19 Carbohydrates
Chapter Objectives
1.What are carbohydrates? What is the difference between mono-, di-, and polysaccharides? 2.What are the structures of the most commonly occurring monosaccharides? Be able to classify them as aldoses or ketoses and as trioses, pentoses, or hexoses. 3.What is the difference between a D and an L sugar?
Chapter Objectives
4.What is mutarotation? How does it occur? 5.What are the structures of sucrose, lactose, and maltose, the most common disaccharides? What monosaccharides make up each of these disaccharides? 6.Compare and contrast starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
What is Biochemistry?
The chemistry of molecules and reactions found in living organisms
Carbohydrates
Carbon hydrates Compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Starches and fibers (complex carbohydrates) Sugars Cellulose
Monosaccharides
Simple carbohydrates
Cannot be further hydrolyzed
Contain 3-7 carbons Readily dissolve in water Can link together to form more complex carbohydrates
Disaccharides Trisaccharides Polysaccharides
Common monosaccharides
Glucose Fructose
Enantiomers
Molecules that are nonsuperimposable mirror images of each other Have identical physical properties except one:
They rotate plane-polarized light in opposite directions
Trioses
Simplest sugars Two enantiomers
D
sugars L sugars
Ketohexoses
8 isomers
fructose
Glucose
Most abundant sugar in nature
Fruits
grape sugar Dextrose b/c it is dextrorotatory
Glucose Cont
Synthetically made by the hydrolysis of starch
Corn starch
corn sugar
Mannose
Component of polysaccharide mannan
Berries Vegetable ivory endosperm
Galactose
Needed by human body for synthesis of lactose
In mammary glands
Fructose
Only naturally occurring ketohexose Also similar structure to that of glucose Found in honey (40%) Formed in prostate gland
Energy source for spermatozoa
Artificial Sweeteners
High-intensity sweeteners Manufactured in place of mono- and disaccharides Saccharin
1890s 500-700 times sweeter than sucrose Carcinogenic
Artificial Sweeteners
Aspartame
1967 160 times sweeter than sucrose Used in diet soda
Sucralose
1998 600 times sweeter than sucrose Passes through body unchanged
Maltose
Occurs in sprouting grain Forms malt in the manufacture of beer
malt sugar
About 30% as sweet as sucrose Body cant utilize it directly Must be broken down by enzymes
Lactose
Milk sugar Occurs in the milk of humans, cows, and other mammals Human milk: 7.5% lactose Cows milk: 4.5% lactose Synthesized only by mammary tissue in nature Commercial produced from whey (from cheese) 1/6th as sweet as sucrose
Lactose Intolerance
People are unable to digest lactose in milk Need lactase in small intestine to digest it properly Up to 20% of US population suffer some degree of lactose intolerance Produces bacteria in colon if not broken down properly
Leads to abdominal distension, cramps, diarrhea
Sucrose
Beet sugar, cane sugar, table sugar, or just sugar Largest selling pure organic compound in the world Obtained from sugar canes and beets Average American: 100 pounds of sucrose every year
Sucrose Cont
May cause cancer, heart disease, migraine headaches, hyperactivity in children, obesity, and tooth decay
Starch
Most important source of carbs in the human diet More than 50% of our carb intake Granule form
Storage
Starch Cont
Mixture of amylose and amylopectin Amylose: 60-300 glucose units per chain Amylopectin: 300-6000 glucose units Commercial starch
White powder
Stamps, envelopes, labels (sticky upon wetting)
Glycogen
animal starch Reserve carb of animals All mammalian cells contain glycogen
Liver and skeletal cells the most
Cellulose
Fibrous carb found in all plants Cell walls Most abundant of all carbs Makes up 50% of all carbon in the vegetable world Much hydrogen bondinginsoluble in water
Cellulose Cont
Cant be digested by humans Herbivores contain special enzymes to digest it and use it for energy Termites
Dietary Fiber
Insoluble fiber (cellulose) Reduces risk of colon cancer and heart disease (reduces cholesterol) ADA recommends 20-35 g a day
Most Americans get 14-15 g a day