Assess extent of system functionality 2) Assess effect of interface on user 3) Identify specific problems with system Formative and Summative Evaluation: 1) Formative: a. Done early in design, continues through design cycle to support decision b. Predict usability c. Assess designers understanding of user requirements d. Guide development, conducted regular e. Prevent problems when user start operate new system 2) Summative: a. At end of design cycle, test end product b. Demonstrate completed system fulfils requirements, identify problems user have with system c. Usability testing with real users d. Focussed one or two major issues e. Demonstrate people can use system f. If sufficient formative evaluation done, summative be trivial task Evaluation fits in design cycle: 1) Early design stage: a. Predict usability of product b. Designs understanding of requirements c. Test ideas quickly and informally 2) Later in design focus shift to a. Identify user difficulties b. Improve upgrade of product How to Evaluate: Done in laboratories or real-life environment Evaluation Approaches: 1) Usability Testing - Laboratories with sophisticated facilities, hardware and software for recording and analysing users behaviour usability testing - Control over conditions of study - Derive measurable observations analysed using statistical techniques - Supported with interviews and satisfaction questions 2) Field Studies - Natural settings - Understand what users do naturally and affects in real-life environment - Influenced by presence of researches - Requires skill, observe practices, yet not affect users task 3) Analytical Evaluation - Either heuristic (experts with knowledge of typical users predict problems) or walkthroughs (experts walk through typical tasks) - Users need not present and prototypes used 4) Cooperative Evaluation Techniques - During formative stages of design - Less clearly hypothesis-driven, good means eliciting user feedback on particular implementations - Simple approach - Evaluator sit with user while work through series of tasks - Either low-fidelity prototyping or partial implementations of final interface - Subjects vocalise thoughts as working through system - Users directly involved in development - Limitation is it provides qualitive feedback and not measurable result - Produces opinions and not numbers

- Ineffective if unaware of political and other pressures (positively or negatively influenced) 5) Scenario-Based Evaluation - Informal narrative descriptions of possible situations - Sample trace of interaction - Force designers identify key tasks in requirements gathering stage of design - Benefit: Different options evaluated against common test suite Users provide focussed feedback about use of system to perform critical tasks Direct comparisons between alternative designs Help identify and test design ideas early - Problem: Focus designers attention upon small selection tasks Some functionality untested Difficult derive measurable data 6) Query Techniques 1) Interviews: a. Asking users questions, prepared questions of list of topics b. Use semi-structured interview based on leading questions c. Flexible to investigate 2) Questionnaires: a. Fixed questions relating to interaction with system evaluated 7) Heuristic Evaluations User Interface design experts evaluate interface according usability principles (heuristics) Process: 1) Briefing: Expert told what to do 2) Evaluation: Expert passes through interface, using heuristics identify problems 3) Debriefing: Experts meet to discuss evaluations, priorities problems and suggest solutions Advantage: Fewer practical and ethical issues Disadvantage: Identifies problems not really a problem Nielsens evaluation heuristics formulated questions: 1) How good visibility of system status? 2) Clear match between system and real world? 3) User has control when needed and free to explore? 4) Does interface display consistency and adherence to standards? 5) Interface help user recognise, diagnose and recover from errors? 6) How good is error prevention? 7) Does interface rely on recognition or recall? 8) Flexible and efficient to use? 9) How good is interface in aesthetics and minimalist (clear and simple) design? 10) Adequate help and documentation?

Unit #5 Social Aspects of Computer Use

Technology improve quality of life, threat invasion privacy and disparity between rich and poor Impact of Information Technology on Society: 1) E-commerce and business 2) Working lives 3) Education 4) Information processing 5) Problems associated advanced computer technology 1) Business and E-commerce

Technology and Internet change how companies do business and how banks function Distance not restricted on business Company have divisions located different countries responsibilities divided on skills located in country Web-based services taken over sales clerks, stock brokers and travel agents Software and music shipped electronically Music recordings and mixing done with software and no need for recording studio Reduced cost making album Replace physical business with online: No physical store Simplification order placement and execution 24 hour customer support Staff requirements reduced No inventory at physical store No restriction retail hours Main cost setting up and maintain web store Can reach millions customers, spending on usability and appearance of site justified Shipping cost increase over large distance Create fraud and theft, cost to prevent

2) Working Lives i) Communication and Groupware - Electronic communication, email, Skype - Collaborative work done by people reside in different countries - Web 2.0 organisations support collaborative work (Computer Supported Cooperative Support CSCW) concerned principles technology support communication and group work - Physical systems through CSCW manifests are collectively referred as Groupware - Not popular due to hardware and operating incompatibilities and inability understand effects how group function Specific Problems: - Synchronous and Asynchronous Systems: Know who else is using system - Contention: Users access resources that cannot be shared - Interference: One user frustrate another by getting in their way ii) Access - Easy access to information impact work environment - Electronic reports and policies on internal networks - E-mail make easier communications with superiors iii) Office Hours and Location - Work anywhere any time, centralised office not important - Mobile technology allow people work anywhere any time - Cut office space, employees flexible work hours - Not live close to office - Difficult separate personal and working lives 3) Education - Learning management systems students communicate with lecturers, participate discussions, submit assignments, check examination schedules - More low quality, unreliable information than trustworthy academic sources - M-learning involves mobile devices as delivery mechanism in education - Challenge how to display material on small handset? - Digital Divide Access to technology resources 4) Information Processing - Processing power of supercomputer possible to process huge amounts data in short time - Possible develop computer models of complex systems - Advantage for society to model complex systems: Improved understanding pandemics, contagion and global health trends Prediction impact climate change on environment, economy and humans

Predict natural disasters and impact so response plans be set up

5) Problems associated with Information Age - Relationship between people and machines - Not threatened by computer seeking destroy humanity, everyday safety depend on information technology - Problems linked to immeasurable availability of information, problem information private and secure filtering reliable information, dependence on technology: 1) Privacy and Security Issues: - Computing and communication power increase public and private sectors - Electronic data of individual not clear how safe information is - Difference between digital and physical info, easier to copy digital data - Easy search for information user left unprotected - SPAM breech of email users privacy - Increase value of information stored - Web advertise and sell products more commercial systems connected to internet - Increase stakes for malicious and criminal users - Electronic fund transfers and commercial sensitive emails tempting targets - Sophistication of population increasing - Software doing harm or unlawful access to information referred as Malware Trojan Horses: Malicious piece of code hidden inside program appears offer other facilities Time Bombs: Left as means of retaliating when employee is dismissed Worms: Self-replicating programs, gradually consume resources - Difference between Virus and Worm Worm not need host to cause harm 2) Information Overload - New information leads to new invention, contribute to mankind evolution - With Internet we now have more information available than is good - Spend time searching through irrelevant information - Much on Internet is incomplete, unsubstantiated and incorrect - Access to harmful information: Instructions build explosive devices Genome of influenza virus Political propaganda Pornographic and violent video material - Need to research how people judge credibility of information and develop systems help people survive information overload 3) Dependence on Technology - Society supported by information technology - Breakdown of technology infrastructure will lead to disruptive of economic and social systems Social Networking Technologies 1) Chat Rooms - Locations on Internet where people meet online for conversations in real time - Messages visible to current visitors but users can participate in private conversations - Allow user publish photographs and personal information, use Web cameras 2) Instant messaging (IM) - MXIT real-time communication allow users connect to system - Interact with each other synchronously - Different to chat rooms since sender must know user name of recipient to send message - Searchable member directory to add information other users can identify - Privacy settings possible to block out messages from unknown users 3) Blogs - Online journals - Individuals diaries or comment - Some allow responses 4) Social Networking Sites - Web communities or online communities

Integrate all above tools Users create profiles with descriptive personal information, photographs, write messages boards on walls - Profiles interconnect explicit declare friend relationship - Communicate synchronous (chat) or asynchronous (blogs or email) - Limit access to profiles through privacy settings - Facebook, MySpace, Twitter - Cheap easy way to stay in touch Advantages of Social Networking Sites: 1) Low cost creating Web presence 2) Make personal connections (become friends) with people share interest, reconnect long last friends 3) Connections for career purposes identify people in your field 4) Business advantage get additional information on someone before employing (find if lied on CVs) Disadvantages of Social Networking: 1) Lack anonymity or privacy 2) Identify theft 3) Waste time, companies block access 4) Mining users data for advertising purpose 5) Cyber bullying harass someone through online network 6) Cyber stalking 7) Inappropriate content (political propaganda) The Digital Divide Unequal access to technology separate people (those who have it and those who do not) Contributing Factors: 1) Financial constraints 2) Lack of skills 3) Unavailable infrastructure (electricity) 4) Careless design systems 5) Lack of cognitive resources. Basic skills to recognise need for information, find information, process and evaluate information for appropriateness, apply in meaningful way

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS

Definition of HCI 1) HCI is concerned with studying and improving the many factors that influence the effectiveness and efficiency of computer use 2) HCI is a discipline concerned with design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them 3) HCI is the study of people, computer technology and the way these influence each other 4) HCI is a set of processes, dialogues and actions through which human user employs and interacts with computer Terms and fields of study that has a strong connection with HCI: 1) Ergonomics: Design of total working environment (height of chair, table, display screen, telephone equipment) 2) Human Factors: Study of user interface in working context. Address entire person and includes: a. Physiology: physical characters as height and reach b. Perception: ability to sense info, hearing touch and sight c. Cognition: way process data, as information distract from display 3) Usability:

Extent product used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use. Definition of the components: o Effectiveness: The accuracy and completeness with which specified users can achieve specified goals in particular environments. o Efficiency: The resources expended in relation to the accuracy and completeness of goals achieved. o Satisfaction: The comfort and acceptability of the work system to its users and other people affected by its use. 4) User experience: How people feel about product. How satisfied using, looking, handling, overall impression, how good it feels to touch. Preece et al. (2007) you cannot design user experience, can only design for user experience.

5) Interaction design Designing interactive products to support way people communicate and interact in everyday and working lives. Involves: o Identifying needs and establishing user requirements. o Developing alternative designs according to requirements. o Building prototypes of designs to be assessed. o Evaluating designs and user experience. 6) Accessibility Designing products so people with disabilities can use. Accessibility makes user interfaces perceivable, operable, and understandable by people with a wide range of abilities, and people in a wide range of circumstances, environments, and conditions. Thus accessibility also benefits people without disabilities, and organizations that develop accessible products (Henry, 2007). It is the degree to which a system is usable by people with disabilities (Preece at al., 2007). Some people see accessibility as a subset of usability, while others regard it is a prerequisite for usability.

The computer in human-computer interaction is defined as including: 1) Desktop 2) Notebook 3) Programmable toys 4) Cellular phone 5) Remote Control 6) Programmable music keyboards 7) Robots 8) Space craft cockpit 9) Embedded computer device 10) Process control system

Typical computer user population usually does not exist because of differences in: 1) Age 2) Nationality 3) Disabilities Vision Impairments Motor Impairments 4) Culture 5) Personality and Gender 6) Expertise

Learnability:

Ease users enter new system and reach maximum level performance

Accessibility:

Interface perceivable, understandable, circumstances, environments and conditions Accessible to people with disabilities

User Experience: How people feel about product, satisfied using it Interface Design: Support the way people communicate and interact in working lives Usability: Define by ISO extent product used to achieve specific goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction

Affordance: Constraints: Mapping: Visibility: Feedback:

Refers to perceived and actual properties of object, determine how it possible to use Mechanism restrict allowed behaviour Relationship between two things (device controls and movements, result actual use) Parts of system that is essential for use that must be visible Information sent back to user about action performed and results of actions

Knowledge in the World verses Knowledge in the Head: Knowledge Retrievability Learning Efficiency of use Ease of use at first encounter Aesthetics World Easily retrievable whenever visible or audible Learning not required, only interpretation Slowed up by need to find interpret external source High Unaesthetic and inelegant, especially if need to maintain lot of information Head More difficult to retrieve Require memory search or reminding Requires learning, can be considerable Very efficient Low Nothing need visible, gives designer freedom

Colour Perception 1) Congenital colour deflects produce changes in perception that reduce the visual effectiveness of certain colour combinations 2) People with colour defects generally see less contrast between colours than someone with normal vision 3) Lightning light colours and darkening dark colours will increase visual accessibility of design

Computer myths: Radiation: Eyesight: Epilepsy:

Visual display units (VDUs) do not significantly increase risk of radiation-related illness Computer use does not damage eyes or eyesight. Make you aware of existing defects Computer use does not induce epileptic attacks

Before software package internationalised or localised, need to address: 1) Over Factors: Tangible, straightforward, publicly observable. Dates, calendars, weekends, day turnovers, time, telephone number, address formats, character sets, collating order sequence, reading and writing direction, punctuation, translation units of measures, currency 2) Covert Factors: Intangible, depend on culture special knowledge Symbols, colours, functionality, sound, metaphors, mental models

Types of Errors: 1) Mistakes: 2) Slips: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Incorrect planning, forming wrong goals, performing wrong action related to specific goal Result from automatic behaviour Capture Errors: Activity perform frequently done instead of intended activity Description Errors: Instead of intended activity, do something in common with what wanted to do Data-driven Errors: Triggered by sensory input Mode Errors: Device has different modes of operation and same action different purpose in different modes Associative Actuation Errors: Similar to description errors, triggered by internal thoughts or associations instead of external data Loss-of-activation Errors: Errors due to forgetting

Levels of Expertise: - Users have different degrees of information about interactive systems - Expertise develops through follow levels: Skill-based Rule-based Knowledge-based There is no such thing as an average user Designers should not regard themselves as typical user Know when to stop making further changes to a product

Generally people can keep up to seven items in STM (Short-term memory) unless there is distraction Principles that affect Learnability 1) Predictability: Determine effect of future actions based on past interaction history 2) Synthesisability: Assess effect of past operations on current state 3) Familiarity: Knowledge and experience applied when interacting with new system 4) Generalisability: User extend knowledge of specific interaction within and across applications to other similar situations 5) Consistency: Likeness in input-output behaviour arising from similar situations or similar task objectives Dix, Finlay, Abowd and Beale divided their design principles into 3 categories: 1) Learnability principles 2) Flexibility principles 3) Robustness principles Two types design guidelines: 1) High-level: Relatively abstract and applicable to different systems, while detailed rules are instructions that are application-specific and not need much interpretation 2) Low-level

Query Techniques: 1) Interviews: Evaluator can vary level of questions to suit context, can probe user for more information on relative issues raised spontaneously 2) Questionaires: Large number users included, less time-consuming and labour intensive. Results analysed more rigorously. Open ended questions or closed multiple choice Strengths of Graphical Interaction (GUI): 1) Visibility: Can represent complex relationships 2) Cross-Cultural Communication: Common denominations 3) Impact and animation: Quality and quantity of information conveyed 4) Use of iconic symbols

Design Standards: 1) Set by National and International bodies to ensure compliance with set of design rules 2) Provide common terminology, so designers know they are discussing same concept 3) Facilitates program maintenance and allows additional facilities to be added 4) Reduces training, knowledge transferred between standardized systems 5) Promote health and safety of users who will be less likely to experience stress or surprise due to unexpected system behaviour 6) Rigidly applied without taking target users skills, psychological and physical characters or preferences into account, reduce products usability Aesthetics should not be the determining factor to the determent of usability Constraints: Mechanism restrict allowed behaviour 1) Physical constrain: properties of physical use (ATM card insert only one way) 2) Semantic constrain: not physically stopped, but interpretation of situation (red light) 3) Cultural constrain: accepted cultural conventions (red = stop, green = go, woman enter door first) 4) Logical constrain: logical relationship and spatial aspects of situation (door bell buttons for flat, left button is house on left) 5) Forcing function: physical constrain requires one action before next take place. Failure at one stage prevent next step (closing washing machine before start, ATM card correct insert before continue transaction) 6) Natural mapping: use physical analogy and cultural standards to support interactions (page back and page forward icons) Feedback: 1) Information sent back to user about action actually performed, result of action 2) Typing we know pressed keys if letters appear on screen 3) Novices want more information feedback to confirm actions 4) Frequent users want less distracting feedback 5) Sound is important feedback mechanism 6) Absence of sound also feedback, showing something not working Three aspects relating to recognition of diversity (Shneiderman 1998) 1) User profiles (age, abilities, skills, knowledge) 2) Task profiles (all task objects and actions identified) 3) Interaction styles (menu selection, form filling, common dialogue, direct manipulation)

Evaluation: 1) Formative Evaluation: Done early in design process, continues through design cycle to support decisions Low cost, using low-fidelity prototyping Help predict usability of product Evaluation meshes closely with design and guides by providing feedback Prevent problems when user start operating system 2) Summative Evaluation: Done at end of design cycle and test end product Demonstrate completed system fulfils requirements or identify problems users have with system Testing with real users Demonstrate that people can actually use system in working setting

Formative Evaluation tends exploratory Summative Evaluation focus on one or two major issues How to Evaluate: 1) Usability Testing Laboratories with sophisticated audio/video recording facilities, special hardware/software recording user behaviour Control over conditions Remove natural context Evaluators not direct interact with user to skew results Device measurable observations Supplemented with interviews 2) Field Studies Natural settings Affect real life environment Outsider recording or insider or participant Natural context of use, difficult to set up required equipment Influenced by presence of researches 3) Analytical Evaluation Heuristic evaluation Walkthrough typical task Users not present 4) Cooperative Evaluation During formative stages of design Less clearly hypothesis-driven Good electing user feedback in partial elements Evaluator sit with user while work through Use low-fidelity prototype or partial implementation of final interface Subject vocalise thoughts on system Qualitive and not measurable feedback 5) Scenario-Based Evaluation Informal narrative descriptions of possible situations Forces designers to identify key stages in requirements gathering stage Different design options evaluated against common test suite Direct comparisons made between alternative designs Help identify and test design ideas early 6) Query Techniques Interview Questionnaires 7) Heuristic Evaluation Design experts evaluate according usability principles known as heuristics Heuristic evaluation: 1) Briefing: experts told what to do 2) Evaluation: experts evaluate, identify problems 3) Debriefing: experts discuss evaluations prioritise problem and suggest solution Forces that work against evolution design: 1) Demands of time: New versions of object already in process of being designed before old one has been released 2) Pressure to be distinctive: New design have features distinguish from previous models New Improved Model Often new model does not incorporate good qualities of predecessor 3) Curse of individuality and market differentiations Nielsens Evaluation heuristics questions: 1) How good is visibility of system status? 2) Is there clear match between system and real world?

3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)

Does user have control when needed and are they free to explore when necessary? Does user interface display consistency and adherence to standards? Does interface help users recognise, diagnose and recover from errors? How good is the error prevention? Does interface rely on recognition rather than on recall? How flexibility and efficient is it to use? How good is interface in terms of aesthetics and minimalist (clear and simple) design? Adequate help and documentation?

Tangible Interfaces: Interfaces that combine different ways of interacting, such as touch, sight, sound and speech, gesture and input mechanism using eye movement and brain activity Activities of interaction design as described by Preece at all (2007): 1) Identifying needs and establish user requirements 2) Develop alternative design according requirements 3) Building prototypes of design to be assessed 4) Evaluating designs and user experience Preece at el distinguish between user experience and usability goals: 1) Usability: ISO defined as extent product used be specified user to achieve specific goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in specified context of use Definition of components: - Effectiveness: Accuracy and completeness user can achieve specified goals in particular environments - Efficiency: Resources expended in relation to accuracy and completeness of goals achieved - Satisfaction: Comfort and acceptability of working system to its users and other people affected by its use 2) User Experience: o How people feel about products o How satisfied when using, looking or handling it o Overall impression, how good feels to touch According Priece et al: Cannot design user experience, can only design for user experience Charles Babbage developed Analytical Engine Internet was originally a small experimental research network called APRANET E-mail and WWW where the two major developments built on the Internet Until late 1980s growth in electronic mail was largely restricted to academic communities, universities and colleges. There are more than 230 million web sites and 173 billion Internet users worldwide, 250 billion e-mails send daily Future Directions: Major transformations in computing that will affect HCI in next decade 1) The changing notion of The Interface 2) Increase dependency on technology 3) Hyper-connectivity 4) Changes in the means of and reasons for recording information 5) Increased creativity through technology Malware: Software developed doing harm Trojan Horse: Malicious code hidden inside a program, appears offer other facilities

Time Bombs: Worms:

Employee retaliating after dismissed Self-replicating, gradually consume more resources slowing system

Attention: Process of concentrating on something People differ in terms of attention span Influenced by way information presented as well as people goals Memory: Memory consist of number of systems that can be distinguished in terms of their cognitive structure as well as their respective roles in cognitive process Different authors have different views on how memory is structured. Most distinguish between long term and short term memory Holistically-minded people scan whole page in non-linear fashion Analytically-minded people employ sequential reading pattern Digital Divide: Unequal access to technology separate people into those who have it and those who do not Some Contributions: Financial constraints Lack of skills Unavailability of basic infrastructure Carless design systems Function of Prototypes: 1) Test different design ideas 2) Communication within design team members test different ideas and team can discuss 3) Communicate medium between designers and users 4) Help designers choose between alternative designs Problems of computer supported cooperative work (CSCW): 1) Synchronous and Asynchronous: difficult to know who else using system 2) Contention: two or more users want to gain access to resources that cannot be shared 3) Interface: one user frustrates another by getting in their way