2.

Manual Metal Arc Welding

2. Manual Metal Arc Welding

18 Figure 2.1 describes the burn-off of a covered stick electrode. The stick electrode consists of a core wire with a mineral covering. The welding arc between the electrode and the workpiece melts core wire and covering. Droplets of the liquefied core wire mix

air (O2, N2, etc.)

electrode core electrode coating

Smoke and gas

with the molten base material forming weld metal while the molten covering is forming slag which, due to its lower density, solidifies on the weld pool. The slag layer and gases which are generated inside the arc protect the metal during transfer and also the weld pool from the detrimental influences of the surrounding atmosphere.

liquid slag solid slag

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c ISF 2002

Weld Point

Figure 2.1

Covered stick electrodes have replaced the initially applied metal arc and carbon arc electrodes. The covering has taken on the functions which are described in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2

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2. Manual Metal Arc Welding

19

The covering of the stick electrode consists of a multitude of components which are mainly mineral, Figure 2.3.
coating raw material quartz - SiO2 rutile -TiO2 magnetite - Fe3O4 calcareous spar -CaCO3 fluorspar - CaF2 calcareous- fluorspar K2O Al2O3 6SiO2 ferro-manganese / ferro-silicon cellulose kaolin Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O potassium water glass K2SiO3 / Na2SiO3
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effect on the welding characteristics to raise current-carrying capacity to increase slag viscosity, good re-striking to refine transfer of droplets through the arc to reduce arc voltage, shielding gas emitter and slag formation to increase slag viscosity of basic electrodes, decrease ionization easy to ionize, to improve arc stability deoxidant shielding gas emitter lubricant bonding agent
ISF 2002

Influence of the Coating Constituents on Welding Characteristics

Figure 2.3 For the stick electrode manufacturing mixed ground and screened covering materials are used as protection for the core wire which has been drawn to finished diameter and subsequently cut to size, Figure 2.4.
raw material storage for flux production raw wire storage jaw crusher magnetic separation cone crusher for pulverisation sieving to further treatment like milling, sieving, cleaning and weighing sieving system

wire drawing machine and cutting system

2 3

descaling
drawing plate

inspection to the pressing plant electrode compound

example of a three-stage wire drawing machine

6 mm

5,5 mm

4 mm

3,25 mm

weighing and mixing inspection

wet mixer

inspection
ISF 2002

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Stick Electrode Fabrication 1

Figure 2.4

2005

2. Manual Metal Arc Welding

20 The core wires are coated with the covering material which contains binding agents in electrode extrusion presses. The defectTO DELIVERY

the pressing plant

inspection electrode compound core wire magazine electrodepress compound packing inspection

inspection

free electrodes then pass through a drying oven and are, after a final inspection, automatically packed, Fig-

nozzleconveying wire wire pressing belt feeder head magazine

drying stove inspection inspection inspection

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ure 2.5.

Stick Electrode Fabrication 2

Figure 2.5

Figure 2.6 shows how the moist extruded covering is deposited onto the core wire inside an electrode extrusion press.
pressing cylinder core rod coating pressing nozzle pressing cylinder

pressing mass

core rod guide

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Production of Stick Electrodes

Figure 2.6

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2. Manual Metal Arc Welding

21

Stick electrodes are, according to their covering compositions, categorized into four different types, Figure 2.7. with concern to burn-off characteristics and achievable weld metal toughness these types show fundamental differences.

cellulosic type cellulose 40 rutile TiO2 20 quartz SiO2 25 Fe - Mn 15 potassium water glass almost no slag droplet transfer : medium- sized droplets toughness value: good
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acid type magnetite Fe3O4 50 SiO2 20 quartz CaCO3 10 calcite Fe - Mn 20 potassium water glass slag solidification time: long droplet transfer : fine droplets to sprinkle toughness value: normal

rutile type rutile TiO2 45 magnetite Fe3O4 10 SiO2 quartz 20 CaCO3 10 calcite Fe - Mn 15 potassium water glass slag solidification time: medium droplet transfer : medium- sized to fine droplets toughness value: good

basic typ fluorspar CaF2 45 CaCO3 40 calcite SiO2 10 quartz 5 Fe - Mn potassium water glass slag solidification time: short droplet transfer : medium- sized to big droplets toughness value: very good
ISF 2002

Characteristic Features of Different Coating Types

Figure 2.7

The melting characteristics of the different coverings and the slag properties result in further properties; these determine the areas of application, Figure 2.8.

coating type symbol current type/polarity gap bridging ability welding positions sensitivity of cold cracking weld appearance slag detachability characteristic features
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cellulosic type C ~/+ very good PG,(PA,PB, PC,PE,PF) low moderate good spatter, little slag, intensive fume formation

acid type A ~/+ moderate PA,PB,PC, PE,PF,PG high good very good

rutile type R ~/+ good PA,PB,PC, PE,PF,(PG) low good very good

basic type B =/+ good PA,PB,PC, PE,PF,PG very low moderate moderate low burn-out losses hygroscopic predrying!!
ISF 2002

high burn-out losses

universal application

Characteristics of Different Coating Types

Figure 2.8

2005

2. Manual Metal Arc Welding The dependence on

g slag ontainin rutile-c high r nducto semico

22

temperature of the slags determines the reignition behaviour of a stick electrode, Figure 2.9. The electrical conductivity for a rutile stick electrode lies, also at room temperature, above the threshold value which is necessary for Figure 2.9 reignition. Therefore, rutile electrodes are given preference in the production of tack welds where reignition occurs frequently. The complete designation for filler materials, following European Standardisation, includes details partly as encoded abbreviation which are relevant for welding, Figure 2.10. The identification Figure 2.10 letter for the welding process is first: E T S manual electrode welding flux cored arc welding submerged arc welding G W gas metal arc welding - tungsten inert gas welding
The mandatory part of the standard designation is: EN 499 - E 46 3 1Ni B
DIN EN 499 - E 46 3 1Ni B 5 4 H5 hydrogen content < 5 cm /100 g welding deposit butt weld: gravity position fillet weld: gravity position suitable for direct and alternating current recovery between 125% and 160% basic thick-coated electrode chemical composition 1,4% Mn and approx. 1% Ni o minimum impact 47 J in -30 C 2 minimum weld metal deposit yield strength: 460 N/mm distinguishing letter for manual electrode stick welding
3

conductivity

electrical

conductivity

reignition threshold

h ac co igh id s n d - te l a uc mp g to e r r at ur e hig bas ic hsla co tem nd pe g uc rat to ur r e

temperature

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ISF 2002

Conductivity of Slags

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ISF 2002

Designation Example for Stick Electrodes

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23

The identification numbers give information about yield point, tensile strength and elongation of the weld metal where the tenfold of the identification number is the minimum yield point in N/mm, Figure 2.11.

key number

minimum yield strength N/mm2 355 380 420 460 500

tensile strength N/mm2 440-570 470-600 500-640 530-680 560-720

minimum elongation*) % 22 20 20 20 18

35 38 42 46 50 *) L0 = 5 D0

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ISF 2002

Characteristic Key Numbers of Yield Strength, Tensile Strength and Elongation

Figure 2.11

The identification figures for the minimum impact energy value of 47 J a parameter for the weld metal toughness are shown in Figure 2.12.

characteristic figure Z A 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

minimum impact energy 47 J [ C] no demands +20 0 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80

The minimum value of the impact energy allocated to the characteristic figures is the average value of three ISO-V-Specimen, the lowest value of whitch amounts to 32 Joule.
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Characteristic Key Numbers for Impact Energy

Figure 2.12

2005

2. Manual Metal Arc Welding The chemical composition of the weld metal is shown by the alloy symbol, Figure 2.13. The properties of a stick electrode are characterised by the covering thickness and the covering type. Both details are determined by the identification letter for the electrode covering, Figure 2.13 Figure 2.14.
without Mo MnMo 1 Ni 2 Ni 3 Ni Mn 1 Ni 1 Ni Mo Z alloy symbol Mn
2,0

24

chemical composition*) % Mo _ 0,3 - 0,6 0,3 - 0,6 0,3 - 0,6 Ni 0,6 - 1.2 1,8 - 2,6 2,6 - 3,8 0,6 - 1,2 0,6 - 1,2

1,4 >1,4 - 2,0 1,4 1,4 1,4 >1,4 - 2,0 1,4

other specified compositions

*) companion elements: Mo 0,2; Ni 0,5; Cr 0,2; V 0,08; Nb 0,05; Cu 0,3; Al 2,0 (applies only to self-shielded flux-cored electrodes). single values are maxima
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Alloy Symbols for Weld Metals Minimum Yield Strength up to 500 N/mm2

Figure 2.15 explains the additional identificakey letter type of coating

tion figure for electrode recovery and applicable type of current. The subsequent identification figure determines the application possibilities for different welding positions: 1all positions all positions, except vertical down postion 345flat position butt weld, flat position fillet weld, horizontal-, vertical up position flat position butt and fillet weld as 3; and recommended for vertical down position

A B C R RR RA RB RC

acid coating basic coating cellulose coating rutile coated (medium thick) rutile coated (thick) rutile acid coating rutile basic coating rutile cellulose coating

2-

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ISF 2002

Key Letters for Electrode Coatings

Figure 2.14

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2. Manual Metal Arc Welding

25 The last detail of the Euro-

additional characteristic number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

deposition efficiency % <105 <105 >105 >105 >125 >125 >160 >160 125 125 160 160

current type*)

pean Standard designation determines the maximum hydrogen content of the weld metal in cm per 100 g weld metal. Welding current amperage and core wire diameter of the stick electrode are determined by the

alternating and direct current direct current alternating and direct current direct current alternating and direct current direct current alternating and direct current direct current

*) To prove the suitability for direct current, the tests have to be run with a no-load voltage of max. 65 V.
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Additional Characteristic Numbers for Deposition Efficiency and Current Type

thickness of the workpiece to be welded. Fixed stick electrode lengths are assigned to each diameter, Figure 2.16.

Figure 2.15

diameter

d mm l mm

2,0

2,5

3,25

4,0

5,0

6,0

Figure

2.17

shows

the

length

250/300

350

350/450 350/450

450

450

process principle of manual metal arc welding. Polarity and type of current depend on the applied electrode types. All known power sources with a descending characteristic

current

I A

40-80

50-100

90-150 120-200 180-270 220-360 30 x d 50 x d 35 x d 60 x d

rule-of -thumb min. for current[A] max.

20 x d 40 x d

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ISF 2002

Size and Welding Current of Stick Electrodes

curve can be used.

Figure 2.16 Since in manual metal arc welding the arc length cannot always be kept constant, a steeply descending power source is used. Different arc lengths lead therefore to just minimally altered weld current intensities, Figure 2.18. Penetration remains basically unaltered.

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2. Manual Metal Arc Welding

26

Simple welding transformers are used for a.c. welding. For d.c. welding mainly converters, rectifiers and series regulator transistorised power sources (inverters) are applied. Converters are specifically suitable
electrode holder

for site welding and are mains-independent when an internal combustion engine is used. The advantages of inverters are their small size and low weight,

- (+) power source = or ~ + (-)

stick electrode

arc

however, a more complicated electronic design is necessary, Figure 2.19.

ISF 2002

work piece
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Principle Set-up of MMAW Process

Figure 2.17

arc welding converter

power source characteristic

A2

A1

transformer

2 1

A2

rectifier
A1

21
characteristic of the arc
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inverter type

ISF 2002

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ISF 2002

Operating Point at Different Arc Lengths

Power Sources for MMAW

Figure 2.18

Figure 2.19

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2. Manual Metal Arc Welding

27

45 RA73 V 40
burn-off rate at 100% duty cycle

sit ion 0%

eff ici en
c

kg/h

RR73

de

po

22

medium weld voltage

io n po sit
3

35

ef fic
b

30

RR12 RA12 B53

th

-c ick

0%

oa

de

ed
a

16

c inth
1

oa

d te

25
= = = =

B15
3,25 4 5 6

= RR12 X = RR73 -

100

20

200 300 welding amperage

400 A 500

100

200

300

400

medium weld current

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a = A- and R- coated electrodes, recovery 105% b = basic-coated electrodes, recovery <125% c = high-performance electrodes
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Medium Weld Current and Voltages for Stick Electrodes

Burn-Off Rate of Stick Electrodes

Figure 2.20
steel: constructional steels shipbuilding steels high-strength constructional steels boiler and pressure vessel steels austenitic steels creep resistant steels austenitic-ferritic steels (duplex) scale resistant steels wear resistant steels hydrogen resistant steels high-speed steels cast steels combinations of materials (ferritic/ austenitic) cast iron with lamella graphite cast iron with globular graphite pure nickel Ni-Cu-alloys Ni-Cr-Fe-alloys Ni-Cr-Mo-alloys electrical grade copper (ETP copper) bronzes (CuSn, CuAl) gunmetal (CuSnZnPb) Cu-Ni-alloys pure aluminium AlMg-alloys AlSi -alloys
ISF 2002

Figure 2.21 Figure 2.20 shows the standard welding parameters of different stick electrode diameters and stick electrode types. The rate of deposition of a stick electrode is, besides the used current intensity, dependent on the so-called electrode recovery, Figure 2.21. This describes the mass of deposited weld metal / mass of core wire ratio in percent. Electrode recovery can reach values of up to 220% with metal covering components in high-efficiency electrodes. A survey of the material spectrum which is suitable for manual metal arc welding is given in Figure 2.22. The survey comprises almost all metals known for technical applications and
2005

cast iron: nickel:

copper:

aluminium:
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Suitable Materials for Manual Metal Arc Welding

Figure 2.22

ie n
5 mm 5 mm

cy

cy

2. Manual Metal Arc Welding

28 also explains the wide application method. In d.c. welding, the concentration of the magnetic arc-blow producing forces can lead to the deflection of the arc from power supply point on the side of the workpiece, Figrange of the

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Arc Blow Effect through Concentration of Magnetic Fields

ure

2.23.

The

material

transfer also does not occur at the intended point.

Figure 2.23

Arc deflection may also occur at magnetizable mass accumulations although, in that case, in the direction of the respective mass, Figure 2.24. Figures 2.25 and 2.26 show how by various measures the magnetic arc blow can be compensated or even avoided.
close to large workpiece masses close to current-connection inwards at the edges

The positioning of the electrodes in opposite direction brings about the correct placement of the weld metal. Numerous strong tacks close
in gaps towards the weld

the magnetic flux inside the workpiece. By additional, opposite placed steel masses as well as by skilful transfer of the power supply point the various reasons for arc deflection can be eliminated. The fast magnetic reversal when a.c. is used minimises the influence of the magnetic arc blow. Figure 2.24
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Arc Blow Effect on Steel Parts

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2. Manual Metal Arc Welding

29

tilting of electrode

through additional blocks of steel great number of tacks

through relocating the currentconnection (rarely used) the welding sequence

tacks

through using a welding transformer alternating current (not applicable for all types of electrodes)

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ISF 2002

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ISF 2002

Remedy Against Arc Blow Effect 1

Remedy Against Arc Blow Effect 2

Figure 2.25

Figure 2.26 Depending on the electrode covering, the water absorption of a stick electrode may vary strongly during storage, Figure 2.27. The absorbed humidity leads during subsequent welding frequently to an increased hydrogen content in the weld metal and, thus, increases cold cracking susceptibility.

4,0 %

20C / 70% RF

Water content of the coating

3,0

2,0

1,0

0,1

10

Days

100

Time of storage

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ISF 2002

Water Absorption of Different Basic-Coated Electrodes

Figure 2.27

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2. Manual Metal Arc Welding

30

Stick electrodes, particularly those with a basic, rutile or cellulosic cover have to be baked before welding to keep the water content of the cover during welding below the permissible values in order to avoid
1,0 % 0,9 Water content of the coating 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 30
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hydrogen-induced
basic-coated electrode (having been stored at 18 - 20 for one year) C 0,74

cracks,

Figure 2.28. The baking temperature and time are specified by the manufacturer. Baking is carried out

0,39 0,28 AWS A5.5 storage and baking 40 50 60 70 % 80

ISF 2002

in special ovens; in damp working conditions and only just before welding are electrodes taken out from electrically heated receptacles.

Water Content of the Coating after Storage and Baking

Figure 2.28

2005